Article 1

Climate change is a change in the pattern of weather, and related changes in oceans, land surfaces
and ice sheets, occurring over time scales of decades or longer

Climate change is a change in the statistical properties of the climate system that persists for several
decades or longer—usually at least 30 years. These statistical properties include averages, variability
and extremes. Climate change may be due to natural processes, such as changes in the Sun’s
radiation, volcanoes or internal variability in the climate system, or due to human influences such as
changes in the composition of the atmosphere or land use.

human activities are changing the natural greenhouse. Over the last century the burning of fossil
fuels like coal and oil has increased the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). This
happens because the coal or oil burning process combines carbon with oxygen in the air to make
CO2. To a lesser extent, the clearing of land for agriculture, industry, and other human activities has
increased concentrations of greenhouse gases.

The consequences of changing the natural atmospheric greenhouse are difficult to predict, but
certain effects seem likely:

On average, Earth will become warmer. Some regions may welcome warmer temperatures, but
others may not.

Warmer conditions will probably lead to more evaporation and precipitation overall, but individual
regions will vary, some becoming wetter and others dryer.

A stronger greenhouse effect will warm the oceans and partially melt glaciers and other ice,
increasing sea level. Ocean water also will expand if it warms, contributing further to sea level rise.

Meanwhile, some crops and other plants may respond favorably to increased atmospheric CO2,
growing more vigorously and using water more efficiently. At the same time, higher temperatures
and shifting climate patterns may change the areas where crops grow best and affect the makeup of
natural plant communities.

In its Fifth Assessment Report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, a group of 1,300
independent scientific experts from countries all over the world under the auspices of the United
Nations, concluded there's a more than 95 percent probability that human activities over the past 50
years have warmed our planet.

The industrial activities that our modern civilization depends upon have raised atmospheric carbon
dioxide levels from 280 parts per million to 412 parts per million in the last 150 years. The panel also
concluded there's a better than 95 percent probability that human-produced greenhouse gases such
as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have caused much of the observed increase in Earth's
temperatures over the past 50 years.

Article 2

Marshall Islands
The Marshall Islands are a collection of low-lying islands and atolls in the middle of the Pacific Ocean,
all less than six feet in average elevation. Due to the geographic and topographic situation of these
islands, they are placed in a position of intense risk in terms of exposure to the effects of climate
change.

Sea level rise has already encroached upon the islands, and high tides and frequent storms continue
to threaten local homes and property. Recent research indicates that sea levels have been increasing
by 3.4 millimetres (0.13 inches) per year. A one-meter rise could result in the loss of 80 percent of
the Majuro Atoll, which is home to half the nation's population. The underwater fresh water supply
has been salinated by this influx of seawater. In 2013 over 200 homes were damaged in the capital
Majuro, and the airport was forced to close due to particularly high tides.

To a certain extent, the Marshallese are trapped on their islands, such as the Majuro Atoll, when
large storms or tides occur, having no recourse to evacuate to higher grounds or neighbouring
islands. The geographic isolation of the Marshall Islands renders any disaster caused by climate
change especially destructive. Particularly dangerous are king tides, exceptionally high tides, which
occur only a few times a year. To preserve their land and fight off tides and storms, residents have
resorted to building private sea walls for their immediate protection.

A study by Murray Ford which compared aerial photographs of the Wotje Atoll of the Marshall
Islands, found that "shorelines interpreted from high resolution satellite imagery captured between
2004 and 2012 indicate that shorelines within this sample of islands are largely in an erosive
state". Industries and livelihoods on the Marshall Islands are also threatened by climate change.
Fisheries, particularly the tuna industry, are having to adapt to changing ecological inputs.  The
tourism industry of the Marshall Islands, only recently developed and has even more potential to
grow, is seriously threatened by sea level rise and violent storms. Aversion to flying, due to
greenhouse gas emissions may also have a role to play.

Recently, the Marshall Islands have begun to call for international aid to ameliorate the effects of
climate change on the Marshall Islands. The Marshall Islands have also called for a joint international
effort to slow the rate of climate change, especially in regards to increasing sea levels. Following a
drought in 2013, the US sent supplies to aid the Marshall Islands.

There is also a historical precedent for the United States to aid the Marshall Islands when it comes to
natural climate change and catastrophe. After testing fifty-four nuclear bombs on theBik in the
Marshall Islands during the 1940s and 1950s, the United States paid $604 million in reparations.
These reparations helped to counteract the effects of nuclear fallout on the environment and the
people of the Marshall Islands. Considering that the United States is the "largest aggregate polluter
of carbon dioxide" in the world, there has been some outcry among the global community to "hold
the United States liable" for the effects of increased emissions and climate change. In addition, at
the 44th Pacific Islands Forum summit held in 2013, the Marshall Islands proposed the "Majuro
Declaration for Climate Leadership to galvanize more urgent and concrete action on climate
change". As the president of the Marshall Islands noted, this declaration sought to "stave off the
dangers of the ever-rising seas" by committing to "bold emissions reductions and renewable and
energy efficiency targets". Challenges exist when it comes to communicating the effects of climate
change in the Marshall Islands to the mainstream outside world and western media. Other problems
also exist when it comes to transferring the western scientific notion of climate change to the people
of the Marshall Islands.
A study by Peter Rudiak-Gould recognizes the need for "climate change communicators" to
"carefully consider the transformations introduced by various translations of ‘climate change,’ yet
also appreciate ‘mistranslation’ for its ability to render concepts meaningful to local actors and to
stimulate citizen–scientist dialogue". On a national governmental level, the Marshall Islands have
been extremely proactive, especially for a developing nation, in attempting to arrest climate change.
The Marshall Island pledged to decrease emission levels for 2025 by 32% from 2010 levels, and by
2050 to have a net total of zero emissions. While announcing these targets, the President of the
Marshall Islands, Christopher Leok noted that "going low carbon is in everyone’s interests. It
improves our economy, our security, our health and our prosperity, particularly in the Pacific and
more broadly in the developing world. Global emission rates, will be predominantly determined by
the largest carbon emission producers, which include the United States and China.

Among the many efforts to protect the culture of the Marshall Islands is an effort to buy land and
relocate the people to other locations. Currently several of the biggest relocation sites outside of the
Marshall Islands are Hawaii, Washington state, and Springdale, Arkansas, where over 10,000
Marshall Islanders currently live. The Marshall Islanders living outside of the United States
participate in Marshallese culture, including voting in national elections by mail. However, the
Marshallese who have resettled in Arkansas have encountered many cultural difficulties and
differences between the Marshall Islands and Arkansas. Several examples include the different types
of available food, the geographic setting, and cultural institutions. As a result of sea level rise, one of
the largest issues facing the Marshall Islands is how to preserve cultural and historical traditions if
the Marshallese are forced to adapt to a new, totally different area, potentially far away.

The loss of these lands, the authors argue, will ultimately come from sea-level rise, exacerbated by
frequent wave-driven flooding. Not only will this dangerous combo deliver repetitive damage to
rainfall collection systems, they say, it will also stop groundwater aquifers from fully recovering.

"Island inhabitants will therefore be unable to rely on groundwater, in many cases the sole source of
fresh water, as a source of potable water in the next few decades," the authors conclude, "and thus,
the islands will be uninhabitable by the middle of the 21st century - not by the end of the 21st
century or the middle of the 22nd century as previously suggested."

Article 3 :

Australia

Australian coastal zones are likely to experience the full range of impacts from climate change and
sea level rise (Figure 1). With over 80 % of the population living near the coast, this is likely to cause
significant economic and social costs to Australia (see Impacts: coastal communities).

Rising sea levels together with storm surge are likely to cause inundation and accelerated erosion of
many beaches around the Australian coastline. While we tend to think of sea-level rise changing
slowly—making the major impacts of sea-level rise in the long-term future— there is a more
imminent risk from short-term extreme storms. When higher seas (as a result of sea-level rise)
combine with strong winds and wave action, there is an increased risk of inundation.

In the longer term, changes in atmospheric temperature, ocean chemistry and rainfall runoff are also
likely to influence sediment delivery to the coast, which will influence coastal erosion (see Impacts:
Coastal sediments)

Both flooding and erosion will impact on housing and infrastructure close to the coast and it is
anticipated that some properties will be damaged or even become uninhabitable (see Impacts:
settlement and infrastructure). With 50 cm of sea-level rise, inundation events that previously
occurred once every 100 years could happen much more frequently, in some locations as much as
once a year. The estimated replacement cost of residential buildings at risk of flooding under 1.1 m
sea-level rise is as much as $63 billion (Department of Climate Change 2009). In addition, sea-level
rise threatens other economically significant industries and infrastructure including ports, the fishing
and seafood industries and tourism. Additionally flooding from increased sea level will have very
serious impacts in estuaries, rivers, lakes and lagoons with significant costs to biodiversity and the
landscapes.

An additional flood risk can also come from inland floodwaters as a result of more intense rainfall
events.

The flow of freshwater into estuarine and coastal habitats is important to sustain life. These flows
bring nutrients that are essential for coastal productivity but can also lead to poor water quality (due
to soil particles and fertilizers). Factors such as sea-level rise and changes to rainfall regimes (more
frequent drought) can increase salinity in these habitats and affect the viability of the existing plant
and animal communities (see Impacts: freshwater biodiversity). Increased salinity will push
mangrove distribution further inland, but only if there is available habitat that can be colonised.
However often urbanisation prevents this migration (see Impacts: ecosystems).

The overall impacts of climate change on the water cycle (i.e. changes in rainfall, temperature, sea
levels) can put water security in both urban (see Impacts: coastal waste water management) and
agricultural sectors (see Impacts: coastal agriculture) at risk.   

Increased emissions of CO2 to the atmosphere are partly absorbed by oceans. This has had the
benefit of slowing climate change, but has also changed the chemistry of ocean waters, increasing
the acidity that in turn has negative impacts on marine organisms (see Ocean acidification). Coastal
industries (shellfish aquaculture, tourism) may in turn experience economic losses as populations of
marine organisms are impacted.

Increasing temperatures have several implications for coastal areas. An immediate physical change is
warming sea surface temperatures, which can result in more frequent algal blooms and coral
bleaching. Sea surface temperatures are known to drive the development of cyclones and storms
such as East Coast Lows. Some studies suggest that there will be an increase in the intensity of
cyclones, and that they could track further south, although the total frequency of cyclones (and East
Coast Lows) may in fact decrease (see information on Cyclones and ECLs).

Increasing temperatures will also affect people living in coastal areas. Excessive heat or heat waves
are of particular concern, with extreme heat known to be the leading cause of death from climate
related events in Australia (see Impacts: Human health). The ways we design our housing and cool
our houses are likely to change and this has implications for electricity supply and demand.
Excess temperatures also impact the health and wellbeing of flora and fauna and both gradual
changes in temperature and extreme heat are likely to drive changes in the composition of
biodiversity and primary production.

Article 4

Sea-level rise is expected to exacerbate inundation, storm surge, erosion and other coastal hazards
(IPCC, 2007), which will threaten vital infrastructure, settlements and facilities that support the
livelihood of island communities.

• A changing climate increases the potential for outbreaks of vector-borne disease, such as dengue
fever, due to an increase in mosquito breeding sites associated with higher rainfall conditions, a
warmer climate, particularly given the increasing trends of urban settlement and higher population
densities.

• With the emerging scientific evidence, substantial impacts on coastal and marine ecosystems are
likely. Rising temperatures and ocean acidification may have substantial adverse impacts upon coral
reefs, coastal ecosystems, and migratory fish stocks such as tuna, which represent a substantial
economic resource for RMI.

1. Strengthen the Enabling Environment for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation, including
Sustainable Financing

2. Adaptation and Reducing Risks for a Climate Resilient Future

3. Energy Security and Low-Carbon Future

4. Disaster Preparedness, Response and Recovery

5. Building Education and Awareness, Community Mobilization, whilst being mindful of Culture,
Gender and Youth

Article 5

Although we are already experiencing the consequences of climate change today, we also have the
solutions to address it.

Australia urgently needs to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions as part of a strong global effort. But
currently, emissions in Australia and globally are still rising.

The IPCC has suggested that the world must cut emissions to net zero by no later than 2050 to have
a chance of limiting warming to 1.5 C
̊ . This means that global carbon dioxide emissions have to start
dropping now, and be on a path to fall by at least 45% below 2010 levels by 2030.

Here are the easiest, most efficient and cost-effective ways for Australia to reduce its greenhouse
gas emissions:

Electricity
Rapidly transitioning away from fossil fuel generated electricity to renewable energy and storage
technologies is the quickest and cheapest way to reduce emissions. In Australia and many other
countries, new renewable energy is now cheaper than new coal and global investment in coal has
plummeted by 75% in three years.

Transport
Avoiding dangerous climate change doesn’t start and end with changing electricity. We also need to
electrify our transport systems – like buses, cars, trains and trams – and power them with 100%
renewable electricity too. Transport makes up around 19% of Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions,
but these emissions can be reduced by: improving public transport’s quality, efficiency and
accessibility, encouraging active transport (such as cycling and walking), and building infrastructure
(like vehicle charging stations), to encourage people to use electric vehicles.

Agriculture
Agriculture contributes roughly 13% of Australia’s emissions, and deforestation accounts for around
9% of Australia’s emissions. But climate solutions like reforestation and regenerative agriculture can
increase how much carbon is stored in soils and vegetation, removing carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.

Fossil fuels
Australia needs to actively transition away from fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas, including those we
export. As the second largest exporter of both thermal coal (which is burned to generate electricity)
and gas, Australia has a huge influence on global emissions and the fossil fuel market. If we include
all the fossil fuels that Australia exports, Australia is the fifth biggest polluter in the world – so we’re
a big deal when it comes to climate change.Australia should not approve any new fossil fuel projects,
and must actively phase out existing projects to reduce emissions. This process has to support fossil
fuel-dependent communities and workers – and make sure that they have opportunities to move
into other industries.

Reduce emissions

Use your car less, whenever possible, instead use sustainable transportation, such as bicycling, or
use public transportation more often. In the case of long-distance travel, trains are more sustainable
than airplanes, which cause a great deal of the CO2 emitted into the atmosphere. If you're into cars,
remember that every kilometer that you increase your speed will considerably increase
CO2 emissions and expenses. According to the CE, each liter of fuel that your car uses, equals 2.5
kilos of CO2 emitted into the atmosphere.

2. Save energy
Take a look at the labels on your appliances, and never leave them on standby. Always adjust the
thermostat for heating and air conditioning. By being careful how we use home appliances, we can
save energy and, of course, money at the end of the month.

3. Put the 3 R's of sustainability into practice

- Reduce: consume less, more efficiently.

- Reuse: take advantage of second-hand markets, to give new life to items that you don't use
anymore or find something that someone else has gotten rid of that you need. You'll be saving
money and reducing your consumption. Bartering is also a practical solution.

- Recycle: packaging, waste from electronics, etc. Did you know that you can save over 730 kilos of
CO2 each year just by recycling half of the garbage produced at home?

4. What about your diet? Eat low-carbon

A low-carbon diet results in smarter consumption:

- Reduce your meat consumption (livestock is one of the biggest contaminators of the atmosphere)
and increase your consumption of fruits and vegetables.

- Eat food that is local and in season: read the label and eat food that is produced in the area, avoid
imports which create more emissions due to transportation. Also, eat seasonal items, to avoid less
sustainable production methods.

- Avoid excessive packaging and processed foods as much as possible.

5. Act against forest loss

- As far as possible, avoid anything that may be a fire hazard.

- If you want to buy wood, choose wood with a certification or seal showing its sustainable origin.

- Plant a tree! Throughout its life, it can absorb up to a ton of CO2.

6. Make demands from the government

Demand that they take measures toward a more sustainable life, any way that you
can: promote renewable energy, regulatory measures such as properly labelling products (fishing
method used, labels that specify product origins, whether or not they are transgenic, etc.),
promote more sustainable public transportation, promote the use of bicycles and other non-
polluting transportation methods in the city, correctly manage waste through recycling/reuse, etc....