Aksum University Highway Design Project

AKSUM UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
AND TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
FINAL PROJECT ON HIGH WAY DESIGN
 PREPARED BY:AMANUEL KAHSAY
HAYLESLASSIE DESTA
ZELALEM AYELE
AMLESET G/WAHD
SELEMAWIT G/HIWET
ADVISOR; INS.SENAIT. G (BS.C)
JUNE 2008 E.C

SENIOR PROJECT ON HIGHWAY DESIGN
DECLARATION
Our thesis declares the design of geometric design up to pavement design, design difficulties
and length of completion time.
Advisor name – Ins.Senayt G.
Sign: ……………………………………….. Date: …………………
Examiner name: -
Sign: …………………………………………Date :…………………
This paper is valid for the listed graduating students
NAMEID NO.SIGNATURE
1. AMANUEL KAHSAY…………………1041/04.
2. HAYLESLASSIE DESTA …………….1693/04

3. ZELALEM AYELE…………………….1293/04
4. AMLESET G/WAHDE………………...1058/04
5. SELEMAWIT G/HIWET………………2183/04
AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C ii

Acknowledgment
We would like to express our deepest gratitude to Miss Senait, B.Sc. in civil engineering for
her support and guidance during our work on this project, starting from supplying the
necessary data, manuals and recommending reference books. It would have been very
difficult to have this project finished without the help of our advisor. We would like also to
thank our department for giving us the chance to do this Project. We also like to thank all the
group members who worked the project without any hesitation.
AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C iii

ABSTRACT
This project divided in to eight units, the first unit deals with the general idea about the
project Introduction. The second chapter deals with Methodology and General design of the
project. The third chapter deals about rout selection ,the fourth chapter deals with Traffic
Analysis ,the fifth chapter deals with general design, procedure and computation of
Geometric Design. It also deals about the cross section of the road like lane width carriage
way side and back Slope. In addition it deals with Cross section design and others. The sixth
unit deals with the Pavement Structure Design, the seventh chapter deals about the Highways
Drainage Design. And also it deals with the conclusion and recommendation.
AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C iv

Table of Contents
DECLARATION ................................................................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables and List of Figures ...................................................................................................... viii
List of abbreviation ............................................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER ONE.................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Main objective of the project ....................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Specific Objective of the Project ................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Scope of the Project ...................................................................................................................... 2
1.5 Significance of the project ............................................................................................................ 2
1.6 Geometric Design.......................................................................................................................... 3
1.7 Pavement Structure Design .......................................................................................................... 3
1.8 Software ........................................................................................................................................ 3
1.9 Design Using Mx-Road Software................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER TWO................................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 METHODOLOGY AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT.................................................. 5
2.1.1 Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 BACK GROUND OF THE PROJECT AREA ......................................................................................... 5
2.4 LOCATION...................................................................................................................................... 5
2.5 CLIMATE ........................................................................................................................................ 5
2.6 Geological Setting ......................................................................................................................... 6
2.7 Construction Methods .................................................................................................................. 6
2.7.1 Masonry and concrete work .................................................................................................. 6
2.7.2 Crushed Aggregate ................................................................................................................. 6
2.7.3 Embankment .......................................................................................................................... 7
2.7.4 Water for compaction and Concrete work ............................................................................ 7
2.7.5 Sand for concrete and mortar work....................................................................................... 7
2.7.6 Surfacing ................................................................................................................................ 7
2.7.7 Sub Grade Preparation........................................................................................................... 7
2.7.8 Compaction ............................................................................................................................ 7
CHAPTER THREE............................................................................................................................... 8
3.1 ROUTE SELECTION......................................................................................................................... 8
3.1.1Traffic Studies ......................................................................................................................... 8
AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C v

3.1.2 Socio-economic Studies ......................................................................................................... 8

3.2 Factors controlling selecting of an alignment ............................................................................... 8
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................................... 11
4.1 TRAFIC ANALYSIS AND RESULTS.................................................................................................. 11
4.1.1 Traffic Forecasting and Count .............................................................................................. 11
4.2 Types of traffic Forecasting ......................................................................................................... 11
4.3 Design Period .............................................................................................................................. 12
4.4 The functional classification in Ethiopia includes five functional classes. .................................. 12
A. Trunk Roads .............................................................................................................................. 12
B. Link Roads ................................................................................................................................. 12
C. Main Access Roads.................................................................................................................... 12
D. Collector Roads ......................................................................................................................... 12
E. Other roads or Feeder Roads .................................................................................................... 12
4.5 Roads classification criteria......................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................................. 16
5.1 GEOMETRIC DESIGN.................................................................................................................... 16
5.2 Factors affecting geometric design ............................................................................................. 16
5.3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT .......................................................................................................... 19
5.3.1 Elements of a horizontal curve ............................................................................................ 19
5.4 SIGHT DISTANCES ........................................................................................................................ 21
5.5 Stopping sight distances ............................................................................................................. 22
5.6 Passing sight distances ................................................................................................................ 23
5.7 Transition curve .......................................................................................................................... 25
5.8 Super elevation ........................................................................................................................... 25
5.9 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT ................................................................................................................ 28
5.10 Gradients and grade controls ................................................................................................... 29
5.11 Phasing Of Horizontal And Vertical Alignment ......................................................................... 29
5.12 Vertical crest curve design ........................................................................................................ 30
5.13 SAG CURVE ................................................................................................................................ 34
5.14 Cross Section Design ................................................................................................................. 37
5.14.1 Shoulder ............................................................................................................................. 38
5.14.2 Carriageway ....................................................................................................................... 39
5.14.3 Lane width .......................................................................................................................... 40
5.14.4. Normal cross fall ............................................................................................................... 40
5.14.5. Side slope and back slope ................................................................................................. 40
5.14.6. Right of way ...................................................................................................................... 41
AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C vi

5.14.7. Median .............................................................................................................................. 41

5.14.8. Curbs ................................................................................................................................. 42
5.14.9 Widening ............................................................................................................................ 42
5.15 EARTH WORK AND QUANTITY .................................................................................................. 44
5.16 EARTHWORK ESTIMATION ....................................................................................................... 44
5.17 MASS HAUL DIAGRAM ........................................................................................................... 45
CHAPTER SIX.................................................................................................................................... 46
6.2 Types of Pavement Structures .................................................................................................... 46
6.3 Purpose of pavement Design ...................................................................................................... 48
6.4 Design of Pavement Using TRRL Method ................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER SEVEN ............................................................................................................................. 55
7.1 HIGH WAY DRAINAGE DESIGN .................................................................................................... 55
7.2 Requirements of highway drainage system................................................................................ 55
7.3 Design of surface drainage system ............................................................................................. 56
Recommendation.............................................................................................................................. 59
Appendix .............................................................................................................................................. 60
References ............................................................................................................................................ 61
AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C vii

List of Tables and List of Figures

List of tables
Table 1 Annual Temperature and rain fall…………………………………………………………………………………………7
Table 2 Road classiffication…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….15
Table 3 Terrain type transvers slope………………………………………………………………………………………………..22
Table 4 Back slope and side slope……………………………………………………………………………………………………44
Table 5Widening of curve……………………………………………………………………………47
Table 6Traffic data…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………53
Table 7 Design standard classiffication……………………………………………………………………………………………55
Table 8Calculation of AADT1 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………56
Table 9ERA traffic class for flexible pavement……………………………………………………………………………….57
Table 10 Soil class……………………………………………………………………………………58
List of Figures
Figure 1Flat terrain

type………………………………………………………………………….20Figure
2Rollingterraintype………………………………………………………………………………………………………21
Figure3Mountainterraintype………………………………………………………………………………………………….21
Figure4Escarpmentterraintype………………………………………………………………………………………………21
Figure 5Stoppingsitedistance………………………………………………………………………………………………….26
Figure 6Passingsitedistance…………………………………………………………………………………………………….27
Figure 7Effectofcentrifugalforce…………………………………………………………………………………………….30
Figure8Super elevation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….31
Figure 9Crestcurve…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..35
Figure10 Sag curve……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………39
Figure 11Typicalfillsection……………………………………………………………………………………………………….47
Figure 12Typicalcutsection……………………………………………………………………………………………………..48
Figure13Sampleofdrainage…………………………………………………………………………………………………….61
Chart
Chart 1 Masshauldiagram………………………………………………………………………………………………………..49
AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C viii

List of abbreviation
AADT ………………Average annual daily trafficADT……………….. Average Daily

TrafficAASHTO………….. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials CBR………………. California bearing ratio
DS ………………….Design standard
DTN…………………Design traffic number
EF……………………Equivalent factor
ERA………………… Ethiopian road association
ESAL ………………..Equivalent single axel loads
EAL…………………..Equivalent axel load
TRRL…………………Transport and road research laboratory
PC …………………….point of curve
PI …………………….point of tangent intersection
PT ………………….. Point of tangent
PVC ………………… point of vertical curve
PVI ………………….point of vertical intersection
HMA………………...Hot mix asphalt
PVT -………………...Point of vertical tangent
AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 1

CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Transportation engineering is the application of technology and scientific principles to the
planning, functional design, operation, and management of facilities for any mode of
transportation in order to provide for the safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and
environmentally compatible movement of people and goods.
In the world there are different types of transportations like,
 Road transportation
 Railway transportation
 Air transportation
 Water transportation etc.
From the above listed transportation types, our design is road transportation. Because of road
transport is it constructed by relatively low initial cost than others and at the same time stage
construction is possible.
 It gives a flexible service (free from fixed program).
 It provides fast and reliable service
 It helps people to travel and carry goods from one place to another, in places which are
not connected by other means of transport like hilly areas.
On the other hand there is some limitation of road transport, because of the following reasons,
Due to limited carrying capacity road transport is not economical for long distance transportation
of goods.
Transportation of heavy goods or goods in bulk by road involves high cost.
It is affected by adverse weather conditions. Floods, rain, landslide, etc., sometimes create
obstructions to road transport.
Roads to safety their intended purpose must be constructed to be safe, easy, economically
friendly and must fulfill the needs of the people being safe. The number of accidents that can
occur will be minimized.

1.2 Main objective of the project

The main objective of the project is route selection and geometric design of highways is mainly
to locate the best way connecting the two place named a and the other b considering many
physical features as mountains, protected forest, village… so that with minimum coast and the
minimum distance, less conflict of cars. The main important part is to work towards safety and
comfort for the vehicle and as well as the driver.
1.3 Specific Objective of the Project
This final year design project on high-way has the following major objectives:-
• To expose the prospective graduates to a detail and organized design on
• Road projects;
• To enable students implement the knowledge that the prospective
Graduates have learned theoretically in class;
• To make students familiar with the design of road projects.

• To enable students undertake practical projects.
1.4 Scope of the Project

The scope of the project covers geometric design, pavement design, drainage and
Other related design.
1.5 Significance of the project


• It will make the students professionally fit and more practical.
• Increase the experience on the design of practical project.
• Familiarize students with different standards and codes.
• It gives an over view of current knowledge of the students on principle of
Highway design
• Generally the project gives an academic significance for extension of
Knowledge and academic success.

1.6 Geometric Design

The procedure whereby the layout of the road through the terrain is designed to meet the need of
the road user and it deals with the visible dimensions of a road way.Properly designed highway
geometries provide optimum efficiency in the operation of traffic with safety.
1.7 Pavement Structure Design
Pavement design is dynamic conceptwhich is changing with time as technology develops and
new equipment emerges for site investigation, material testing and traffic data collection, and
new data become available.
A pavement structure is a layer structure which supports the vehicle load on its surface and
transfers and spreads the load to the sub-grade without exceeding either the strength of the sub-
grade or the internal strength of the pavement itself.
1.8 Software
For the completion of our project we have used mx road software especially for design of
horizontal, vertical alignmentsand pavement.
1.9 Design Using Mx-Road Software
For the completion of our project we have used mx road software especially for design of
horizontal, vertical alignments and pavement.
Why we use MX-ROAD software than other softwares?

 This clearly shows us where the horizontal and vertical curve merges
 Rapid, Accurate Design of All Road Types in 2D and 3D
 At its core, Bentley MXROAD Suite uses 3D string modeling technology—a proven,
powerful, and concise method of creating any 3D surface. Localized to many country
standards, MXROAD Suite includes an extensive library of road styles, the ability to
design and dynamically re-grade junctions and roundabouts, and built-in rules for fast
and efficient application of super-elevation.
 By designing your road completely in 3D, the included surface analysis tools allow
engineers and designers to identify and correct potential problems during the design
phase rather than incur the high cost of re-work on site.
 No CAD Required!

 Bentley MXROAD Suite runs on the most popular CAD platforms, but the stand-alone
version provides fully functional, high-quality CAD tools built in. Eliminating the need
for an additional CAD environment or package, users can reference CAD files on the fly,
including DGNs, DWGs, and raster images, save as a DGN or DWG, or publish designs
to 2D and 3D Adobe PDF formats, all from the stand-alone version.

CHAPTER TWO
2.1 METHODOLOGY AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT
2.1.1 Methodology
To do this project first we are given primary data by our advisor. The primary data here means
survey data, so using these primary data we get secondary data’s like geometric design,
pavement design earth work and in general the whole design.
2.3 BACK GROUND OF THE PROJECT AREA
This two-lane highway project is located from Aksum town to AKU which leads to. The project
is intended for reduction of traffic load currently and for the expected traffic load in the future,
because the town is developing at high rate. The project is done based on the survey data.
2.4 LOCATION
The road is found in Tigray Aksum city to wards north west of the city around 1.5km from the
town to AKU.
2.5 CLIMATE
The climate in Axum is warm and temperate. The summers are much rainier than the winters in
Axum.
Some of the environmental factors that causes deterioration of pavement are,
• Rain fall: The average annual rain fall is 625mm. The driest month is December, with
1mm of rain fall. Rain fall causes erosion of shoulders, side slope and entrance of water
into the pavement structure and subgrade structure.
• Temperature: To variations can often the binder and affects s and the performances of
bituminous surfaces and cement concrete pavment.in addition to the above data for
humidity, sunshine etc… should have to be known. The average annual temperature in
Axum is 180C.

Table 1; Annual temperature and rain fall
2.6 Geological Setting

The pavement design and construction; it is necessary the geological history of the project area.
In particular it is essential to;
• Determinant the major geological processes that led to the formation of rocks and soils in
the area;
• Know the regional and local stratigraphy
• Draw attention to important features like major faults and landslides
• Obtain an appreciation the regional ground water condition
• From logical basis for the location of proven sources of construction materials.
2.7 Construction Methods
In road design we have two methods of construction. These are labor based and machine based
equipment. In labor based we use light equipment where us, in machine based we use heavy
equipment.
2.7.1 Masonry and concrete work
We use masonry and concrete work for the construction of retained wall, drainage, culvert,
bridge etc…to get enough strength of the structures.
2.7.2 Crushed Aggregate
This material is produced by crushing fresh, quarried rock, usually termed a “crusher-run” or
alternatively, the material may be separated by screening and recombined to produce a desired
particle size distribution, as per the specifications. The rock used for crushed aggregates should
be hard & durable.

2.7.3 Embankment
- Embankments are constructed over prepared and stabilized subgrade.
- Typical requirement for elevated embankment includes the use of good drainable material
spread in thin lifts and compacted to the required density.
- Broken up pieces of concrete may be used within the embankment fill provided the largest
dimension is no greater than1/3 of the fill height, whichever is smaller
2.7.4 Water for compaction and Concrete work
Water is among the important material in road construction. For example when we compact
layers like sub grade, sub base and others we must use water to form bond between gravels and
soils. But if we cannot use water the compaction have no value because there is no enough bond
among the materials. And it have major role in concrete work. But the water we use is based on
water cement ratio.
2.7.5 Sand for concrete and mortar work
Sand has a great role for concrete. Since, concrete is a combination of four ingredients .such as,
water, sand, aggregate and cement.
2.7.6 Surfacing
This is the uppermost layer of the pavement and will normally consist of a bituminous surface
dressing or a layer of premixed bituminous material.
Hot-mix Asphalt Concrete
-Mix design should be conducted using marshal mix design or super pave mix design methods.
-In site the asphalt should mix according the proportion of each materials (i.e. aggregate and
asphalt content
2.7.7 Sub Grade Preparation
Sub grade is the natural or existing ground.
-For an elevated highway this will be below the embankment fill and
- For at-grade sections this would be immediately below the pavement section.
2.7.8 Compaction
Compaction is needed in road construction to increase the density of layers as a result it
increases the strength of the layers. For compaction we use different equipment’s like, rollers…

CHAPTER THREE
3.1 ROUTE SELECTION
This describes the manner in which the various studies undertaken concerning Topography,
engineering geology, hydrology, and environmental and social impact assessment, Route
engineering and economic evaluation are incorporated into the selection of the preferred route
options. In route selection, many factors have to be taken into consideration.
3.1.1Traffic Studies
Traffic concerns with route Option Engineering and the confirmation of expected traffic volumes
and composition, and road designStandard.
3.1.2 Socio-economic Studies
The economic evaluation is implicitly linked to the engineering and environmental/social factors.
While costs have a guiding and limiting impact on road corridor planning, the engineering,
environmental and social investigations are reflected in some detail in economic evaluation, in
the modeling of the benefits as well as in the cost inputs.
Although socio-economic factors can be among the most significant determinants of route
selection, they will vary from project to project in terms of their importance. For example, the
need to provide access to areas of agricultural surplus or mineral resource may only be relevant
in certain cases, and may play little role in differentiating between alternative route options. In
most cases these factors will be very similar between alternatives but in certain cases where
alternatives provide different degrees of access to particular land uses a careful comparison will
be required.
3.2 Factors controlling selecting of an alignment
It is not always possible to satisfy all the above alignment requirements. Hence we have to make
a judicial choice considering all the factors.
Among those factors that control the alignment:
Obligatory points: These are the control points governing the highway alignment. These points
are classified into two categories.

Points through which it should pass: Some of the examples are:
Bridge site: bridge can be located only where the river has straight and permanent path and also
where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded.
Mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various alternatives are to either
construct a tunnel or to go round the hills. The suitability of the alternative depends on factors
like topography, site conditions and construction and operation cost.
Intermediate town: The alignment may be slightly deviated to connect an intermediate town or
village nearby.
Points through which it should not pass. These are:
Religious places: These have been protected by the law from being acquired for any purpose.
Very costly structures: Acquiring such structures means heavy compensation which would
result in an increase in initial cost.
Lakes/ponds: The presence of a lake or pond on the alignment path would also necessitate
deviation of the alignment.
Traffic: The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Based on the origin-destination data
of the area, the desire lines should be drawn. The new alignment should be drawn keeping in
view the desire lines, traffic flow pattern etc.
Geometric design: Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve, sight distance etc.
also governs the alignment of the highway. The design standards vary with the class of road and
the terrain and accordingly the highway should be aligned.
Economy: The alignment finalized should be economical. All the three costs i.e. construction,
maintenance, and operating cost should be minimum.
Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) is a well-established technique for comparing the costs and
benefits of a project in monetary terms and it can be used to compare route options wherethese
are significantly different from each other. In brief, CBA compares the costs (capital and
recurrent) of road investment with the resultant benefits to road users and those land uses and
communities whose economic production will benefit as a result of access provision. As far as

road users are concerned, these benefits primarily comprise vehicle operating cost savings, travel
time savings, reductions in accident costs and future maintenance expenditure, i.e. where existing
transport arrangements are significantly improved by the construction of a new road.
Other considerations: Various other factors that govern the alignment are drainage
considerations, political factors, Hydrological factors and monotony. As can be seen in the below
top map our road is surrounded by church, cemetery, baptistery, and river. But our road way is
already selected considering all those factors mentioned above and the first three places are
points which the alignment shouldn’t pass through, therefore, the route we selected pass by those
factors and crosses only the river.

CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 TRAFIC ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
4.1.1 Traffic Forecasting and Count
The traffic volume is one of the parameters used for determination of design standards.
Collection of traffic data and estimation of future traffic composition, traffic volume and traffic
growth rate should be carried out carefully and precisely. Even with stable economic conditions,
traffic forecasting is an uncertain process. Although the pavement design engineer may often
receive help from specialized Professionals at this stage of the traffic evaluation, some general
remarks are in order.
Traffic volume data may vary, daily
Weekly
Seasonally
Hence to avoid error in traffic analysis and detention the average yearly trend, minimum 7 days
count recommended by ERA. For long projects, there may be large difference in traffic volume
along the road and hence it is necessary to make the traffic counts at several locations.
4.2 Types of traffic Forecasting
Depending on the usage of the road we can classify traffics in to three categories. These are: -
1. Normal traffic
2. Diverted traffic
3. Generated traffic
Normal traffic: Traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if no new
pavement was provided.
Diverted traffic: Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to the project
road because of the improved pavement, but still travels between the same origin and destination.
Generated traffic: Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or improvement of
the road.
Traffic Count is necessary
 To measure the traffic-carrying capacity of different types of roads
 Examine the distribution of traffic between the available traffic lanes
 In the preparation of maintenance schedules for in-service roads
 In the predicting of expected traffic on a proposed new road from traffic studies on the
surrounding road system.

4.3 Design Period

The length or duration of time during which the pavement structure is expected to function
satisfactorily without the need for major intervention (rehabilitation such as overlays or
reconstruction) or the duration in time until the pavement structure reaches its terminal condition
(failure condition). Selecting appropriate design period depends on:
 Functional importance of the road
 Traffic volume
 Location and terrain of the project
 Financial constraints
 Difficulty in forecasting traffic
4.4 The functional classification in Ethiopia includes five functional classes.
A. Trunk Roads
Centers of international importance and roads terminating at international boundaries are linked
with Addis Ababa by trunk roads.an example is the Addis-Gondar Road.
B. Link Roads
Centers of national or international importance, such as principal towns and urban centers must
be linked between each other by link road.
C. Main Access Roads
Centers of provincial importance must be linked between each other by main access road.
D. Collector Roads
Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to a more important center, or to higher
class roads must be linked by a collector road
E. Other roads or Feeder Roads
Any road link to a minor center such as market and local locations is served by a feeder road.
Roads of the highest classes, trunk and link roads have, as their major function to provide
mobility, while the primary function of lower class roads is to provide access. The roads of
intermediate classes have, for all practical purposes, to provide both mobility and access.
Table 2 Road classification

Road classification Design period in year
Truck road 20
Link road 20
Main road 15
Other roads 10
Accordingly, the roads can classify as follows in the order of increased accessibility and reduced
speeds.
Freeways: Freeways are access controlled divided highways. Most freeways are four lanes, two
lanes each direction, but many freeways widen to incorporate more lanes as they enter urban
areas. Access is controlled through the use of interchanges, and the type of interchange depends
upon the kind of intersecting road way (rural roads, another freeway etc.)
Expressways: They are superior type of highways and are designed for high speeds (120 km/hr.
is common), high traffic volume and safety. They are generally provided with grade separations
at intersections. Parking, loading and unloading of goods and pedestrian traffic is not allowed on
expressways.
Highways: They represent the superior type of roads in the country. Twotypes of highway;-rural
highways and urban highways.
Rural highways are those passing through rural areas (villages) and urban highways are those
passing through large cities and towns, i.e. urban areas.
Arterials: It is a general term denoting a street primarily meant for through traffic usually on a
continuous route. They are generally divided highways with fully or partially controlled access.
Parking, loading and unloading activities are usually restricted and regulated. Pedestrians are
allowed to cross only at intersections/designated pedestrian crossings.
Local streets: A local street is the one which is primarily intended for access to residence,
business or abutting property. It does not normally carry large volume of traffic and also it
allows unrestricted parking and pedestrian movements.

Collector streets: These are streets intended for collecting and distributing traffic to and from
local streets and also for providing access to arterial streets. Normally full access is provided on
these streets. There are few parking restrictions except during peak hours.
4.5 Roads classification criteria

Apart from the classification given by the different plans, roads were also classified based on
some other criteria.
Based on usage;
This classification is based on whether the roads can be used during different seasons of the year.
1. All-weather roads: Those roads which are negotiable during all weathers, except at major
river crossings where interruption of traffic is permissible up to a certain extent are called all
weather roads.
2. Fair-weather roads: Roads which are negotiable only during fair weather are called fair
weather roads.
Based on carriage way
This classification is based on the type of the carriage way or the road pavement.
Paved roads with hard surface: If they are provided with a hard pavement course such roads
are called paved roads (E.g.: stones, Water bound macadam (WBM), bituminous macadam
(BM), concrete roads)

Unpaved roads: Roads which are not provided with a hard course of at least a WBM layer they
are called unpaved roads. Thus earth and gravel roads come under this category.
Based on pavement surface
Based on the type of pavement surfacing provided, they are classified as surfaced and un-
surfaced roads.
Surfaced roads (BM, concrete): Roads which are provided with a bituminous or cement
concreting surface are called surfaced roads.
Un-surfaced roads (soil/gravel): Roads which are not provided with a bituminous or cement
concreting surface are called un-surfaced roads.

CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Geometric design elements should fulfill the following objectives.
 Topographic land use and physical features
 Environmental consideration
 Road safety consideration
 Road function and control of access
 Traffic volume and capacity
 Design speed and speed control and vehicle characteristics
 Design vehicle characteristics
The main features considered in geometric design include
 Cross-sectional elements
 Sight distance considerations (stopping and passing sight distances)
 Right of way
 Design speed
 Horizontal alignment (include tangent sections, curves, and super elevation)
 Vertical alignment (include crest and sag curves, maximum and minimum gradients,
climbing lanes, and vertical clearances.
5.2 Factors affecting geometric design
A number of factors affect the geometric design and they are discussed in detail in the following
sections.
1. Design speed
Design speed is the single most important factor that affects the geometric design. It directly
affects the sight distance, horizontal curve, and the length of vertical curves. Since the speed of
vehicles vary with driver, terrain etc. a design speed is adopted for all the geometric design.
Design speed is defined as the highest continuous speed at which individual vehicles can travel
with safety on the highway when weather conditions are conducive. Design speed is different
from the legal speed limit which is the speed limit imposed to curb a common tendency of
drivers to travel beyond an accepted safe speed. Design speed is also different from the desired

speed which is the maximum speed at which a driver would travel when unconstrained by either
traffic or local geometry.
2. Topography
Topography of the area affects geometric design of a highway. The areas under consideration
are;
 Flat
 Rolling
 Mountainous
 Steep (Escarpment)
3. Terrain Type
The geometric design elements of a road depend on the terrain type through which the road
passes. Transverse terrain properties are categorized into four classes as follows:
Flat
Flat or gently which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road, having continuously
unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (terrain slope up to 5 percent).
Figure1; Flat Terrain Type

Rolling
Where the slopes generally rise and fall moderately and where occasional steep slopes are
encountered, resulting in some restrictions in alignment (terrain slope from 5 percent to 25
percent).

Figure2; Rolling Terrain Type

 Mountainous
This class of terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and
often involves long steep grades and limited sight distance (terrain slope from 25 percent to 50
percent).
Figure3; Mountainous TerrainType

 ESCARPMENT
We refer to escarpment situations inclusive of switchback road way sections inclusive of switch
back road way sections or side hill transverse sections where earthwork quantities are
considerable with transverse slope in excess of 50%.
Figure4; Escarpment Terrain Type

Table 3; Terrain type transverse slope
Terrain type Transverse terrain slope (%)
Flat 0-3
Rolling 3-25
Mountainous 25-50
Escarpment >50
5.3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

The alignment of highway is best represented by its center line in the three dimensional
coordinate system (longitudinal, latitude and elevation). Horizontal alignment is treaties with the
design of the directional transition of the highway in the horizontal plane. The design elements of
the horizontal alignment are the tangent (straight section), the circular curve, the transition curve
(spiral) sight distances and the super elevation sections. In the design of horizontal alignment it
must, provided good drainage system and minimize earth work. And the alignment selected for
particular project should run without sudden changes from easy to sharp curves. When we see a
tangent section it must be design for safety and comfortable issue.
Positive impact
- A better visibility
- More passing opportunity
Negative impact
- Increased danger headlight glare
- Excessive speeding & the resulting accident
- Driver fatigue & dizziness which cause accident
5.3.1 Elements of a horizontal curve:

• Δ DELTA (Central Angle). The value of the central angle is equal to the intersection
angle. Some authorities call both the intersecting angle and central angle either I or A.

• R RADIUS. The radius of the circle of which the curve is an arc, or segment. The radius
is always perpendicular to back and forward tangents.
• PI POINT OF INTERSECTION. The point of intersection is the theoretical location
where the two tangents meet.
• PT POINT OF TANGENCY. The point of tangency is the point on the forward tangent
where the curve ends. It is sometimes designated as EC (end of curve) or CT (curve to
tangent).
• PC POINT OF CURVATURE. The point of curvature is the point on the back tangent
where the circular curve begins. It is sometimes designated as BC (beginning of curve) or
TC (tangent to curve).
• POC POINT ON CURVE. The point on curve is any point along the curve. L LENGTH
OF CURVE. The length of curve is the distance from the PC to the PT, measured long
the curve.
• T TANGENT. The length of tangent is the distance along the tangents from the PI to the
PC or the PT. These distances are equal on a simple curve.
• C LONG CHORD. The long chord is the straight-line distance from the PC to the PT.
Other types of chords are designated as follows:
• C The sub chord distance between the PC and the first station on the curve.
• C’ Any chord distance between two points along a curve.
• E EXTERNAL DISTANCE. The external distance (also called the external secant) is the
distance from the PI to the midpoint of the curve. The external distance bisects the
interior angle at the PI.
In circular curves the minimum permitted horizontal radius depends on the design speed and the
supper elevation of the carriageway, which has the maximum value of 8%.To calculate the
minimum radius first we must have known the terrain type and then decide the design speed. So
from ERA manual for DC5, flat terrain type of slope.
R calculated = VD2/127(f+emax)
VD = design speed
Emax = max. Super elevation (8%)
F = side friction (0.12) for VD= 85km/hr.

Rcalculated = 852/127(0.12+0.08) =284.4

For super elevation of (8%) take minimum radius of R=280m
5.4 SIGHT DISTANCES

Sight distances is defined as the length of the carriageway that the driver can see both horizontal
and vertical plane. This can include that, stopping and overtaking or passing sight distances. Let
Sight distances could be lies within the length of the horizontal curve and the degree of the curve
is defined as the angle subtended by 80m long arc along the horizontal curve. This can be
measure the sharpness of the curve and can be related to the radius of curve as follows.
D° = (360/2ЛR)*100m =5732.484/R. D° is degree of the curve
From geometry analysis we can find that;- lc = 100m*ϴ/D° where, ϴ is included angle of the
tangents.
Note that, sight distances lies out of the curve length it could not happen a problem for users and
driver.so we must have design that sight distances with in the curve.
By assuming, sight distances is equal with curve length (SD=Lc).
And from geometry analysis,
Cos (ϴ/2) = (R-M)/R where,
M middle ordinate as we found above
Then rearranging the above equation, it gives
M = R [1-cos (28.66*SD/R)] or by which if the radius of the horizontal curve is being large sight
distances becomes straight. So by analysis
M =SD2/8R
From this we can calculate sight distances (SD) for each horizontal curve.
For curve -1
Sight distances, M= SD2/8R from this SD=M*8*R

M = 0.95
R =280m then, SD = 46m so it is with in the curve length.
5.5 Stopping sight distances
Stopping sight distances is the minimum sight distances required by the driver in order be able to
stop the car before it hits on objects on the highway. It is the primary important to safe working
of highway. The distances itself can be divided in to three parts,
The perception distances: - the length of the highway traveled while driver perceives hazards.
The reaction distances: – the length of highway traveled during the period of time taken by the
driver to apply the brake and for the brakes to function.
The braking distances: - the length of the highway traveled while actually comes to halt.( the
time to stop the vehicle )
During the first two intervals, the vehicle travels at full speed, during the third interval its speed
is reduced to zero, and must happen before hitting an object or vehicle ahead.
As speed increases the reaction time increases
Figure 6; Stopping Site Distance

The combined perception and reaction time can vary widely depending on the driver; however
the value 2.5sec is taken as being appropriate for safe and comfortable design.
SSD = 0.278Vt + V2/254f where
V = design speed
t = time for reaction

f = coefficient of friction between tires and road way

friction (0.3 from era 2002 table 7-1)
= 0.278*280*2.5m/s +852/254*0.3
= 289.42m> 155m = SSD =155m from ERA manual, OK
5.6 Passing sight distances
The passing sight distance is the length of the roadway that the driver of the passing vehicle must
be able to see initially, in order to make a passing maneuver safely and comfortably. It Allows
time for driver to avoid collision with approaching vehicle and not cut off passed vehicle when
upon return to lane. It is considered only on two-lane roads and the capacity of a two- lane
roadway is greatly increased if a large percentage of the roadway’s length can be used for
passing. For horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove obstructions and widen cuttings on
the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance. The passing sight distance is the sum
of:
PSD = d1 + d2+ d3 +d4
Figure 7; passing sight distance

Where,
d1 = is a distance traveled during perception/reaction time and distance traveled while
accelerating to passing speed and when vehicle just enters the left lane
d1 = 0.278t1 (v-m+at1/2)
Where
t1 perception/reaction time and the time for acceleration.

=
V = design speed
(70-85km/h, t=4 sec, 100-110 km/h, t=4.5sec)
M is the relative speed of the past and passing vehicle.
(V-v1 where, 85 - (0.75*85) =21.25km/h)
V= design speed km/h for passed vehicle = 85km /h
V1= seed for passing vehicle (75% of design speed)
a = acceleration (km/hr./sec), for 70-110 km/h, a =2.4 (from AASHTO manual)
d1 = 0.278*4sec (85- 21.25+2.4*4/2)
= 52.598m
d2 = distance traveled during overtaking time
d2 = 0.278vt2
a = ∆v/∆t
2.4 = /v1–v2/t2-t1
2.4 = (/85- 63.75/)/ t2-4, so t2 =12.854sec
d2 = 0.278*85*12.854 = 303.744m
d3 = clearance distance between the passing vehicle and the opposing vehicle at the moment the
passing vehicle returns to the right lane. Usually d3 varies b/n 30 and 90m.
d3 = 35m
d4 = distance traveled by opposing vehicle during 2/3 of the time the passing vehicle is in the left
lane. (D4 usually taken as 2/3 d2)
d4 = 2/3(d2) = 2/3(303.744m) =202.493M
PSD = 52.598m+303.744m+35m+202.493m = 593.835m >340m …….ok

5.7 Transition curve

When a vehicle traveling on a straight course enters a curve of finite radius, and suddenly
subjected to the centrifugal force which shock and sway. In order to avoid this it is customary to
provide a transition curve at the beginning of the circular curve having a radius equal to infinity
at the end of the straight and gradually reducing the radius to the radius of the circular curve
where the curve begins.
Transition curves are introduced between:-
A/ between tangents and curves
B/ between two curves
Various forms of transition curves are suitable for high way transition, but the one most popular
and recommended for use is spiral.
Even if there are places to design transition curve, ERA design manual standard recommends
where and how to design this horizontal alignment design elements. Especially for Ethiopian
road, transition curves are a requirement for trunk and link road segments having a speed equal
to or greater than 80km/hr. (ERA)
These curve types are used to connect curved and straight sections of highway.(They can also be
used to ease the change between two circular curves where the difference in radius is large.) The
purpose of transition curves is to permit the gradual introduction of centrifugal forces. Such
forces are required in order to cause a vehicle to move round a circular arc rather than continue
in a straight line. A finite quantity of time, long enough for the purposes of ease and safety, Will
be required by the driver to turn the steering wheel. In our case we have provided the transition
curve between the tangent and curves with in normal crown in and full super in, full super out
and normal crown out.
5.8 Super elevation
A Vehicle moving rapidlyalong a curved path is subject to an outward reactive force called the
centrifugal force. On highway curves, centrifugal force acts through the center of the mass of the
vehicle and creates an overturning moment about the points of contact between the outer wheels
and pavement. The centrifugal force is counter balanced by super elevation of the road way
and/or the side friction developed between the tire and the road surface. The centrifugal force is
the result of design speed, weight of car, friction, and gravitational acceleration having the
following relationship.

Figure 8; Effect of Centrifugal force
Wv 2
Fc 
gR
Where, Fc= centrifugal force
W=weight of the car
V=design speed
g= acceleration due to gravity

R= radius of the curve
So, super elevation rate is changing the road cross section from the normal road to elevate
towards the center of the curve. I.e., it counteracts a part of the centrifugal force, the remaining
part being resisted by the lateral friction.
Terms in super elevation:
i. Tangent run out (Lt)
ii.Super elevation runoff (Lc)
I. Tangent run out (Lt)
It is the longitudinal length along the road designed to remove the adverse crown to a zero slope.
i.e., the outer edge of the road is raised from a normal cross slope to a zero slope which equal to
the grade level of the road (the level of the center line of the road).
ii. Super elevation runoff length (Lc)
Super elevation run-off is a length of the road section from the point of removal of adverse
crown of the road to the full super elevated point on the curve.
Super elevation is equal to the length of transition curve when there is a transition curve. When
there is no transition curve i.e., when it is a simple curve,1/3rd of the length is placed on the curve
and 2/3rd of the length is placed on the tangent part(ERA). Therefore, we follow the first standard
to design our super elevation since all the curves have transition curve.
Figure 9; Super elevation

5.9 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Vertical alignment is composed of series of straight line gradients connected by curves,
normally, parabolic in form. Due to the ups and downs of the topography, it is not possible to
join two given points straight horizontally. So it must to use different series of grades. And to
create a smooth transition b/n these grades parabolic curves are used.
The two major aspects of vertical alignment are;-
-Vertical curvature, which is governed by sight distance criteria, and
-Gradient, which is related to vehicle performance and level of service.
The curvature will be determined by the designed speed being sufficient to provide adequate
driver comfort with appropriate stopping and passing distances provided.
Procedures in design of vertical alignment
• Prepare longitudinal profile of the road
• Determine gradients according to ERA manual standard
Provision of vertical curves
- Crest curve
- Sage curve
Determination of the length of the vertical curve: - take in to account the following points
 Minimum curve length
 Passing sight distances
 Stopping sight distances
 Aesthetic (appearance)
 Passenger comfort
 Drainage requirement
 Design vertical curves
 Setting out of vertical curves
The vertical curve serves a number of purposes:
 They serve as a gradual transition from one gradient to another without discomfort to
riders
 They eliminate sudden humps and troughs
 They provided adequate visibility for stopping and overtaking

5.10 Gradients and grade controls

In determination of grades for vertical alignment the following are taken in to consideration;
 For the maximum limit.
 Visibility related to sight distance.
 Cost of vehicle operation
 Cut and fill (earth work)
 Passengers comfort.
 General appearance and
 Existing road intersections & adjacent land use.
 For the minimum limit
 Drainage purpose
5.11 Phasing Of HorizontalAnd Vertical Alignment
Phasing of horizontal and vertical curve of a road implies their coordination so that the line of
the road appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the creation of hazards and visual defects.
Types of Miss-phasing and corresponding corrective action
When the horizontal and vertical curves are adequately separated or when they are coincident, no
phasing problem occurs and no corrective action is required.
A.Vertical curve overlaps one end of the horizontal curve
The defect may be corrected in both cases by completely separating the curves. If this is
uneconomical, the curves must be adjusted so that if the horizontal curve is of short radius they
are coincident at both ends, or if the horizontal curve is of longer radius they need to be
coincident at only one end.
B. Insufficient separation between the curves
If there is insufficient separation between the end of the horizontal and vertical curves, a false
reverse curve may appear on the outside edge-line at the beginning of the horizontal curve. The
corrective action consists of increasing the separation between the curves, or making the curves
concurrent.
Both ends of the vertical curve lie on the horizontal curve
If both end of crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of horizontal curve may
appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the crust curve. If the vertical curve is

a sag curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may appear to increase. The corrective action is to
make both ends of the curves coincident.
5.12 Vertical crest curve design
In case of crest curve the principal highway pavement obstructs the visibility between driver and
object. In order to provide enough sight distances the curve length is the critical parameter.
For vertical crest curve the relevant parameters are,
The sight distances (both stopping and passing distances)
The length of the curve
Curvature
General appearance
In order to estimate the minimum curve length Limn of the crest curve two conditions must
consider.
1. (SD < or =Lc) – Sight distance is within the crest curve length.
2. (SD >Lc) - Sight distance is out of the crest curve length.
Sample calculation for vertical crest curve - 2
Given data
Station PVI = 1+186.291
Elevation PVI = 1636.316m
Design speed = 85km/hr.
Grade -1 = 3.496%
Grade -2 = -0.051%
K value for crest = 55 from the table
Side friction (f) = 0.3 from ERA manual
Min. passing distances from ERA recommended value = 340m
Min. stopping sight distances from ERA recommended value =155m
Max. Gradient desirable = 4 %( we have used this one for our deign project)

Max. Gradient absolute 6%PVI
G2=-0.051%
G1=3.496%
BVC(Beginning vertical curve) EVC
EVC (Ending of vertical curve)
Figure 10; Crest curve
Determination of curve length
The most important consideration in determination the curve length of the crest curve is the sight
distance
1. Curve length required for minimum curvature value.( k)
L = A*K
Where, A= / g2-g1/
= /-0.051-3.496/
= 3.445% and K = 18
L =3.445*18=62.01m
2. Length required for safe stopping distance
First determine the required value of stopping sight distances
SSD = 0.278Vt + V2/254 (f+g) or 0.278Vt+ V2/254 (f-g)
Where, g = -g1, + g1,-g2 and + g2 g1=3.496%, g2=--0.051%
V = 85km/hr.

t = 2.5 sec. (time of reaction)
From those we would be taking the max, result for SSD value. So
- SSD = 0.278*85*2.5 + 852/254 (0.3+0.03496) = 68.6m
- SSD = 0.278*85*2.5 + 852/254 (0.3-0.03496) =66.61m
- SSD = 0.278*85*2.5 + 852/254 (0.3+0.00051) =67.64m
- SSD = 0.278*85*2.5 + 852/254 (0.3-0.00051) =67.59m
From the above result the maximum is 68.65m but this is also less than the recommended value
from ERA. (68.6<155m) take minimum stopping sight distances 155m.
Assume SD >L for safety consideration
L = 2SD -2[H11/2+H21/2]2/A
Where, H1 driver eye height
H2 height of the object
= 2*155 -2[1.071/2+0.21/2]2/3.445
= 308.74m
3. Length required for safe passing sight distances
L =2*340 -2[1.071/2+0.21/2]2/3.445
= 678.09m
3. Length required for appearance (aesthetics)
Lmin = 30A
= 30*3.445
= 103.35m
4. Length required for passing comfort
L = VD2A/3.89

= (852*0.03496)/3.89
= 64.93 m
From the above calculated values the maximum is 679.59m which is greater than from the
max recommended value of 400m from ERA, so take LC =400 m.
Namely,
SSD < L …….. OK
K = L/A, 400/3.445=116
K >Kmin …………………. Take k = 116
So, L= 116 *3.445 =400m
Station
BVC= PVI – LC/2
= 1+186.291– 400/2
= 0+986.29
EVC = BVC + LC
= 0+986.29+400
= 1+386.29m
Elevation
Elevation of BVC = elevation of pvi – g1* lc/2

= 1636.316- 0.03496*400/2
= 1629.32m
Elevation of EVC = elevation of pvi – g2 * lc/2
= 1638.452+ 0.00051*400/2
= 1638...55m
Elevation and station of the curve points
The parabola provides a constant rate of change of curvature, and hence acceleration and
visibility, along its length and has the form:
Y= AX2 +BX +C

Where
C = Elevation of BVC and
A = rate of change of grade per section (%)

= (g2-g1)/200L
g1 = starting grade (%) =
g2 = ending grade (%)
L= length of curve (horizontal distance m) = 400m
y= elevation of a point on the curve
x= distance in stations from the BVC
Y = (-0.00051-0.03496)/ (200*400) X2 +0.0477X +1631.338m

= (-0.035/80000) x2 + 0.03496x + 1631.338m
At x = 0, y = 1631.338m
5.13 SAG CURVE
The length of the curve is determined by taking the following criteria’s in to account:
 Head light sight distance
 Passengers comfort
 Drainage control
 General appearance
When the computed curve length for the above requirements is less than the minimum curve
length recommended by ERA, this recommended value is taken. I.e. Lc is the maximum of the
two (computed or recommended).
Sample calculation for vertical sage curve - 1
Given data
Station PVI = 0+659.578
Elevation PVI =1617.92
Design speed = 85km/hr.
Grade -1 = 0.617 %
Grade -2 = 3.496%

K value for sage = 18 from era table

Side friction (f) = 0.3 from ERA
Min. passing distances from ERA recommended value = 330m
Min. stopping sight distances from ERA recommended value =155m
Max. Gradient desirable = 4 %( we have used this one for our deign project)
Max. Gradient absolute = 6%
EVC
L G2=3.496
BVC G1 =0.617 PVI
Figure 11; Sag Curve
Determination of curve length

1. Curve length required for minimum curvature value. (k)
L = A*K
Where, A = / g2-g1/
= /3.496-0.617/
= 2.879
L = 2.879*18 =51.822m
2. Length required for stopping sight distances
SSD = 0.278Vt + V2/254 (f+g) or 0.278Vt+ V2/254 (f-g)
Where, g = -g1, + g1,-g2 and + g2
V = 85km/hr.
t = 2.5 sec (time of reaction)
From those we would be taking the max, result for SSD value. So
- SSD = 0.278*85*2.5 + 852/254 (0.3-0.00617) = 67.4m
- SSD = 0.278*85*2.5 + 852/254 (0.3+0.00617) =67.78m
- SSD = 0.278*85*2.5 + 852/254 (0.3+0.03496) =68.60m
- SSD = 0.278*85*2.5 + 852/254 (0.3-0.03496) = 66.61m

From the above result the maximum value is 68.6m but this is less than the recommended value
from ERA. (68.6m< 155m) so take minimum stopping sight distances 155m
Assume SSD >L for safety consideration
L=2SSD-(1.5+0.035SSD)/A
L =2*155-(1.5+0.035*155)/2.879
L = 307.59m
Length required for appearance (aesthetics)
Lmin = 30A
= 30*2.879
= 86.37m
Length required for passing comfort
L = VD2A/3.89
= (852*0.02879)/3.89
=53.47m
Length required for drainage requirement
L = 51*a
= 51*2.879
= 146.83m
So, from the above result we could conclude that the minimum curve length is 307.37 for safety.
SSD < L ………155m<307.37m and
K = L/A
=307.37/2.879
= 106.76 > Kmin .ok take k =106.76
L = KA
= 106.76*2.879
=307.37m
So, take L = 300m
Station
Station BVC = PVI –L/2
= 0+615.244 – 300/2

= 0+465.244m
Station EVC = BVC+L
= 0+465.244 +300
=0+765.244m
Elevation
Elevation of BVC = elevation of PVI +g1*L/2
= 1617.94+0.00617*300/2
= 1619.82m
Elevation and station of the curve points
The parabola provides a constant rate of change of curvature, and hence acceleration and
visibility, along its length and has the form:
Y= AX2 +BX +C
Where
C = Elevation of BVC and
A = rate of change of grade per section (%) =(g2-g1)/200L
g1 = starting grade (%) = B
g2 = ending grade (%)
L= length of curve (horizontal distance m) = 300m
y= elevation of a point on the curve
x= distance in stations from the BVC
y = (g2- g1)/(200*L)x2 + g1x + elevation of BVC
= (0.02879/66000) x2+ 0.00617x +1617.63m
At x=0, y=1617.63m
5.14 Cross Section Design

A cross-section is normally consisting of the carriageway, shoulders or curbs, drainage features,
and earthwork profiles.
Carriageway- the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic, including traffic lanes,
auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing lanes, and passing lanes,
and bus bays and lay-byes.

Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the shoulders, parking lanes and viewing areas.
Earthwork profiles- include side slopes and back slopes. For urban cross-sections, may also
include facilities for pedestrians, cyclists, or other specialist user groups. These include curbs,
footpaths, and islands. It may also provide for parking lanes. For dual carriageways, the cross-
section will also include medians.
Cross-sectional element of the road includes
 Lane Width
 Shoulder
 Normal Cross fall
 Median
 Curbs
 Side Slopes and Back slopes
 Road Side Ditches
 Clear Zone
 Right-of-Way
5.14.1 Shoulder
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway adjacent to the carriageway for the accommodation of,
Stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorized traffic, animals, and pedestrians;
Emergency use; the recovery of errant vehicles; and lateral support of the pavement courses on
the carriageway. Where the carriageway is paved, the shoulder should also be sealed or water
tight with a single bituminous surface treatment. This has several advantages.
 It would prevent edge raveling and maintenance problems associated with parking on a
gravel shoulder.
 It would provide paved space for vehicular parking outside of the traffic flow. It would
provide a better surface for vehicles experiencing emergency repairs.
 It would also provide for the very heavy pedestrian traffic observed in the villages, traffic
that would otherwise, especially during inclement weather, use the roadway. All of the
above also indicate an improvement in terms of roadway safety.

In urban areas, the shoulders should be paved rather than sealed. The actual shoulder width
provided shall be determined from an assessment of the total traffic flow and level of non-
motorized traffic for each road section an it is specified on ERA manual standards. For this
particular project we choose a shoulder width of 1.5 m for DC5. In cases where terrain is severe,
the existing roadway width is narrow, and where the shoulder width could only be maintained
through an excessive volume of earthwork. E.g. at escarpment conditions, standards can be
reduced through the Departure. There are several types of shoulders that may be used on local
road agency.
Paved: Paved shoulders are constructed with Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) or concrete. They provide
an all-weather surface with the ability to support occasional vehicle loads in all kinds of weather
without rutting. Paved shoulders are usually used on arterials but maybe provided on collectors,
especially those with high-traffic volumes. In some instances, a shoulder curb may be included to
control drainage.
Aggregate: Aggregate shoulders are considered stabilized shoulders. They usually have a
minimum thickness of 6 in (150 mm). These shoulders help to eliminate the rutting and drop-off
adjacent to the edge of the traveled way and provide an adequate cross slope for drainage of the
roadway. Aggregate shoulders are provided on most collectors and on higher volume local roads.
Turf: Turf shoulders are appropriate for most local roads and some low-volume collectors.
These shoulders are un-stabilized and generally undergo consolidation with time. Turf shoulders
are subject to a buildup that may inhibit proper drainage of the traveled way. They require
regular maintenance to correct drop-off at the edge of traveled way and to provide an adequate
cross slope for drainage.
Aggregate Wedge: The aggregate wedge is placed at the edge of a resurfaced traveled way to
account for the drop-off caused by the resurfacing thickness. This minimizes disturbance to the
existing turf or aggregate shoulder. Shoulder widths will vary according to functional
classification, traffic volume, and the project scope.
5.14.2 Carriageway
The part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic. Includes
Traffic lanes
-Auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and declaration lanes

-Climbing lanes
-Passing lanes
5.14.3 Lane width
A feature of a highway having great influence on safety and comfort is the width of the
carriageway.we use a lane width of 3.35 metre used which is recommended for DS4 road & is
shown in table of ERA manual for all roads design standards.
5.14.4. Normal cross fall
Normal cross fall (camber, crown) should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage
whilst not being so great as to make steering difficult. The ability of a surface to shed water
varies with its smoothness and integrity. The normal cross fall should be 2.5 percent on paved
roads and 4 percent on unpaved roads from era manual.
5.14.5. Side slope and back slope
Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the roadway and to provide a reasonable
opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle. Three regions of the roadside are
important when evaluating the safety aspects: the top of the slope (hinge point), the side slope,
and the toe of the Slope (intersection of the fore slope with level ground or with a back slope,
forming a ditch). The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety
consideration, height of cut or fill and economic consideration.
The table below indicates the side slope ratios recommended for use in the design according to
the height of fill and cut, and the material.
Table 4; Back slope and Side slope
Material Height of Slope Side Slope Back Slope Zone Description
Cut Fill
Earth or Soil 0.0 - 1.0m 1:4 1:4 1:3 Recoverable
1.0 - 2.0m 1:3 1:3 1:2 Non-recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 Critical
Rock Any height See Standard Details Critical
Black Cotton Soil* 0.0 - 2.0m - 1:6 - Recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:4

5.14.6. Right of way

Right-of-way is provided in order to accommodate road width and to enhance the safety,
operation and appearance of the roads. The width of right-of-way depends on the cross section
elements of the highway, topography and other physical controls together with economic
considerations. Although it is desirable to acquire sufficient right-of-way to accommodate all
elements of the cross section and appropriate border areas, right-of-way widths should be limited
to a practical minimum in both rural and developed areas affecting the economy of the
inhabitants. Right of ways will be equidistant from the centerline of the road to the left and to the
right of the carriageway. In our case,for DS4 we have used that 50m total width of the right way.
5.14.7. Median
A median is the portion of a highway separating opposing direction of traveled way. Medians are
highly desirable on arterials carrying four or more lanes. Medians width is expressed as the
dimension between the edges of traveled way and includes the left shoulder, if any. The principal
function of a median are
 to separate opposing traffic,
 provide a recovery area for out of control vehicle
 providing the stopping area in case of emergencies
 allow space for speed changes and storages of left turning and U-turning
vehicles
 minimize headlight glare
 And provide width for future lanes.
Additional benefits of a median in urban area are that

 it may offer an open green space
 may provide a refugee area for pedestrian crossing the street
 May control the location of intersection traffic conflict.
For maximum efficiency, a median should be highly visible both night and day and should
contrast with traveled way. Medians may be depressed, raised and flush with the traveled way
surface.
The general range of median width is from 1.2 to 24 m. Economic factors often limiting the
median width that can be provided. So in our case we have used 1.2m.

5.14.8. Curbs
The type and location of curb affect driver’s behavior and, in turn, safety and utility of a
highway. A curb, by definition incorporates some raised or vertical elements Curbs serve any or
all of the following purposes:
 Drainage control
 Roadway edge delineation
 Right –of- way reduction
 Aesthetics
 Delineation of pedestrian walkways
 Reduction of maintenance operation
 Assist in orderly roadside development
 Vertical curbs may be either vertical or nearly vertical and are intended to discourage
vehicles -from leaving the road way .they range from 150 to 200 mm.
5.14.9 Widening
Widening on Curves
The use of long curves of short radius should be avoided where possible, as drivers following the
design speed will find it difficult to remain in the traffic lane. If not possible to avoid short radius
curves widening is used. Widening on curves shall be provided to make operating conditions
comparable to those on tangents. This is necessary as the wheel tracking width is increased.
Curve widening is required on all standards of roads and should be sufficient to cater for the
design vehicle. Tablebelow gives the values to be adopted in the design. Curve Widening shall
generally be applied to both sides of the roadway. It should start at the beginning of the transition
curve and be fully widened at the start of the circular curve.
Table 5; Widening of curves

Radius of Curve Widening: Curve

Curve (m) Single Lane (m) Widening: Two
Lanes (m)
>250 0.0 0.0
120- 250 0.0 0.6
60-120 0.0 0.9
40-60 0.6 1.2
20-40 0.6 1.5
Extra widening of pavements on curves and embankments is provided for the following reasons.
- Rear wheels follow front wheels in shorter radius.
- Trailers fitted on trucks, don’t follow path of trucks wheels.
- In build-up areas in order to have adequate sight distances.
- Psychologically drivers tend to keep greater clearances with vehicles coming from the
opposite direction and might thus move out of a lane when traversing a curve.
But in our project since the radius is grater than 250m so no need of widening is reqired
depending on the ERA manual.
Figure 12; typical fill section

Figure 13; typical cut section

5.15 EARTH WORK AND QUANTITY
Earthwork operations are one of the most important construction aspects in road construction. It
is conversion of natural condition to required section and grade. The most common item of work
encountered in high way project is earth work. The quantity and cost of earthwork are calculated
in terms of cubic meters of excavation in its original position on the basis of cross section notes
from field measurement. According to ERA specification the rate of earth work in it such as
 Excavation in borrow area
 Transporting to the site of embankment including all lifting and loads not greater than 50
meter.
The quantity of work in embankment and cuts are computed by the cross sectional end area
method. The area of earth work in each cross section is computed by the help Microsoft Excel
program.
5.16 EARTHWORK ESTIMATION
Earthwork computations involve the calculation of earthwork volumes, the determination of final
grades, the balancing of cuts and fills, and the planning of the most economical haul of material.
The exactness with which earthwork computations are made depends upon the extent and
accuracy of field measurements, which in turn are controlled by the time available and the type
of construction involved.

5.17 MASS HAUL DIAGRAM

Mass haul diagram is a graphical representation of the amount of earth work and
Embankment involved in a project and the manner in which the earth is to be moved
The mass haul diagram is used to determine:
 Proper distribution of excavated material.
 Amount and location of waste.
 Amount and location of borrow.
 Amount of overhaul in kilometer-cubic meters
MASS HAUL DIAGRAM

160000
140000
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
170
260
390
430
500
590
670
760
800
840
920
345.657
80
1003
1090
1180
1260
1313.323
1358.027
1420
1510
1600
1690
cha
c D B/N C$F
Chart1; mass haul diagram

CHAPTER SIX
6.1 PAVEMENT STRUCTURE DESIGN

Pavement design is dynamic concept which is changing with time as technology develops and
new equipment emerges for site investigation, material testing and traffic data collection, and
new data become available. Through the observation of performances of the already constructed
roads, highway engineers became aware that pavement performance is dependent on the sub-
grade soils. Pavements constructed over plastic soils showed higher distress than those
constructed over granular deposits. With the knowledge of soil mechanics, pavement design is
do with soil classification. A pavement structure is a layer structure which supports the vehicle
load on its surface and transfers and spreads the load to the sub-grade without exceeding either
the strength of the sub-grade or the internal strength of the pavement itself. The basic idea in
building a pavement for all-weather use by vehicles is to prepare a;-
Suitable sub-grade,
Provide necessary drainage
Construct a pavement and this would help to;-
-Have sufficient total thickness and internal strength to carry expected traffic loads, and
distribute them over the sub-grade soil without overstressing;
-Have adequate properties to prevent or minimize the penetration or internal accumulation of
moisture; and
-Have a surface that is reasonably smooth and skid resistant at the same time, as well as
reasonably resistant to wear, distortion and deterioration by vehicle loads and weather.
6.2 Types of Pavement Structures
Different types of pavement are commonly used in the construction of roadways. There are three
different types of pavement. These are:
 Flexible Pavement
 Rigid Pavement
 Composite Pavement
A. Flexible Pavement

A flexible pavement structure (Hot Mix Asphalt) and also known as Bituminous Concrete
consists of a surface course made of a mixture of mineral aggregates and bituminous materials
placed on a base course and, if necessary, a sub-base course. The base course immediately below
the surface course consists of aggregates (crushed stone, gravel or crushed gravel) with or
without admixtures. The sub-base course, when used, normally consists of compacted layer of
untreated gravel or material such as crushed stone, crushed gravel or gravel.
Surface Course: The surface course is the top course of an asphalt pavement, sometimes called
the wearing course. It is usually constructed by dense graded hot-mix asphalt. It is a structural
part of the pavement, which must be tough to resist distortion under traffic and provide a smooth
and skid-resistant riding surface. The surface course must be waterproof to protect the entire
pavement and sub-grade from the weakening effect of water.
Base Course: The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface course. It
may be composed of well-graded crushed stone (unbounded), granular material mixed with
binder, or stabilized materials. It is the main structural part of the pavement and provides a level
surface for laying the surface layer. If constructed directly over the sub-grade, it prevents
intrusions of the fine sub-grade soils into the pavement structure.
Sub-base Course: The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course
constructed using local and cheaper materials for economic reason on top of the sub-grade. It
provides additional help to the base and the upper layers in distributing the load. It facilitates
drainage of free water that might get accumulated below the pavement. If the base course is open
graded, the sub-base course with more fines can serve as a filter between the sub-grade and the
base course.
Sub-grade: Sub-grade is the foundation on which the vehicle load and the weight of the
pavement layers finally rest. It is an in situ or a layer of selected material compacted to the
desirable density near the optimum moisture content. It is graded into a proper shape, properly
drained, and compacted to receive the pavement layers.
B. Rigid Pavement
A rigid pavement structure consists of a Portland cement concrete slab placed on a sub-base
course of granular material, normally crushed stone or gravel. The sub-base course may consist
of material stabilized by a suitable admixture such as lime or cement. When the roadbed soils are
of sub-base quality, the sub-base may be omitted.

C. Composite Pavement
A composite pavement consists of one or more HMA pavement courses over a PCC base. The
advantage of constructing an asphalt overlay on a rigid pavement is solely in the areas of ride-
ability and noise. Rigid pavements are considered by most to create more road noise inside a
vehicle than flexible pavements. This phenomenon is largely due to the surface texture specified
for rigid pavements to ensure proper skid resistance. By specifying an asphalt overlay with the
rigid base, surface texture requirements can be relaxed and noise can be reduced.
6.3 Purpose of pavement Design
The road pavement is the actual surface on which the vehicles directly acting on it. Its purpose
is:-
• Load bearing capacity: distribute load from tires to sub grade
• Drainage and Seal road bed from moisture: prevent water from entering to underneath
and prevent dust/loss of soil respectively
• Smooth surface for comfortable ride
• Skid resistance–safe ride “friction with tire”
6.4 Design of Pavement Using TRRL Method

In TRRL method of pavement design, the layer thickness of the pavement relies on the subgrade
CBR value and the cumulative standard axel load from the traffic forecast.According to the
TRRL method of design, the structural catalogue requires that the subgrade strength for the
design be assigned to one of the six strength classes reflecting the sensitivity of the thickness
design to subgrade strength. The classes are defined in table below. For subgrade with CBR less
than2, especial treatment is requiredThere are three main steps to be followed in designing a new
road pavement. These are:
• Estimating the amount of traffic and the cumulative number of equivalent standard axles
that will use the road over the selected design life;
• Assessing the strength of the sub-grade soil over which the road is to be built;
• Selecting the most economical combination of pavement materials and layer thicknesses
that will provide satisfactory service over the design life of the pavement (It is usually
necessary to assume that an appropriate level of maintenance is also carried out).

It is given that in our project traffic count has been carried out for 7 days including 3 nights at
different stations. Alternately an economic analysis based on surplus produce has been
undertaken to determine the traffic that would be generated as a result of the influence of the
road on agriculture and personal movement. The AADT is given in the table below and the
growth rate is assumed to be 5%. Moreover, the directional split is 50% and the opening of the
road to traffic is expected to be in the year 2006 G.C.
Table 6; Traffic data
Year Cars Bus Medium Heavy Articulated Total
truck truck truck AADTO
2000 113 121 87 47 18 368
2001 89 101 67 37 13 307
2002 86 100 77 23 6 292
2003 78 94 55 25 9 261
2004 144 104 97 76 11 432
Truck 0 0.285 0.378 1.29 4.962
factor
From the above given data, the required AADTS or AADT1 for each in 2006 G.C for both
direction we can calculated as follows.
AADT1 = AADT0 (1+r) x where
X= time between traffic count year and estimated year of road opening.
R= growth rate (5%= 0.05) which is given
AADT1 = is Annual Average Daily Traffic (both directions) at year of Road Opening (year at
which construction works are completed and the whole road is made open for traffic).When we
see graphically it looks like,
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Starting of time of road opening

Traffic account x= 1years
AADT1 at 2000(for all vehicles with sum of AADT0 =368)
AADT1 = 368(1+0.05)
= 384
AADT1 = 307(1+0.05)
= 323

AADT1 = 292(1+0.05)
= 307
AADT1 = 261(1+0.05)
= 274
AADT1 = 432(1+0.05)
= 454
From the calculated value of Annual Average Daily Traffic at year of the Road Opening (year at
which construction works are completed and the whole road is made open for traffic) each year
the maximum AADT is exist in the year of 2004.which is,
AADT = 454 veh/day and this lies between (300-1000) veh/ day.
From this we could conclude that the AADT is satisfy for,
Design standard of DC5.
Road functional classification of link road.
From ERA manual 2013 as shown below,

Table 7; Design standard classification

Road Functional Design Design Traffic Surface Type Width (m)
Classification Standard Flow (AADT)*
Carriageway
DC8 10000–**15000 Paved Dual 2 x 7.3
DC7 3000–10000 Paved 7.3

T
R
U DC6 1000–3000 Paved 7.0
N
L K
M I DC5 300–1000 Paved 6.7
A N
I K
N DC4 150– 300 Unpaved 7.0
C
O A
L C
DC4 50–100 Unpaved 6.0
E C
C E
T S
S DC3 75–150 Unpaved 4.0
O
F R
E S
E DC2 25–75 Unpaved 4.0
D
E
R DC1 1–25 Unpaved 4.0
Basic <10 Unpaved 3.3

Access
The data and parameters which we obtained in the preceding sections can it can be used to
estimate the cumulative design traffic volume and loading. Or from the traffic forecasting the
maximum value of Annual Average Daily Traffic(AADT) is happen in 2004 G.C. then the
require cumulative traffic volume of each vehicle in the year of 2004 is taken for our analysis
T0tal Cumulative traffic volume =365* D*L*AADT1 [(1+r)N-1]/r

Where,
N = design period (20 year)

r = growth rate factor (5%)

D = directional distribution splitting factor (50% = 0.5) which is given
L = Lane distribution Factor which is accounts for the proportion of commercial vehicles
in the design lane. (L= 90%, for two lane 80% -100%).
But first AADT1 each vehicles in 2004 G.C
Table 8;
Calculation
of AADT1
Year Car Bus Medium Heavy Articulated Total
truck truck truck AADT1 for
all vehicle
2004 144 104 97 76 11
AADT1 152 110 102 80 12 456
Sample for car:

AADT1 = AADT0 (1+r) x where, (x =1) as we find out above
=144(1+0.05)=152 veh/day
Design Traffic (Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axle Load - CESAL) – is computed by
multiplying the total traffic volume for each vehicle category (Ti) by its corresponding truck
factor (TFi).
Design Traffic Load = CESAL=Σ (Ti x TFi)
But first calculate value of (Ti) and in our project each truck factor (TFi) is given
Sample total Cumulative traffic volume and ESAL for car:
Ti = 365*0.5*0.9*152[(1+0.05)20-1]/0.05
=825,546.610 veh
ESAL =825,546.610 *0.0 =0.0

Type of vehicle C. traffic volume Truck factor ESAL*106

Car 825,547 0.0 0.0
Bus 597,419 0.285 0.170
Medium truck 553,975 0.378 0.210
Heavy truck 434,487 1.29 0.561
Articulated truck 65,729 4.962 0.323
Ʃ(ESAL)=1.26*106
From the above analysis The C.ESAL is used to determine the traffic class to be employed for
pavement design.
Table 9: ERA Traffic Classes for Flexible Pavement Design
The calculated value of ESAL (1.26*106)is lies between the given data of (0.7- 1.5)*106 so the
traffic class is T3.The structural catalog given in ERA manual requires that the subgrade strength
Be assigned to one of six strength classes reflecting the sensitivity of thickness design to
subgrade strength. For subgrade with CBRs less than 2, special treatment is required, but for this
projects a CBR value = 7 is used. Finally using traffic class of T3 and subgrade class of S4 and
based on the Summary of Material Requirements for the design charts on ERA manual 2013
selected charts are chartA1, A2, A3, and B1.
CBR: Is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of standard plunger under
Controlled density and moisture condition.

Table 10; Soil classes
It is used with an empirical design chart to determine the thickness of the pavement layers
alternative chart is chart A1. Using TRRL recommendation the pavement thickness will be
designed for subgrade strength of S4 $ traffic class of……..T3. Therefore according to this
design manual (TRRL) granular sub base= 225mm, granular road base course=200,
Figure 15; Sample cross section of pavement layers

CHAPTER SEVEN
7.1 HIGH WAY DRAINAGE DESIGN
High way drainage is the process of removing and controlling excess surface and sub-surface
water within the right of way. The included interception and diversion of water from the road
surface and sub-grade.During rains, part of the rain water flows on surface and part of it
percolates through the soil mass as gravitational water until it reaches the groundwater below the
water table. Removal and diversion of surface water from the roadway and adjoining land is
termed as surface drainage. Diversion or removal of excess soil-water from the sub grade is
termed as sub-surface drainage. Importance of highway drainage an increasing moisture content
cause decrease in strength or stability of soil mass; the variation in soil strength with moisture
content also depends on the soil type and the mode of stress application.
The prime cause of failures in rigid pavements by mud pumping is
 Due to the presence of water in fine sub grade soil.
 Excess water in shoulders and pavement edge causes considerable damage.
 Erosion of soil from top of UN surfaced roads and slopes of embankment, cut and hill
side is also due to surface water.
7.2 Requirements of highway drainage system.
• The surface water from the carriage way and shoulder should effectively be drained off
without allowing it to percolate to sub grade.
• The surface water from the adjoining land should be prevented from entering the
roadway.
• The side drain should have sufficient capacity and longitudinal slope to carry away all the
surface water collected.
• Flow of surface water across the road and shoulders and along slopes should not cause
formation of cross ruts or erosion.
• Seepage and other sources of underground water should be drained off by the sub surface
drainage system.

• Highest level of GWT should be kept well below the level of subgrade, preferably by at
least 1.2m.
• In water logged areas special precautions should be taken, especially if detrimental salts
are present or if flooding is likely to occur.
7.3 Design of surface drainage system
To design the surface drainage system, which runs longitudinally at both sides of the road, it is
first necessary to do hydrological analysis and then the hydraulics analysis.
1. Hydrological analyses
In the hydrologic analysis for a drainage facility, some of the factors which need to be
recognized and considered on an individual site by site basis include:
 Rainfall amount and storm distribution,
 Drainage area size, shape and orientation, ground cover, type of soil,
 Slopes of terrain and stream(s),
 Watershed development potential, and
 Type of precipitation (rain, snow, hail, or combinations thereof),
The rational formula is an empirical formula relating runoff to rainfall intensity. It is expressed in
the following form:
Q= CIA
WHERE
Q= peak flow in cubic meters per second m3/s
A= drainage area
C= weighted runoff coefficient
I= rainfall intensity in millimeter’s (mm) per second
To summarize, the rational method provides the most reliable results when applied to small,
Developed watersheds and particularly to roadway drainage design. The validity of each
Assumption should be verified for the site before proceeding

Figure 15; Sample of drainage

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Conclusion
First of all, to design a safe and economical highway through the desired design Period, social
and environmental factors and traffic volume should be studied. When we say safe design the
road geometric alignment should give comfort for the road users and minimize the accidental
risk which occur on the road. The other important consideration in our design is economy. After
we give a safe geometric alignment for the road we bother about the durable materials for the
desired design Period and selecting the most economical material which is easily available near
The road to minimize transportation cost. When we select the road material we also consider the
amount of material available on the sources. After these work we also calculate rough cost
estimation to the row material. Next, a safe and economical geometric alignment design is
provided based on the limits set by ERA2013 manual and engineering judgments which are
related to the condition of the project. Survey data and hydrological data are the basic to do the
design. Ethiopian road authority (ERA) set guidance for the geometric design, pavement design,
material selection based on the topography, climate and the economy of the road. Based on the
above ERA specification we have done selection of the most economical pavement thickness
using traffic analysis. So, we provide less material for pavement thickness. Thirdly, providing
appropriate gradients, which is the basic factor which controls economy and aesthetic as well as
drainage of the highway. We provide the in our specific project, the design starts from survey
data and goes to geometric design, Pavement design and drainage system stage by stage.

Recommendation
Some road alignment passes through the residential houses. So, it may be difficult to take soil
sample near their fence. It would have been easier if the department’s recognition paper. So we
recommend for the future it is necessary to have recognition paper from the authorized person.
Since it was difficult to have axel survey data due to lack of equipment’s and expensiveness of
the job which are used for gathering survey data.

Appendix
ERA=ETHIOPIAN ROAD AUTORITY
AASHTO=AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGH WAY AND TRANSPORTETION
OFFICIALS
BVC=BEGINNING OF VERTICAL CURVE
PVI=POINT OF VERTICAL INTERCECTION
EVC=ENDING OF VERTICAL CURVE
Figure 16; the whole design of our Road

References:
1. ERA 2013 Manual (Geometric and Pavement Design)
2. AASHTO Manual
3. High Way Engineering Martin Rogers
4. Road Engineering for Development (second edition)(Richard Robinson and Bent Thagssen)
5. Second Edition Pavement Analysis and Design (YANG H.HUANG)
6.Third Edition High way Engineering Hand book

Aksum University Highway Design Project

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AKSUM UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

AND TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

FINAL PROJECT ON HIGH WAY DESIGN

 PREPARED BY:AMANUEL KAHSAY

ADVISOR; INS.SENAIT. G (BS.C)

JUNE 2008 E.C

2. HAYLESLASSIE DESTA …………….1693/04

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C ii

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C iii

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C iv

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C v

3.1.2 Socio-economic Studies ......................................................................................................... 8

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C vi

5.14.7. Median .............................................................................................................................. 41

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C vii

List of Tables and List of Figures

Figure 1Flat terrain

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C viii

AADT ………………Average annual daily trafficADT……………….. Average Daily

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 1

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 1

1.2 Main objective of the project

• To make students familiar with the design of road projects.

1.4 Scope of the Project

1.5 Significance of the project

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 2

1.6 Geometric Design

Why we use MX-ROAD software than other softwares?

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 3

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 4

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 5

Table 1; Annual temperature and rain fall

2.6 Geological Setting

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 6

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 7

Among those factors that control the alignment:

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 8

Points through which it should pass: Some of the examples are:

Points through which it should not pass. These are:

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 9

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 10

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 11

4.3 Design Period

Table 2 Road classification

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 12

Road classification Design period in year

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 13

4.5 Roads classification criteria

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 14

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 15

5.1 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 16

Figure1; Flat Terrain Type

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 17

Figure2; Rolling Terrain Type

Figure3; Mountainous TerrainType

Figure4; Escarpment Terrain Type

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 18

Table 3; Terrain type transverse slope

Terrain type Transverse terrain slope (%)

5.3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

5.3.1 Elements of a horizontal curve:

AKU Department Of Civil Engineering And Architecture June 2008E.C 19

Sight distances, M= SD2/8R from this SD=M8R

- SSD = 0.278852.5 + 852/254 (0.3+0.03496) = 68.6m

- SSD = 0.278852.5 + 852/254 (0.3-0.03496) =66.61m

- SSD = 0.278852.5 + 852/254 (0.3+0.00051) =67.64m

- SSD = 0.278852.5 + 852/254 (0.3-0.00051) =67.59m