Guess paper of Botany (11th) as per CBSE pattern

SECTION—A (Long Answer Type) Marks 5

1. What is binomial nomenclature?

Ans. It is a system of providing distinct and proper scientific names to organisms,
each consisting of two words, first generic and second specific. Binomial
nomenclature was developed by Carolus Linnaeus. Rules of binomial
nomenclature are as:
i. Every organism has a distinct scientific name having two words i.e., generic
and specific.
ii. The generic name starts with a capital letter and specific name usually starts
with a small letter.
iii. If binomial name is hand written, both the generic and specific words should
be underlined separately and if printed they are to be italicized.
iv. The binomial name should be derived from Greek or Latin languages, as they
are dead languages.
v. The name of the author who has given the scientific name should be given the
scientific name should given in full form or abbreviated form after the
binomial name.
vi. The generic and specific words should not have less than three letters or more
than twelve letters.
vii. Names given to the plants before 1-5-1753 and names given to animals before
1-8-1758 are invalid.

2. Give the brief account of general structure of viruses?

Ans. viruses are made up of nucleo-proteins. A protein coat outside called capsid
which consists of subunits called capsomers. Capsid is protective is in function and
has antigenic property.
Inside the capsid is present genetic material which is either DNA or RNA but never
both. It is the infective part of virus.
Some viruses (HIV or Human Immunodeficiency Virus) have an additional
lipoprotein layer around the capsid called envelope. The subunit of envelope is
called peplomer. A Virus without envelope is called naked virus (TMV or Tobacco
Mosaic Virus).
Some viruses also contain enzymes like lysozyme in bacteriophage, Reverse
transcriptase in retroviruses like HIV.
3. Difference between Gram(+) and Gram(-) bacteria?
Ans.
Gram(+) bacteria
Cell wall is thick and single layered
Lipid content of cell wall is low
Peptidoglycan content is high
Techoic acid is present
Capsule mostly absent
Susceptible to antibiotics
e.g., clostridium,lactobacillus etc.
Gram (-) bacteria
Cell wall is thin and double layered
Lipid content cell wall is high
Peptidoglycan content is low
Techoic acid is absent
Capsule mostly present
Resistant to antibiotics
e.g., E.coli, rhizobium etc.

4. Explain sexual reproduction in bacteria?

Ans. Bacteria do not have true sexual reproduction but they show genetic
recombination by three ways:-
(i)Conjugation:- It was discovered by Lederberg & Tatum. The donor or male call
is identified by the presence of plasmid called F- factor in cells. Donor cell bears
cylindrical hollow sex Pilli for attachment to recipient bacterium. Donor & recipient
come in physical contact with the help of sex pilli. Plasmid or plant of donor DNA
is transferred into recipient cell.
(ii)Transformation: - It was discovered by Griffith. It includes death of bacterial
donor cell resulting in release of its DNA into external medium DNA gets
fragmented & gets incorporated into metabolically active cells. Recipient cell after
incorporation of donor DNA is known as recombination that expresses all its
character together with character of donor cell.
(iii)Transduction: - It was discovered by Zinder & Lederberg. Donor genes are
transferred into recipient all by a virus. A phage causes lysis of bacterium &
incorporates bacterial genes into phages then is liberated & they infect new bacterial
genes.

5. Discuss different systems of classification briefly.

Ans. Different systems of classification are:-
(i)Artificial classification:- It takes into account easily observable few
characteristics only & not anatomical relationships.
(ii)Natural classification- It relies on natural affinities among organisms. It employs
external & internal both features.
(iii)Phylogenetic classification:- It is based upon evolutionary relationships among
the organisms i-e., Organism belonging to same group have common ancestory.
(iv)Phenotypic classification:- Additional criteria & methodologies are employed
to classify organisms to avoid problem establishing evolutionary relationship.
6. What are the different groups of fungi?
Ans. Three different groups of fungi are
(i)Phycomycetes :- They have multinucleated, aseptate mycelium. Asexual
reproduction occurs by aplanospores & sexual reproduction occurs by isogamy or
oogamy. These are found in water or damp places e.g. mucor Albugo etc.
(ii)Ascomycetes:- They are unicellular or multicellular mycelium which is septate.
Asexual spores formed in chains are called conidia. Sexual reproduction occurs by
ascospores beared in cup shaped structure called asci e.g. yeast penicillium,
Aspergillus.
(iii)Basidiomycetes: - They are called club fungi due to club- shaped end of
mycelium called basidium. They have septate mycelium and bears asexual spores
basidiospores. E.g., mushroom smut rust.

7. Describe the process of development of root nodules in leguminous plant. Name

the oxygen scavenger molecule present in root nodules?
Ans. Formation of root nodules in a leguminous plant:
1) When a root hair of a leguminous plant comes in contact with Rhizobium, the
root hair becomes curled or deformed, due to chemicals secreted by bacterium.
2) At the site of curling or deformation, the bacteria invade the root and multiply
within the root hair.
3) Some of the bacteria enlarge to become membrane – bound structures known as
bacteroids, which help in spreading infection.
4) An infection thread made of plasma membrane is formed by the host that
separates the infected cell from rest of the tissue.
5) Cell division is stimulated in the infected tissue and more bacteria enter the
newly formed cells.
Leghaemoglobin is the oxygen scavenger found in root nodules of legume plants.

8. What are the characteristic features of euglenoids?

Ans. The characteristic features of euglenoids are:
They are unicellular protists, commonly found in freshwater.
The cell membrane is rich in proteins and is known as a pellicle.
Two flagella are present on the anterior end of the body.
They possess a small light-sensitive eyespot.
They are autotrophic because of the presence of photosynthetic pigment
chlorophyll. However, in the absence of light, they behave as heterotrophs.
They are known as the connecting-link between plants and animals because they
possess features common to both plants and animals.
9. Explain the types of life cycles in green algae?
Ans. There are three types of life cycle are found in green algae:-
(a)HAPLONTIC LIFE CYCLE:- The dominant phase is haploid. Diploid state is
found only in the form of zygote or zygospores. Meiosis takes place at time of its
germination. Eg. ulothrix, spirogyra.
(b)DIPLONTIC LIFE CYCLE:- The dominant phase algae is diploid. It gives rise
to haploid gametes through meiosis. Gametes unit & the zygote regenerates diploid
phase.
(c)DIPLOHAPLONTIC LIFE CYCLE:- It has well developed multicellular
haploid & diploid phase. These are respectively called gametophyte & sporophyte.
Haploid gametophyte produce haploid gametes. Fusion product of gametes grows
directly into diploid sporophytes. Sporophytes produce haploid spores by meiosis.
The meiospores germinate into new gametophyte.

10. Differentiate between Red, Brown & Green algae.

Ans.
RED ALGAE BROWN ALGAE GREEN ALGAE
i) Mainly marine i) Marine form i) Freshwater mostly
ii)Only few are ii)Unicellular forms ii)Unicellular species are
unicellular almost exist more
iii)Thylakoid unstacked iii) Occurs in group of iii)stacked in groups of 2-
three 20
iv) Only chlorophyll a iv)chlorophyll a & c iv)Chlorophyll a & b
present present present
v)Fucoxanthin present v) Fucoxanthin present v) Fucoxanthin absent
vi) Phycobilin present vi) Phycobilin absent vi) Phycobilin absent
vii) Reserve food is vii)Reserve food is vii)Reserve food is starch
starch laminarin
viii) Motile stages are viii) Present viii) Present.
not observed

11. Explain briefly the alternation of generation in bryophytes?

Ans. The life cycle of moss represesents two distinct generations GAMETOPHYTIC
& SPOROPHYTIC. Moss plant is a gametophyte. Spore is the beginning of
gametophytic generation. It develops into protenema which give rise to male &
female gametophytes. Gametophyte consists of green thallus having
archegoniophores & antheridiophores which bear sex organs & the gametes are
produced in them either monoecious or diecious. Club shaped antheriduim bears
biflagellate sperms or antherozoids. Flask shaped archegonium encloses the female
egg. Zygote is formed after the fertilization of male & female gametes with the help
of water. Repeated divisions of the zygote give rise to the embryo (2N) which soon
develops into sporophyte. The sporophyte of moss gets differenliated into three parts
foot seta & capsule. Inside the capsule single celled spores are produced. After the
 dehiscence, they begin to germinate & give rise to protonema to start the cycle
again. Gametophytic Generation alternates the sporophytic generation.

12. Describe the important characterslics of gymnosperms?

Ans.(i)They grow in cool & warm climate in hills & in plains.
(ii)Gymnosperms are evergreen woody & perennial plants
(iii)They have well developed vascular system but compared to seed plants their
xylem has no vessel & phloem is without companion cell.
(iv)Plants are heterosporous.
(v)Conifers are cone bearing trees eg. pines, cedrus fir.
(vi)They usually have evergreen needle like leaves which are well adapted to
withstand extremes of temperature, humidity & wind.
(vii)Reduction of gametophytic generation.
(viii)The leaves have a reduced surface area thick cuticle & sunken stomata to
conserve moisture & reduce the water loss by transpiration.
(ix)Ovules are exposed to receive pollen grains.
(x)Gymnosperms possess exposed or naked seeds.
(xi)Polyembryony is common occurrence.

13. What are the identifying features of Angiosperms flowering plants.

Ans. (i)Majority of the plants around us are Angiosperms.
(ii)Flowering plants show great number of diversities in habitat, habits, forms,
duration of life, mode of nutrition etc.
(iii)The plants with stem varying from a few mm to metre or so in height are termed
as herbs, medium sized plants with woody stem are termed as shrubs & tall woody
plants are known as trees.
(iv)Plants which live for a year or part of year are termed annual, which live for two
year are termed as biennials & which live more than two years are termed as
perennials.
(v)Plants which live in extremely dry conditions are termed as Xerophytes; plants
living in water are termed as hydrophytes; those living in moderate conditions are
termed asmesophytes.
(vi)All flowering plants have roots, stem & leaves. They produce flowers, seeds &
fruits.
(vii)The economic uses of plants are varied. Plants provide us with materials for our
food,clothing & shelter.

14. Describe the modifications of the stem. Give examples for the same.
Ans: Modifications of the stem are as follows:
Stem Tendrils- These may be branched with scaly leaves. Eg., Passiflora,
Antogonon Stem Thorns- These are sharp needle-like structures that are formed to
reduce transpiration and also act as a defence. For eg., Citrus, Pomegranate
 Phylloclades- These are green, flattened, succulent, leaf-shaped structures that
perform photosynthesis. They possess indefinite growth. For eg., Opuntia,
Euphorbia soyleana.
Cladodes- They are green, photosynthetic of limited growth. The leaves are either
modified into spines or reduced to scales. For eg., Ruscus, Asparagus.

15. How do various leaf modifications help plants?

Ans. The normal functions of leaves are photosynthesis, respiration & transpiration.
Besides these function the leaves have to perform other functions. Hence, they
modify themselves in different ways as follows:-
(i)TENDRIL:- In some plants the entire leaf or part of it gets modified to coiled
thread like structure called tendrils . Tendrils help the plants to climb up eg. pea,
clematis.
(ii)SPINES:- In many plants the leaves or their apices are modified into thin sharp
& pointed structure known as spines. They help in defence eg. opuntia, yucea. Etc.
(iii)SCALE LEAVES:- In onion mostly all the leaves are present in the form of
fleshy scale leaves.
(iv)PITCHER:- It is the modification of leaf in insectivorous plant in which the
lamina takes the form of a pitcher, apex in the form of a lid to trap the insects. There
are number of digestive glands in the inner walls of the pitcher. These glands secrete
a fluid which digests insects eg. Nepenthes.
(v)PHYLLODE :- The petiole becomes green, flattened & leaf like & is called
phyllode eg. Australian Acacia.

16. Give four types of underground stem & give examples for each.
Ans. FOUR TYPES OF UNDERGROUND STEMS:-
(i)RHIZOME:- The stem is prostate, thickened & grows horizontally under the
soil. Stem is much branched & each branch ends in terminal bud. Adventitious roots
arise in profusion eg. fern, water lily, turmeric.
(ii)BULB:- Highly condensed & discoidal stem. Terminal bud in the centre
produces aerial root that produces flowers. From base of stem adventitious roots
develop. Leaves store food material. Terminal bud & scale leaves are present eg.
onion garlic.
(iii)CORM:- Condensed form of rhizome with auxiliary buds & scale leaves. It is
swollen base of underground stem axis. Nodes & internodes are present eg.
zimikand, saffron, colocasia.
(iv)TUBER:- It grows horizontally & swells at the apex. Adventitious roots arise
during sprouting. It has many buds that grow into new plants eg. potato, Halianthus.
17. What do you mean by “modification of roots”. Describe some of the
modifications of tap roots giving suitable example.
Ans.The functions other than normal functions of roots eg. fixation, absorption &
conduction are to be carried out by roots. These are called modifications of roots.
The modifications of top roots includes:-
(a).FUSIFORM:- This roots is swollen in the middle & tapers at both the ends
gradually eg. Raddish.
(b).NAPIFORM:- The shape of this root becomes almost spherical but tapers
abruptly downward eg. turnip.
(c).CONICAL:- The shape becomes cone like eg. carrot.
(d).TUBEROUS:- It is a swollen root having no specific shape eg., mirablis,
Trichosanthes.

18. Describe the sub-aerial modifications of stem.

Ans. The main function of sub-aerial modification of stems is vegetative
propagation. They are of following types:-
(i)RUNNERS:- These stems are long & thin with branches which creep along the
ground & develop root at the nodes. Many such branches are produced by mother
plant & they spread out in all direction. They may break off & start living as
independent plants eg. oxalis, doob grass.
(ii)STOLON:- This is also a thin lateral branch which arises from the base of stem.
It grows upward & bent down again developing roots at the tip & producing a bud.
The bud grows into a new plant eg. mint, strawberry.
(iii)OFFSET:- This is a thickened horizontal branch arising in the axil of a lower
leaf. It is a short branch which produces a cluster of leaves above & tufts of roots
below. Offset can break off from mother plant & start living independent life. Eg.
Water lettuce, water hyacinth.
(iv)SUCKER:- The sucker is a lateral branch which develops from underground
part of stem. It grows upward in obliquely manner & directly give rise to new plant
eg. banana, pineapple.

19. State the location & function of different types of meristems.

Ans. A meristem is a group of cells that are in a continuous state of division and thus
continuously produce new cells. On the basis of location & function, the meristem
are of following types:-
(a)APICAL MERISTEM:-These are present at the apices of stems, roots &
branches. The activity of apical meristem adds to length of plant or its parts.
(b)INTERCALARY MERISTEM:-These meristems are intercalated inbetween
the permanent tissues. They may be present either at the base of internode as in stem
of various grasses, the activities of these meristems also adds to length of plant or its
organ.
 (c)LATERAL MERISTEMS:-These meristems are present along the side of the
stem. These include cambium & cork cambium. The activity of lateral meristem
adds to the thickness of plant.

20. Describe the elements of xylem?

Ans. Xylem being a complex tissue is made up of different types of cells as
follows:-
(a)TRACHEIDS:-They are elongated tube like structures. They do not have
perforation or openings at their ends. They are dead. They help in conduction of
water & minerals.
(b)VESSELS:-They are narrow tube like structures having annular & spiral
thickening in protoxylem. They are wider & have spiral, reticulate & pitted
thickening in metaxylem. They are dead. They help to conduct water & mineral
from roots to upper parts of plant.
(c)XYLEM PARENCHYMA:-They are living cells. They are called as wood
parenchyma they help in storage of food & lateral transport of substances.
(d)XYLEM FIBRES:-They are long, slender, pointed, dead sclerenchymatous
cells. They are called wood fibres. They have small pits & thickened walls they give
strength and support to plants.

21. Difference between Dicot Root and Monocot Root.

Ans.
Dicot Root Monocot Root
Secondary growth is present Secondary growth is absent
Cortex is very narrow Cortex is very wide
Older root has a covering of Older root has a covering of
cork. exodermis
Xylem vessels are generally Xylem vessels are oval or rounded.
angular.
Examples– Beans, Peanuts, Pea, Examples– Banana, Palm, Maize,
etc. etc.
 22. Give the differences between sapwood and heartwood?
Ans.
Heartwood
It is dark in colour.
It is heavier in weight.
Its cells are comparatively older.
It is the central part of the old
stem.
It is a durable wood and suitable
for making furniture.
The heartwood has resistant to
insects and fungal attacks.
Sapwood
It is light in colour.
It is lighter in weight.
Its cells are comparatively younger.
It is the outer part of the old stem.
It is not a durable wood and not
suitable for making furniture.
The sapwood is more susceptible to
insectsand fungal attacks.

23. Define the term (i) Osmotic or solute potential (ii) Turgor pressure (iii) D.P.D
(iv) Water potential
Ans. (i) Osmotic or solute potential is the reduction in the chemical potential of
water due to presence of solute particles (moles/litre) in it.
(ii) Turgor pressure is positive pressure which develops in an osmotic system due
to entry of water into it, causing it to swell and press the walls of the container.
(iii) DPD (Diffusion Pressure Deficit) is the reduction in the diffusion pressure of
water in a system over its pure state due to pressure of solute in it.
(iv) Water potential is the decrease in chemical potential or free energy of water
per molal volume in a system, say solution, over its pure state at the same
temperature and pressure.

24. Write a detailed account of the process of transpiration?

Ans: Transpiration is the loss of water in the form of vapours from the aerial parts
of plants. About 98 -99% of total absorbed water is lost via transpiration.
Types of Transpiration:
(i) Stomatal transpiration: Is is the loss of water via stomata. About 90% of
transpiration occurs through stomata. However it continues only when the stomata
are open.
(ii) Cuticular Transpiration: It occurs through the cuticle of epidermis. It depends
upon the thickness of the cuticle. It continues throughout the day and night
(iii) Lenticular Transpiration: it occurs through the lenticels. Lenticels occur in
the bark of woody stands. They are permanent pores therefore this type of
transpiration also occurs throughout the day and night.
Factors Affecting Transpiration:
(i) Temperature: Increase in temperature, increases the rate of transpiration and
vice-versa. The effect of temperature is due to its effect on rate of evaporation,
relative humidity and stomatal opening.
 (ii) Light: Rate of transpiration is high in light and low in dark. Light causes
opening of stomata. It also increases the temperature of leaves.
(iii) Relative humidity: The rate of transpiration is inversely proportional to the
relative humidity in the atmosphere.
(iv) Carbon dioxide: High CO2 concentration causes closure of stomata thereby
decreases the rate of transpiration.
The other factors which affect transpiration include Atmospheric pressure, wind,
availability of water, Number of stomata etc.
Significance of Transpiration:
Transpiration is important for ascent of sap, mineral absorption, hydrological cycle
and cooling effect to plants.

25. Ascent of sap is vital process in plants. In this regard explain the process of
Transpiration pull or cohesion-tension theory?
Ans: It is the most widely accepted theory which was proposed by Dixon and Jolly
in 1894. Cohesion tension theory proposes that transpiration creates a pull over
water column which is lifted upwards like rope and is not bro-ken due to presence
of strong cohesion force amongst its molecules. It is also known as Dixon’s theory
of ascent of sap.
(i) Water column. Plants have a continuous water column in their xylem channels
which begins at the base in water absorbing parts of roots and continues upto leaves
where water is being lost through transpiration.
(ii) Rater of Ascent: It is high with an average of 15m/hr. Such a rapid rise cannot
be accounted by root pressure or capillary force.
(iii) Absence of push: No force is known to push the water column from below or
root region to the top of tall trees.
(iv) Cohesion force. Water column remains intact despite gravitational pull because
water molecules have a strong cohesion force amongst them due to presence of
hydrogen bonds. Cohesion force provides a tensile strength to water column. It has a
value of 45-207 atm (Dixon and joly, 1894).
Other properties of water which account for high tensile strength (ability to remain
as a column against a pulling force) and high capillarity (ability to risein narrow
tubes) are adhesion (attraction of water molecules to polar surfaces as of tracheary
elements) and surface tension (stretching of surface layer at the interphase) due to
more attraction of water molecules in the liquid phase than water in the gaseous
pahse.
(v) Transpiration pull: Mesophyll cells transpire water and develop a strong
negative water potential. As a result, mesophyll cells withdraw water form xylem
channels. As there are a very large number of leaves with each leaf having
thousands of transpiring mesophyll cells withdrawing water from xylem, a tension
or negative pressure develops in the water column present in tracheary element. Is
exerts an upward pull over the water column called transpiration pull.
 (vi) Ascent of Sap: Force of transpiration pull is -10 to -30 bars. It is sufficient to
overcome resistance of water conducting channels, gravity, resistance in movement
of water from soil to conducting channels and from conducting channels to
transpiring mesophyll cells. Therefore, transpiration pull litts the water column
upwardly like a rope.

26. Pressure flow or flow hypothesis of translocation of food?

Several theories have been put forward to explain the mechanism of translocation or
oganic nutrients through phloem. The most accepted theory is Mass flow
hypothesis or Pressure flow hypo thesis given by Munch(1930).
According to this theory, translocation of solutes takes place in bulk, through
phloem along a gradient of turgor pressure from higher concentration of its soluble
form (sources) to lower concentration of its soluble form (sink). Because in leaves
(source), osmot ic concentration remains always high (due to photosynthesis) and
in roots (sink) , osmotic concentration remains low, so mass flow of organic food
continues from leaves to roots(i.e., along a gradient of turgor pressure).
The organic substances present in mesophyll cells are passed into the sieve tubes
through their companion cells by an active process. A high osomotic concentration,
therefore, dev elops in the sieve tubes of the source.
Thus, the sieve tubes abs orb water from the surrounding xylem and develop a high
turgor pressure. It causes the flow of organic solution towards the area of low turgor
pressure.
A low turgor pressure is maintained in the sink region by converting soluble
organic substance into insoluble form.

27. What are the essential elements for plants? State criteria for their essentiality.
Give the classification of minerals basis the amount in which they are required
by plants.
Ans: An element is said to be essential to a plant if it is required for maintaining its
normal growth and reproduction. This requirement needs to be specified and cannot
be replaced by any other element in the soil and should be directly involved in plant
metabolism. Following are the criteria for essentiality:
A plant cannot completes its life cycle in the deficiency of the element and is
incapable to grow normally.
The element cannot be substituted by another element and is specific.
The element is directly involved in the plant metabolism.
The deficiency of these elements causes diseases in plants
Essential elements are further subdivided into:
Macro elements – Required by plants in larger quantities, they are C, H, O, N, P, K,
Mg, Ca and S.
Microelements – They are referred to as trace elements and are needed in low
quantities, they are Fe, Cl, B, Cu, Ni, Mo, Zn and Mn.
28. Describe the process of development of root nodules in leguminous plant. Name
the oxygen scavenger molecule present in root nodules?
Ans. Formation of root nodules in a leguminous plant:
1) When a root hair of a leguminous plant comes in contact with Rhizobium, the
root hair becomes curled or deformed, due to chemicals secreted by bacterium.
2) At the site of curling or deformation, the bacteria invade the root and multiply
within the root hair.
3) Some of the bacteria enlarge to become membrane – bound structures known as
bacteroids, which help in spreading infection.
4) An infection thread made of plasma membrane is formed by the host that
separates the infected cell from rest of the tissue.
5) Cell division is stimulated in the infected tissue and more bacteria enter the
newly formed cells. Leghaemoglobin is the oxygen scavenger found in root nodules
of legume plants.

29. In the figure given here upper line indicates action spectrum for photosynthesis
and the lower line indicates the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a. Answer
the following

(a) What does the action spectrum indicate? How can we plot the action
spectrum? Explain wth an example.
(b) How can be derive an absorption spectrum for any substance?
(c) If chlorophyll a is responsible light reaction, why do the action spectrum
and absorption spectrum not overlap?
Ans.(a) Action Spectrum. It is graphic representation of effectiveness of light of
various wave lengths in performing a function like photosynthesis. It is carried out
by taking colonies of unicellular algae like Chlorella and exposing each of them to a
particular wavelength. Photosynthesis performed by each colony is recorded as
amount of oxygen evolved. A graph prepared by using the data will show action
spectrum.
 (b) Absorption Spectrum. It is a graphic representation of degree and portions of
light wavelength absorbed by a substance. Recording of wavelength absorbed by the
substance is carried out by an instrument called spectrophotometer.
(c) The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a does not match with the rate of
photosynthesis despite chlorophyll a being responsible for light reaction. It is
because Chl a alone absorbs only a fraction of light. The rest is absorbed by other
pigment molecules (chlorophyll b, carotenes, and xanthophylls). The absorbed
energy is transferred to chlorophyll a molecules (Forester transfer) for performing
light reactions. Therefore, for light reaction chlorophyll a molecules not only utilize
light energy absorbed by them but also light energy picked up by accessory
photosynthesis pigments.

30. What special anatomical features are displayed by leave of C4 plants? How do
they provide advantage over the structure of C3 plants?
Ans. The leave of C4 plants show Kranz anatomy. In Kranz anatomy
(i) Vascular bundles are surrounded by bundle sheaths of large sized
chlorenchymatous cells. The bundle sheath chlorenchumatous cells perform Calvin
cycle of photosynthesis very near the vascular strand. There is little deficiency of
water. The synthesized food can also be quickly removed. Bundle sheath cells are
nonchlorenchymatous in C3 plants.
(ii) Mesophyll cells of C4 of plants are undifferentiated. They occur in concentric
layers around vascular bundles sheath cells. No such contact occurs in C3 plants.
(iii) Chloropasts are dimorphic. Granal chloroplasts occur in mesophyll cells. They
perform light reaction and initial fixation of CO2 (PEP + CO2 →oxaloacetate). The
fixed CO2 is passed to bundle sheath cells for final photosynthesis. Bundle sheath
chloroplasts are agranal. They do not perform light reactions. No oxygen is evolved.
There is no photorespiration. Bundle sheath cells receive abundant CO2 for
photosynthesis at optimum rate. It is not so in C3 plants where photosynthesis is
common.

31. List out the differences in anatomy of leaf in C3 and C4 plants?

Ans.
C3 plants. C4 plants.
In C3 plants, chloroplasts are In C4 plants, chloroplasts are
present only in mesophyll present both in mesophyll and
cells. bundle sheath cells.
Only one type of chloroplasts Di-morphic types of chloroplasts are
is present. present.
Intercellular spaces are Intercellular spaces are smaller.
larger.
Kranz anatomy is absent in Kranz anatomy is present in the
the leaves of C3 plants. leaves of C4 plants.
32. Hatch and Slack Cycle OR C4 Cycle.
Ans: This pathway was first reported in
members of family Gramineae (grasses)
like sugarcane, maize, sorghum, etc.
(Tropical grasses) but later on in other sub-
tropical plants also like Atriplex and
Amaranthus.. These C4 plants have a
characteristic leaf anatomy called Kranz
anatomy (German word meaning: Wreath,
Ring or Halo). Here, vascular bundles are
surrounded by sheath of large
parenchymatous cells called bundle sheaths
which are surrounded by mesophyll cells.
Here, two types of chloroplasts are Present
(chloroplast dimorphism)
Bundle sheath chloroplasts: larger in size,
lack grana (agranal chloroplasts) and
contain starch grains.
Mesophyll chloroplasts: Similar in size, contain grana (granal chloroplasts) and
lack starch grains.
Bundle sheath cells and mesophyll cells are connected by plasmodesmata. CO2
acceptor molecule here is PEP (phosphoenol pyruvate) and not RuBP. Further,
PEP-carboxylase (PEPCO) is the key enzyme (RuBP-carboxylase enzyme is
negligible or absent in mesophyll chloroplast, but present in bundle sheath
chloroplast).
The primary CO2 acceptor is tree carbon molecule phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) and
it is present in the mesophyll cells. The enzyme essential for this reaction is PEP
carbozylase. The C4 acid OAA is formed in the mesophyll cell. It is then converted
to other four carbon compounds like malic acid or aspartic acid in the mesophyll
cells itself, these are then transported to the bundle sheath cells.
In the bundle sheath cells, these C4 acids come under decarbozylation to release
CO2 and a three carbon molecule pyruvic acid.
CO2 released in the bundle sheath cells enters the Calvin cycle, a pathway common
to all plants.
The C3 molecule is transported back to the mesophyll cell where it is converted to
PEP again which is primary CO2 acceptor.
C4 plants have a disadvantage. They consume more energy (two more ATP
molecule per molecule of CO2 fixed).
In C4 plants, for formation of one mole of hexose (glucose), 30 ATP and 12
NADPH2 are required.
33. Explain the process of bio-synthetic phase of photosynthesis occurring in
chloroplast.
Ans. Biosynthetic phase (Dark Reaction) : The process by which carbon – dioxide
is reduced to carbohydrates is known as carbon fixation in plants. The fixation of
carbon takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts, by a series of enzyme – catalyzed
reactions.
C3 pathway: It is known as Calvin cycle. The path of carbon in the dark reaction
was traced by Melvin Calvin through a
technique called autoradiography,
using 14C, hence this pathway is
called Calvin cycle.
Calvin cycle consist of three phases:
(i) Carboxylation (ii) Glycolytic
reversal (iii) Regeneration of RuBP.
(i) Carboxylation – Six molecules of
Ribulose 1, 5 biphoshate react with six
molecules of carbon-dioxide to form
six molecules of carbon dioxide to
form six molecules of a short – lived
6C – compound. The reaction is
catalysed by RuBP – carboxylase
(Rubisco). The six molecules of the 6C
– compound break into 12 molecules of 3-phosphoglyceric acid (PGA), a 3C –
compound PGA is the first stable compound in this pathway.
(ii) Reduction – 12 molecules of phosphoglyceric acid are converted into 12
molecules of 1,3 diphosphoglycerate and then reduced to phosphogly acetaldehyde
(PGAL) using ATP and NADPH molecules respectively. Two molecules of PGAL
are diverted for the synthesis of sugar and then into the starch.
(iii) Regeneration of RuBP – For the cycle to continue, the primary acceptor of
carbon-dioxide, i.e, RuBP has to regenerated 10 molecules of PGAL, by a series of
complex reaction, are converted into 6 molecules of 5C – compound, RuBP.
Formation of 6 molecules of RuBP requires six ATP molecules.
34. Explain the process Photorespiration (C2 Cycle)?
The process photorespiration was first demonstrated in tobacco plants by Decker
and Tio (1959). Since then, it has been reported in a larger number of plants,
particularly those which perform C3 cycle.
Photorespiration is defined by Krotkov (1963)
as an extra input of oxygen and extra release of
carbon dioxide by green plants in light.
The process occurs in chloroplast, peroxisome
and mitochondrion.
The process of photorespiration is cyclic. It is
also called photorsynthetic carbon oxidative
or PCO cycle.
Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (RuBisCO),
the main enzyme of Calvin cycle that fixes
carbon dioxide, acts as ribulose biphosphate
oxygenase under low atmospheric concentration
of carbon dioxide and increased concentration
of oxygen. It splits a molecule of Ribulose-1,5,
bisphosphate into one molecule each of 3-PGA
and 2-phosphoglycolic acid.
In the photorespiratory pathway, there is neither
synthesis or sugars, nor of ATP. Rather it
results in the release of carbon dioxide with the
ultilisation of ATP. Since, there is no synthesis
of ATP NADPH, photorespiration is regarded
as a wasteful process.

35. Describe the process of Glycolysis?

Ans. Glycolysis (Gk. Glycos = sugar,
lysis = splitting), is the first step of
aerobic respiration and is defined as a
process in which one molecule of
glucose gets converted into two
molecules of pyruvate enzymatically
release of energy in direct (ATPs) and
indirect form (NADPH+H+). Glycolysis
is common to both aerobic and anaerobic
respiration and hence it is also called
common pathway, Mechanism of
glycolysis was discovered by three
German scientists Embden, Meyerhof,
and Parnas hence also called EMP
pathway. The site of occurance of
 glycolysis is cytosol or cytoplasm. Glycolysis is a linear process involving 10 steps
catalysed by 10 different enzymes.

36. Differentiate between photoperiodism and vernalisation?

Ans.
S.no. Photoperiodism Vernalization
1. Photoperiodism is the flowering Vernalisation prepares the plants
response of the plants to the for perceiving stimulus for flower
duration of light and dark period induction by chilling treatment.
in the diurnal cycle.

2. In this stimulus perceived by Stimulus is perceived by young

green leaves only. embryos, meristems and even
leaves.
3. In this florigen is produced under Vernalin is produced by chilling
photoinductive conditions. treatment.
4. Photoperiodic induction cannot be Vernalisation can be reversed
reversed by exposing to non- when maintained higher
inductive conditions. temperature.
5. GA3 has the capability to replace GA3 can replace cold treatment to
there requirements of photo induce vernalisation.
inductive conditions in long day
plants only.

37. What is photoperiodism? How do you categories the angiosperms on the basis of
their flowering response.
Ans. Photoperiodism – The phenomenon of inducing flowering in plants with
response to length of daily period of light or relative day & night length is call
photoperiodism. The angiosperms are classified into the following three categories
on the basis of photoperiodism.
(i) Short day plants (SDP) – They require a relating short day length than critical
period for flowers e.g chrysanthemum, Nicotiana, soyabean.
(ii) Long day plants (LDP) – They require a relating longer day length than critical
period for flowing e.g. wheat, Maize, Radish.
(iii) Day neutral Plants (DNP) – The flowering response in their plants remain
unaffected by the length of day. These plants are also called as photoneutrals or
indifferent plants e.g. Cotton, Pea, Tomato & sunflower.
38. What are plant growth regulators? Discuss the physiological role of Auxin in
plants?
Ans. Plant growth regulators also called plant hormones or phytohormones are
chemical substance produced naturally in plants in low concentrations to regulate
growth, differentiation and development of plants.
Auxins are weakly acidic phytohormones. Auxin was the first hormone to be
discovered. Auxins may be natural (indole-3-acetic acid, indole-3 butyric acid) or
synthetic like (naphthalene acetic acid).
Physiological functions:
• Promote cell enlargement and cell division.
• Promotes apical dominance.
• Initiates root formation on stem cuttings.
• Promotes cambial activity and xylem differentiation.
• Prevents or delay premature abscission of leaf, fruit.
• Produce parthenocarpic fruits.

39. Write down the discovery and physiological role of Gibberellins in plants?
Ans. Kurosawa discovered the active substance, i.e., gibberllin from the filtrate of
fungus, Gibberella fujikuroi causing bakane disease in rice plants. GA3 was the first
gibberllin to be isolated in its pure form and remains the most extensively studied.
Physiological Role:
• Stimulate stem elongation and leaf expansion.
• Overcome natural dormancy of buds, tubers, seeds etc.
• Induce elongation of reduced stem or bolting in rosette plants, e.g., henbane,
cabbage, etc.
• Promote seed germination by including production of hydrolytic enzymes
(amylase) for solubility reserve food.
• Substitute to promote flowering in long day plants.
• Substitute to vernalisation.
• Induce parthenocarpy.
• Promote formation of male flowers on female plants, e.g., Cannabis.
• Increase the shelf life of fruits.
 SECTION—B (Short Answer Type Question) 3 Marks

1. What are taxonomic aids? Mention some of the taxonomic aids for
identification.
Ans. Taxonomic aids are devices used to study, identification and classify organism,
some of these are:
(i) Herbarium:collection of present/ preserved or mounted plant specimen,
arranged systematically to provide information on sheets.
(ii) Botanical gardens: specialized gardens for collection of living plants. It is
maintained for references and identification purposes in which each plant is labelled
showing its biological name.
(iii) Zoological parks: places with live animals are called zoos or zoological parks.
The animal live in their natural habitat there are separate places for birds, tigers,
lions, reptiles etc.
(iv) Museum: these are mostly set up in institutions where collection of preserved
plants and animals for reference and taxonomic studies are placed in preservatives
e.g., Alcohol and formalin.

2. What are Archaebacteria?

Ans. It is a group of ancient bacteria which are considered as oldest living fossils.
Archaebacteria are present in extreme environmental conditions like hot sulphur
springs, high salty conditions. Their cell wall lack peptidoglycans, their cell
membrane contain branched lipid chains which provide them resistance to extreme
temperature and pH. Archaebacteria are divided into three groups i.e., methanogens,
halophiles and thermoacidophiles.

3. Write a short note on cyanobacteria?

Ans. Cyanobacteria are gram negative, photoautotrophic prokaryotes. They are also
called blue green algae. They carryout oxygenic photosynthesis. They can be
unicellular like spirulina which is the richest source of protein. Colonial like nostoc
and anaebaena which help in nitrogen fixation. Cyanobacteria possess different
photosynthetic pigments like phycocyanin, allophycocyanin and phycoerythrin.

4. Write the short note on Mycoplasma?

Ans. These are the smallest known living cells on earth which are capable of
independent growth and metabolism. They are also designated as PPLO( pleura
pneumonia like organisms). Mycoplasma lack cell wall. They cause
pleuropneumonia in cattle, bunchy top of papaya etc.
5. Write down the general characters of kingdom Monera?
Ans. Kingdom monera includes unicellular prokaryotes
These include bacteria, actinomycetes, mycoplasma, cyanobacteria etc
They ocuur in all types of habitates
True nucleus is absent
Genetic material is naked DNA
All membrane bound organelles are absent
Ribosomes are of 70S type
Nutrition is both autotrophic and heterotrophic

6. Write a short note on Tobacco Mosaic Virus?

Ans. TMV is the first virus to be discovered. It was discovered by Ivanowsky in
1892 from discard tobacco leaves.
It is the first virus to be isolated and crystallized.
It was crystallized by Stanly in 1935.
TMV causes a disease in tobacco leaves called Tabcco Mosaic disease.
TMV is naked, helical or rod shaped virus.
Size of TMV is 300nm × 18nm.
TMV is composed of 95% protein and 5% RNA by weight.
The number of Capsomers is 2130 which are arranged helically and make about 130
turns and in each turn about 16 Capsomers are present.
At the centre of Capsomers or Capsid is an axial hole with a diameter of 4nm.
Inside the axial hole is present genome of the virus which is ss RNA of 7,500
nucleotides.

7. What is diatomaceous earth? Why are diatoms referred to as ‘pearls of the

ocean’?
Ans. The accumulation of large deposits of diatoms that forms a covering of silica
extending over several 100m for billions of years. Diatoms are the main producers
in the ocean. They prepare food for themselves as well as other life forms in the
ocean. Their body is made up of siliceous shell known as a frustule.

8. Find out what do the terms “algal bloom”& “red tides” signify?
Ans:(i)Algal bloom refers to the excessive growth of algae in water body due to
enrichment of excessive nutrients in it.
(ii)The red dinoflagellates undergo rapid multiplication eg. Gonyaulux which make
the sea appear red. It is called red tide.

9. What do you mean by endemic and exotic species? Give examples for each.
Ans. Exotic species– Any species of a living organism living in a place other than
its native place are known as exotic species. For eg; Eichhornia crassipes is the
 native of the Amazon basin but was introduced in India, so it is an exotic species to
India.
Endemic species- These are the species found only in a particular area. For eg;
Rauwolfia is an endemic species found only in India.

10. Describe the salient features of protists?

Ans.(i)They are single celled colonial filamentous eukaryotes.
(ii)They grow in humid & moist environment.
(iii)Some are photosynthetic some are not.
(iv)Some forms are like plants & some like animals.
(v)Contain membrane bound organelles.
(vi)Protozoan’s are unicellular heterotrophic
(viii)Examples- protozoan’s, slime moulds, Euglenoid, diatoms, dinoflagellate

11. What is heterospory? What is its significance?

Ans. Heterospory refers to the production of two kinds of spores in pteridophytes
eg.salivinia and selaginella produces two kinds of spores macrospores &
microspores. These mega & microspores germinate & then give rise to male &
female gametophytes. The female gametophyte is retained on parent sporophyte for
variable period of time. So, this event is a precursor to seed habit.

12. What do you mean by double fertilization and triple fusion?

Ans. In this process, one male gamete fertilizes the egg and forms a diploid zygote.
The other male gametes fuse with the two polar nuclei forming a triploid zygote that
develops into the endosperm. This is known as double fertilization. The three
haploid nuclei fuse to form endosperm. It is known as triple fusion.

13. There is a mutualistic relationship between the members of algae and fungi.
Write a brief account about this relationship?
Ans: Lichens are the symbiotic associations between algae and fungi. Lichens are
therefore composite organisms that consists of two components i.e., algae and fungi.
The algal component is called phycobiont whereas the fungal component is called
mycobiont. The phycobiont carries photosysthesis whereas mycobiont absorbs
water and minerals. Lichens are important as they are the pioneer species of barren
rocks. The litmus dye is obtained from lichen. Lichens act as the indicators of SO2
pollution.
14. Distinguish between collenchymas & sclerenchyma.
COLLENCHYMA SCLERENCHYMA
i) Living mechanical tissue contains i) Mechanical tissue is dead.
protoplasm
ii) Thickening in cell wall due to ii) Thickening on cell walls due to
cellulose,hemicelluloses & pectin deposition of lignin, cellulose or both.
iii) High water content in cells iii) Low water content in cells
iv) Cell lumen is wide. iv) Cell lumen is narrow.

15. How can you identify a monocot stem and a dicot stem? Give reasons.
Ans. In monocot stem, the vascular bundles are scattered. No distinction between
pith &cortex. Cambium is not present. Vascular bundles are closed whereas, dicot
stem shows epidermis, cortex & stele. Epidermis bears appendages-trichomes. The
vascular bundles are open & are arranged in rings. Cortex & pith are distinct,
cambium present.

16. How are succulents able to meet their photosynthetic CO2 requirements as
they are known to keep their stomata closed during the day to check
transpiration?
Ans. During day time, the succulent plants have to shut their stomata as they grow
in dry and xeric conditions, for prevention of water loss during transpiration, the
gaseous exchange does not take place. Hence plants have adapted to fix CO2 in the
form of malic acid during night time. Malic acid is a four carbon compounds that
stores CO2 which is liberated during the day within the photosynthetic cells.

17. Distinguish between active transport & passive transport.

Ans.
Active Transport
i) This is a rapid process.
ii) Energy is needed
iii) It is a vital process.
iv) Movement is one direction iv) Movement is in both
only
v) Requires carrier proteins
vi)Movement of metabolite
against conc. Gradient
Passive Transport
i) This is a slow process
ii) No need of energy
iii) It is a physical process.
directions
v) Does not require carrier
proteins
vi) Movement of metabolite along
the conc. gradient.
18. How is opening & closing of stomata controlled?
Ans. The factors affecting stomata opening & closing are:-
a) Light:- Light intensity needed for stomatal opening is low the stomata open in
light but close in dark. In CAM plants, stomata open in dark & closed during
daytime.
b) Temperature:- If temperature is increased, then the stomata open but when there
is decrease in temperature the stomata close.
c) Availability of water:- The stomata are closed due to water stress or moisture
deficit.
d) Concentration of CO2:- An increase in CO2 concentration inside the leaf the
stomatal openings are closed even in light. When CO2 is used up by plant in
photosynthesis the stomata open.

19. Define transpiration? Why is it useful? Mention any three environmental

factors that affect the transpiration?
Ans. Transpiration is a phenomenon naturally occurring in plants through which
water is lost from plants in the form of water vapours through their aerial parts. It is
useful to plants because
(i) It helps in movement of xylem sap.
(ii)It causes cooling of leaf surface & thereby protects leaf from heat injury by
intense sunlight
Transpiration is affected by 3 environmental factors:-
a)Humidity:- water is lost slowly in the atmosphere, if the humidity is high or
increased.
b)Temperature:- the rate of transpiration is doubled with rise in temperature by 10.
c)Wind speed:- high wind speed or a dry breeze greatly increases the transpiration.

20. Briefly explain the process of osmosis?

Ans: Osmosis is the phenomenon of diffusion of water or solvent from the region of
its higher chemical potential to the region of its lower chemical potential. Across the
semi-permeable membrane. Is is also defined as movement of water from higher
water potential to lower water potential or from lower solute concentration to higher
solute concentration across the semi-permeable membrane. Osmosis if of two types.
(i) Endosmosis: osmotic entry of water from an external solution into a cell. It
occurs when the cell is placed in hypotonic solution.
(ii) Exosmosis: is the withdrawal of water from a cell when it is placed in hypotonic
solution.

21. What is plasmolysis?

Ans: it is the shrinkage of protoplast when the cell is placed in hypertonic solution.
When the plasmolysed cell is placed in hypotonic or pure water, it absorbs water
and the protoplasm come in contact with cell wall and regains its original volume.
This phenomenon is called deplasmolysis.
22. Briefly explain Root pressure hypothesis of ascent of sap in plants?
The root pressure theory was proposed by Priestley (1916).
Root pressure is define as a pressure developing in the tracheary elements of xylem
due to metabolic activities of roots. The pressure is caused due to diffusion pressure
gradient and is maintained by the activity of living cells.
The root pressure is, therefore, referred to as an active process, which is confirmed
by the following:
The pressure is not observed if the roots are placed in hypertonic or isotonic
solutions.
Oxygen supply and some poisons also affect the root pressure without affecting
semipermeability of protoplasm.
The magnitude of root pressure is about 2 bars or atmosphere.
Root pressure, only provides a modest push in the overall process or water transport.
It does not play a major role in water movement up in tall trees.

23. What is meant by double fertilization?

Ans: The occurrence of two fertilizations simultaneously within the same embryo
sac is called double fertilization. One of the male gamete fuses with the egg to form
zygote and is referred as syngamy or true fertilization. The other male gamete fuses
with secondary diploid cell to form primary endosperm nucleus and is referred as
triple fusion or pseudo fertilization.

24. What are macronutrients?

Ans. these are essential elements present in plants in easily detectable quantities i.e.,
1-10 mg/gm of dry matter.
They are usually involved in the synthetic of organic molecules and development of
osmotic potential.
There are nine macroelements-C, H, O, N, P, S, Mg, and Ca.
They do not cause toxic effects when present in slight excess.

25. What is the role and deficiency of nitrogen in plants?

Ans. Nitrogen is very important for the growth and development of plant body. It is
obtained as NO2+, NO2+ and NH4+ . Its principle role is as:
• It is component of Nucleic acids, vitamins, hormones, particularly important
for meristem and metabolically active cells.
• Deficiency: Chlorosis first in older leaves, Premature leaf fall, Mottling on
older leaves.

26. What is the role and deficiency of Potassium in plants?

Ans. Potassium is absorbed by plants as K+ .
• Principle role:
• Commonest free ion in cell.
 • Maintain anion – cation balance in the cell
• Involved in photosynthesis
• Opening and closing of stomata
• Activation of enzymes Maintenance of turgidity of cells.
Deficiency symptoms:
Mottled chlorosis, Loss of apical domianance, Bushy habit and Cotton rust.

27. Why does an excess of Mn in soil lead to a deficiency of Ca, Mg and Fe?
Ans. When absorbed in higher amounts by plants, Manganese becomes toxic which
is expressed in the form of brown spots surrounded by chlorotic vein. Due to:
The decline in the uptake of iron and manganese.
Hinderance of binding of manganese to particular enzymes
Hinderance of calcium translocation in the shoot apex
Hence excess of manganese causes a lack of magnesium, calcium, and iron.

28. State why the respiratory pathway is referred to as an amphibolic pathway.

Ans. Fatty acids and proteins are degraded to acetyl CoA to enter the respiratory
pathway. Substances are withdrawn from the respiratory pathway during the
synthesis of fats and proteins and are used in anabolism. Formation of substances is
called anabolism and breakdown of substances is known as catabolism. Since the
respiratory pathway is responsible for both catabolism and anabolism, it is known as
the amphibolic pathway.
 SECTION—C (Very Short Answer Type Question) 2 Marks

1. Why are bryophytes considered amphibians of the plant kingdom?

Ans. Bryophytes are considered amphibians of the plant kingdom because they
depend on water for the movement of male gametes called antherozoids to reach
archegonium for fertilization.

2. What is Taxonomy?
Ans. Taxonomy is the process of classifying and nomenclature of all living things
including into different groups according to their similarities and differences.

3. What is taxon? Give a few examples.

Ans. A taxon is a group of organisms of any level in the hierarchical classification
based on some common characteristics. For eg; all the insects are classified under
one phylum-Arthropoda. A taxa includes-kingdom, phylum, class, order, family,
genus.

4. Why is the maize grain considered as a fruit and not as a seed?

Ans. The maize grain is a ripened ovary with a ripened ovule. That is why it is
considered a fruit and not as a seed. The fruit is known as a caryopsis. In this, the
per carp is fused with the seed coat.

5. What are Adventitious roots?

Ans. The roots developed from different parts of the plant other than radicle are
called as the Adventitious roots.

6. Aerobic respiration has more efficiency. Justify.

Ans. In this process, a single molecule of glucose can yield up to 36 ATP
molecules. In anaerobic respiration or fermentation, there are only 2 molecules of
ATP from every molecule of glucose, which in comparison is lesser than aerobic
respiration. Hence aerobic respiration is more efficient.

7. Which plant hormone is used to manipulate and stimulate the maturation of

sugarcane crop?
Ans. Ethylene, the ripening hormone in plants helps in maturation of sugarcane
crops by increasing the storage of sucrose in plants.
8. What are Tyloses?
Ans. Tyloses are balloon like ingrowths of parenchyma protoplasm into the lumen
of vessels and tracheids, making them non functional by blocking their lumen.

9. What is respiratory quotient (RQ)?

Ans. Respiratory quotient is the ratio of volume of CO2 evolved in repiration to the
volume of O2 consumed in it.
RQ for carbohydrates =1, fats & proteins <1.

10. What are plasmids?

Ans. Plasmid is extrachromosomal, self replicating, double stranded DNA molecule.
There are various types of plasmids like F-plasmid, R-plasmid, Nif-plasmid etc.

11. Give the role of botanical gardens?

Ans. (i) Botanical gardens provide plant material for taxonomic studies:
(ii) Plant species are grown for identification.
(iii) Plants are grown for research.
(iv) To maintain records of local flora.

12. What is taxonomic key? How is it helpful in the identification and classification
of an organism?
Ans. Key is a taxonomic aid for identification of unknown organisms based on
similarities and dissimilarities. These are analytical in nature and separate keys are
needed for every taxonomic category e.g., Genus, Order, Family, etc for
identification of organisms.

13. What are Trichomes ? State their functions.

Ans. Trichomes are multicellular epidermal hairs on the stem or fruits. Trichomes
help in protection, dispersal of seeds and reduction in water loss.
14. What is phellogen? What does it produce?
Ans. Phellogen is called cork cambium. It is developed to protect the inner tissues in
dicot stems. It develops from hypodermal cells which are collenchymatous or even
from epidermalcells near to cortex. Phellogen or cork cambium produce secondary
tissue more on outer sidethen inner side.

15. Differentiate between enderch and exarch conditions.

Endarch condition Exarch condition
1.Protoxylem towards pith and 1. Protoxylem towards periphery and
metaxylem towards periphery metaxylem towards pith
2.Found in Stem 2. Found in root.
16. What is wood?
Ans. Botanically, a secondary xylem is called as wood. It is formed by the
metabolism of the plant i.e. secondary growth by cambium & constitutes the bulk of
plant body in dicot stem & dicot root.

17. What is hard wood and soft wood?

(i)Hardwood:- It is wood produced by angiosperms. It consists mainly of xylem
vessels &hence called porous wood.
(ii)Soft wood:- It is wood produced by gymnosperm. It consists mainly of xylem
trachieds hence called non-porous wood.

18. What is Rhizome? Give its two examples.

Ans. Rhizome is a prostrate & a thickened underground stem having distinct nodes,
internodes scales, leaves as well as buds. It creeps horizontally under the ground eg.
Ginger, Turmeric.

19. Give reason to justify that onion bulb is a modified stem?

Ans. Onion bulb is a modified, highly condensed & disc like. It has a large number
of fleshy scale leaves. Terminal & auxiliary buds are present. On the lower posterior
side a cluster of adventitious roots are present.

20. What is inflorescence? What are its two types?

Ans. The arrangement of flowers an the floral axis is called inflorescence.
Inflorescence are of two major types:-
(a)Racemose inflorescence:- main axis continues to grow & flowers are borne
laterally inacropetal succession.
(b)Cymose inflorescence: - main axis terminates in a flower hence, is limited in
growth, flowers are borne in basipetal order.

21. .“Underground parts of a plant are not always roots” justify the statement.
Ans. Usually roots develop below the ground. But in potato, the stem gets modified
into “tuber” like structure for the storage of reserve food material. These tubers
develop & grow under the ground. Potato is a stem because it bears scale leaves,
buds, nodes etc.

22. Why we red tides caused and why are they harmful?
Ans: Rapid multiplication of dinoflagellates like Gonyaulax. Harmful as they
release toxins which kill marine animals.

23. Sphagnum has lot of economic importance. Justify.

Ans. Provide peat used as fuel: used as packing material for trans- shipment of
living material.
24. Write two important characteristics of gymnosperms?
Ans. (i)It is a group of vascular plant which possess naked seeds attached to surface
of megasporophyll
(ii)Megasporophyllis not folded to form on ovary so there is no fruit formation.

25. What is red Drop?

Ans. It is the occasional fall in photosynthetic yield beyond red region of spectrum.
This is also called Emerson effect.

26. What is bolting? Which hormone is responsible for it?

Ans. Enormous elongation of inter nodes resulting increase in stem height.
Gibberellins cause the plants to bolt and flower.

27. What is meant by abscission? Name the phytohormone involved in it.

Ans.
• Premature fall of leaf and fruit is called abscission.
*Abscisic acid

28. What is nitrification? Name any two nitrifying bacteria in soil?

Ans. Nitrification is the process of conversion of ammonia into nitrites. It involves
two steps:-
(i) Ammonium ions are oxidized into nitrates by the bacteria like Nitrosomonas and
Nitrosococcus.
(ii) Nitrites are converted into nitrates by the bacteria like Nitrobacter.

29. Briefly describe the process of heterothallism with respect to members of

fungi?
Ans.when two fusing gametes belong to two genetically different strains, they are
called heterothallic species and the process is called heterothallism. Gametes are
formed on different thallus. E.g., Mucor, Rhizopus stolonifer.

30. Define diffusion pressure deficit (DPD)?

Ans: The diffusion pressure of pure water is maximum (taken as zero) and it
decreases due to addition of solute. This reduction of diffusion of pure water due to
addition of solute is called diffusion pressure deficit.
 SECTION—D (Multiple Choice Questions) 1 Mark

1. Cyanobacteria are classified under which kingdom?

Ans. Cyanobacteria are classified under kingdom Monera.

2. What do you mean by anisogamy?

Ans. It is a type of sexual reproduction that involves the fusion of two motile
gametes that are dissimilar in size.

3. Which group of algae has mannitol as the reserve food material?

Ans. The Phaeophyceae group or the brown algae has mannitol as the reserve food
material.

4. What cells curl the leaves in plants during water stress?

Ans. Bulliform cells present in the upper epidermis of monocot leaves make the
leaves curl during water stress.

5. Zinc-deficient plants exhibit reduced biosynthesis of?

Ans. Auxin

6. Deficiency of what is indicated by yellowish edges in leaves?

Ans. Nitrogen deficiency

7. The original specimen used by author for the nomenclature of plant is called?
Ans. Holotype

8. Unicellular prokaryotes are included in kingdom?

Ans. Monera

9. Name the tissue represented by the jute fibres used for making the ropes.
Ans. Selerenchyma.

10. Where are bulliform cells found in Ieaves?

Ans. Bulliform cells are found in the upper epidermis of monocot leaves.

11. Which forms the cambial ring in a dicot stem during the secondary growth?
Ans. Fascicular and intrafascicular strips of meristem.

12. Name the anatomical layer in the root from which the lateral branches of root
originate.
Ans. Pericycle
13. Which tissue of the leaf contains chloroplast?
Ans. Mesophyll tissue.

14. When does vascular bundle refer to as closed bundles.

Ans. When cambium is absent.

15. Name the aerating pores in the bark of stems.

Ans. Lenticels.

16. Why xylem and phloem are called complex tissue?

Ans. Because they are made up of more than one type of cells that work together as
a unit.

17. Name the type of wood in which vessels are absent.

Ans. Soft wood eg. Pinus.

18. Which part of opuntia is modified to form spines?

Ans. Leaves

19. In mangroves, Pneumatophores are the modified adventitious roots How these
roots help to the plant?
Ans. pncumatohores in mangroves help in respiration.

20. Which part of mango fruit is edible?

Ans. Mesocarp

21. What is the name given to the cotyledon in case of Monocots.

Ans.scutellum.

22. What is placentation?

Ans. The arrangement of ovule in the ovary is called placentation.

23. What is false fruit?

Ans. When floral parts other than ovary takes part in formation of fruit & become
edible, it is called false fruit.

24. What are runners?

Ans. A long creeping stem with long internodes running horizontally on the surface
of the soil is called a runner.
25. Why are flowers of mustard referred to as hypogynous.
Ans. Because ovary is situated at the top & other three whorls are inserted below
the pistil.

26. Define aestivation .

Ans. The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in a floral bud is known a
aestivation.

27. Nostoc and Anabaena have specialised cells called heterocyst’s. What is the
function of these cells.
Ans:Help in nitrogen fixation.

28. Which group comprises of single celled eukaryotes only?

Ans:Kingdom Protista.

29. Which organisms are the chief producers in oceans?

Ans:Diatoms

30. Who introduced the five kingdom classification of organisms?

Ans.R.H. Whittaker (1969)

31. To which kingdom the multicellular decomposers belong?

Ans.Kingdom fungi

32. Expand PPLO.

Ans:Pleuropneumonia like organisms.
33. Name the five kingdoms in which the organisms are grouped together?
Ans:Monera, protista, fungi, plantae & animalia.

34. Which organisms are known as “Jokers of plant kingdom”

Ans.2Mycoplasma

35. In which class of fungi sexual reproduction does not occur?

Ans.Deuteromycetes

36. Define gemma.

Ans. Gemma are green, multicellular, asexual buds which develop in receptacles
called as gemma cups.

37. Which group of plants is regarded as first Terrestrial planTS? Why?

Ans. Pteridophytes. As they possess vascular tissues – xylem and phloem.
38. Name seedless vascular plants.
Ans. Pteridophytes.

39. What are rhizoids?

Ans. Rhizoids are slender, unicellular or multicellular hair like structure, which
penetrate in the moist soil & absorb the water for plants.

40. What is a cone?

Ans. The fruiting body of gymnosperm which consists of micro & megasporophyll
are called as cones.

41. Name the vascular plants which produces only spores but no flowers or seeds?
Ans. Pteridophytes.

42. What are the two main classes of bryophytes?

Ans. Liverwort & Mosses.

43. Name two anti-transpirants?

Ans. Phenyl mercuric acetate, Absissic acid.

44. What is the water potential of pure water?

Ans. Zero bars.

45. What will happen to water potential when a solute is added to water?
Ans. Water potential will decrease.

46. In which organelle does kreb’s cycle occur in living cells?

Ans. Mitochondria.

47. Mention the conditions under which

(i) RQ is 1 (ii) R.Q is less than 1
Ans. (i) If carbohydrates are used as substrate and are fully oxidized the R.Q will be
1.
(ii) If fats are used in respiration, the R.Q well be less than 1.

48. Name the molecule which is terminal acceptor of electron.

Ans. Oxygen.

49. Where does ETC found in eukaryotic cell?

Ans. Mitochondrial membrane.
50. Write the name of end product of glycolysis.
Ans. Pyruvic acid

51. Name the first stable product formed in Kerb’s cycle.

Ans. Citric acid.

52. Name the cell – organelles involved in photorespiration.

Ans. Mitcohondria, chloroplast and peroxisomes.

53. What is the end product of light reaction?

Ans. ATP, NADPH2 and O2

54. How many molecules of ATP are required for synthesis of one molecule of
glucose in and Pathways ?
Ans. In pathway = 18 ATP molecules
In pathway = 30 ATP molecules

55. Which one of the photosystems can carry on photophosphorylation

independently?
Ans. PS-I.

56. Name the enzyme which is found abundantly in the world.

Ans. RuBisCO.

57. Name the scientist who Proposed the C4 pathway.

Ans. Hatch and Slack.

58. Where does carbon fixation occur in chloroplast.

Ans. Carbon fixation takes place in stroma.

59. Which compound acts as CO2, acceptor in Calvin cycle?

Ans. Ribulose 1,5 bisphosphate.

60. Which hormone act as “stress hormone”?

Ans. Abscisic acid (ABA)

61. Name the growth regulator which was first isolated from corn kernel and
coconut milk?
Ans. Zeatin (Cytokinin) was first isolated from corn kernel and coconut milk.

62. Name the hormone which is responsible for elongation of intermodal regions of
green plants.
Ans. Ethylene
63. Write the cause of ‘Bakane’ disease of rice.
Ans. Gibberalla fujikuroi.

64. Name the plant hormone which was first isolated from human urine.
Ans. Auxin.

65. A famer observed some broad-leaved weeds in a wheat crop farm. Which plant
hormone would you suggest remove them?
Ans. 2.4-D

66. Flowering in certain pIant occur only when they are exposed to low
temperature for a few weeks. name this phenomenon.
Ans. Vernalisation

67. Name a soil bacteria which is capable of converting ammonia to nitrates.

Ans . Nitrosomonas.

68. Give the function of enzyme nitrate reductase.

Ans. It reduces nitrate ions to ammonia.

69. Give two examples of photosynthetic micro-organisms, which also fix

atmospheric nitrogen.
Ans. Anabaena, Nostoc.

70. Define hydroponics.

Ans. The technique of growing plants in a nutrient solution without soil is called
hydroponics.
 GUESS PAPER ZOOLOGY WITH SOLUTIONS

CLASS 11TH SESSION 2020-21

Q 1 : What are the peculiar features that you find in parasitic platyhelminthes?

Ans: Taenia (Tapeworm) and Fasciola (liver fluke) are examples of parasitic
plathyhelminthes.
Peculiar features in parasitic plathyhelminthes are as follows.
(1) They have dorsiventrally flattened body and bear hooks and suckers to get attached inside
the body of the host.
(2) Their body is covered with thick tegument, which protects them from the action of
digestive juices of the host.
(3) The tegument also helps in absorbing nutrients from the host’s body.
(4) They posses appendages in the form of hooks and suckers to get attached with the host.
Q2: What are the reasons that you can think of for the arthropods to constitute the
largest group of the animal kingdom?

Ans: The phylum, Arthropods, consists of more than two-third of the animal species on
earth. The reasons for the success of arthropods are as follows.
(i) Jointed legs that allow more mobility on land.
(ii) Hard exoskeleton made of chitin that protects the body.
(iii) The hard exoskeleton also reduces water loss from the body of arthropods making them
more adapted to terrestrial conditions.

Q3: “All vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates” justify the
statement?

Ans: The characteristic features of the phylum Chordate include the presence of a notochord
and paired pharyngeal gill slits. In sub-phylum Vertebrata, the notochord present in embryos
gets replaced by a cartilaginous or bony vertebral column in adults. Thus, it can be said that
all vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates.

Q4:How important is the presence of air bladder in pisces?

Ans: Gas bladder or air bladder is a gas filled sac present in fishes. It helps in maintaining
buoyancy. Thus, it helps fishes to ascend or descend and stay in the water current.

Q5: What are the modifications that are observed in birds that help them fly?

Ans: Birds have undergone many structural adaptations to suit their aerial life. Some of these
adaptations are as follows.
(i) Streamlined body for rapid and smooth movement.
(ii) Covering of feathers for insulation.
(iii) Forelimbs modified into wings and hind limbs used for walking, perching, and
swimming
(iv) Presence of pneumatic bones to reduce weight.
(v) Presence of additional air sacs to supplement respiration.

Q6:What are nuclear pores? State their function.

Ans: Nuclear pores are tiny holes present in the nuclear membrane of the nucleus. They are
formed by the fusion of two nuclear membranes.
These holes allow specific substances to be transferred into a cell and out from it. They allow
molecules such as RNA and proteins to move in both directions, between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm.

Q7: Both Lysosomes and vacuoles are endomembrane structures, yet they differ in
terms of their functions. Comment.

Ans: Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicular structures holding a variety of enzymes such
as lipases, proteases, and carbohydrases. The purpose of lysosomes is to digest worn out
cells. They are involved in the intracellular digestion of foreign food particles and microbes.
Sometimes, they also act as suicidal bags. They are involved in the self digestion of cells.
They are a kind of waste disposal systems of a cell. On the other hand, vacuoles are storage
sacs found in cells. They might store the waste products of cells. In unicellular organisms,
the food vacuole contains the consumed food particles. It also plays a role in expelling
excess water and some wastes from the cell.

Q8: Describe the events taking place during Interphase.

Ans: Interphase involves a series of changes that prepare a cell for division. It is the period
during which the cell experiences growth and DNA replication in an orderly manner.
Interphase is divided into three phases.
(i) G1 phase
(ii) S phase
(iii) G2 phase

G1 phase: It is the stage during which the cell grows and prepares its DNA for replication.
In this phase, the cell is metabolically active.

S Phase: It is the stage during which DNA synthesis occurs. In this phase, the amount of
DNA (per Cell) doubles, but the chromosome number remains the same.

G2 Phase: In this phase, the cell continues to grow and prepares itself for division. The
proteins and RNA required for mitosis are synthesised during this stage.

Q9: Why is mitosis called equation division?

Ans: Mitosis is the process of cell division wherein the chromosomes replicate and get
equally distributed into two daughter cells. The chromosome number in each daughter cell is
equal to that in the parent cell, i.e., diploid. Hence, mitosis is known as equational division.

Q10: Find example where the four daughter cells from meiosis are equal in size and
where they are found unequal in size.

Ans: (a) Spermatogenesis or the formation or sperms in human beings occurs by the process
of meiosis. It results in the formation of four equal-sized daughter cells.
(b) Oogenesis or the formation of ovum in human beings occurs by the process of meiosis. It
results in the formation of four daughter cells which are unequal in size.

Q11: Can there be mitosis without DNA replication in S phase?

Ans: Mitotic cell division cannot take place without DNA replication in S phase. Two
important events take place during S phase – one is the synthesis or duplication of DNA and
the other is the duplication of the centriole. DNA duplication is important division.
Therefore, the duplication of DNA is an important step.

Q12: Can there be DNA replication without cell division?

Ans: There can be DNA replication without cell division. During cell division, the parent cell
gets divided into two daughter cells. However, if there is a repeated replication of DNA
without any cell division, then this DNA will keep accumulating inside the cell. This would
increase the volume of the cell nucleus, thereby causing cell expansion. An example of DNA
duplication without cell division is commonly observed in the salivary glands of Drosophila.
The chromosome undergoing repeated DNA duplication is known as Polytene chromosome.

Q13: What are macromolecules? Give examples.

Ans: Macromolecules are large complex molecules that occur in colloidal state in
intercellular fluid. They are formed by the polymerization of low molecular weight
micromolecules. Polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids are common examples of
macromolecules.

Q14: Find out and make a list of proteins used as therapeutic agents. Find other
applications of proteins (e.g., cosmetics, etc)

Ans: Proteins used as therapeutic agents are as follows:

(1) Thrombin and fibrinogen –They help in blood clotting.
(2) Antigen (antibody) – it helps in blood transfusion.
(3) Insulin – It helps in maintaining blood glucose level in the body.
(4) Renin – In helps in osmoregulation.

Proteins are also commonly used in the manufacture of cosmetics. Toxins and as biological
buffers.
Q15: Describe the important properties of enzymes.

Ans: Properties of enzymes are as under:

(1) Enzymes are complex macromolecules with high molecular weight.
(2) They catalyze biochemical reactions in a cell. They help in the breakdown of large
molecules into smaller molecules or bring together two smaller molecules to form a larger
molecule.
(3) Enzymes do not start a reaction. However, they help in accelerating it.
(4) Enzymes affect the rate of biochemical reaction and not the direction.
(5) Most of the enzymes have high turnover number. Turnover number of an enzyme is the
number of molecules of a substance that is acted upon by an enzyme per minute. High
turnover number of enzymes increases the efficiency of reaction.
(6) Enzymes are specific in action.
(7) Enzymatic activity decreases with increase in temperature.
(8) They show maximum activity at an optimum pH of 6-8.
(9) The velocity of enzyme increases with increase in substrate concentration and then,
ultimately reaches maximum velocity.

Q16: Distinguish between Dense regular and dense irregular connective tissues.

Ans:

Dense regular connective tissues Dense irregular connective tissues.

1 In dense regular connective tissues,
collagen fibres are present in rows
between parallel bundles of fibres.
2 They are present in tendons and
ligaments.
3 It has great tensile strength
In dense irregular connective tissues,
fibres are arranged irregularly.
They are present in the skin.
It has low tensile strength

Q17: Given the dental formula of human beings?

Ans: The dental formula expresses the arrangement of teeth in each half of the upper jaw and
the lower jaw. The entire formula is multiplied by two to express the total number of teeth.
2102
The dental formula for milk in human is: 2102 × 2=20

Each half of the upper jaw and lower jaw has 2 Incisors, 1 Canine, and 2 Molars. Premolars
are absent in milk teeth.
2123
The dental formula for permanent teeth in humans is: 2123 × 2 = 32

Each half of the upper jaw and the lower jaw has 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolar, and 3
molars. An adult human has 32 permanent teeth.
Q18: What are the basic layers of the wall of alimentary canal?

Ans: The walls of the alimentary canal are made up of four layers. These are as follows:

(i) Serosa is the outermost layer of the human alimentary canal. It is made up of a thin layer
of secretory epithelial cells, with some connective tissues underneath.
(ii) Muscularis is a thin layer of smooth muscles arranged into an outer longitudinal layer
and an inner circular layer.
(iii) Sub-mucosa is a layer of loose connective tissues, containing nerves, blood, and lymph
vessels. It supports the mucosa.
(iv) Mucosa is the innermost lining of the lumen of the alimentary canal. It is mainly
involved in absorption and secretion.

Q19: How does pepsinogen change into its active form?

Ans: Pepsinogen is a precursor of pepsin stored in the stomach walls. It is converted into
pepsin by hydrochloric acid. Pepsin is the activated in the form of pepsinogen.

Pepsinogen--------HCL------------>Pepsin + Inactive peptide

(Inactive) (Active)

Q20:What would happen if HCl is not secreted in the stomach?

Ans: Hydrochloric acid is secreted by the glands present on the stomach walls. It dissolves
bits of food and creates an acidic medium. The acidic medium allows pepsinogen to be
converted into pepsin. Pepsin plays an important role in the digestion of proteins. Therefore,
if HCl were not secreted in the stomach, then pepsin would not be activated. This would
affect protein digestion. A pH of about 1.8 is necessary for proteins to be digested. This pH
is activated by HCl.

Q21: Bile juice contains no digestive enzymes, yet it is important for digestion. Why?

Ans: Bile is a digestive juice secreted by the liver, Although it does not contain any digestive
enzymes. It plays an important role in digestion of fats. Bile juice has bile salts such as
bilirubin and biliverdin. These break down large fat globules into smaller globules so that the
pancreatic enzymes can easily act on them. This process is known as emulsification of fats.
Bile juice also makes the medium alkaline and activates lipase.
Q22: What is tidal volume?

Ans: Tidal volume is the volume of air inspired or expired during normal respiration. It is
about 6000 to 8000 mL of air per minute. In a healthy young human adult tidal volume is
approximately 500 mL per inspiration.

Q23: What is the effect of pCO2 on oxygen transport?

Ans: pCO2 plays an important role in the transportation of oxygen. At the alveolus, the low
pCO2 and high pO2 favours the formation of haemoglobin. At the tissues, the high pCO2 and
low pO2 favours the dissociation of oxygen from oxyhaemoglobin. Hence, the affinity of
haemoglobin for oxygen is enhanced by the decrease of pCO2 in blood.
Therefore oxygen is transported in blood as oxyhaemoglobin and oxygen dissociates from it
at the tissues.

Q24: Why do we consider blood as a connective tissue?

Ans: Connective tissues have cells scattered throughout an extra-cellular matrix. They
connect different body systems. Blood is considered as a type of connective tissue because of
two reasons.
(i) Like the other connective tissues, blood is mesodermal in origin.
(ii) It connects the body systems, transports oxygen and nutrients to all the parts of the body
and removes the waste products.

Q25: What is the difference between lymph and blood?

Ans:

Lymph
1 It is a colourless fluid that does not
contain RBCs.
2 It contains plasma and lesser number
of WBCs
3 It helps in body defence and is a part
of the immune system.
4 Its plasma lacks proteins.
5 The flow of lymph is slow
Blood
It is a red-coloured fluid that contains RBCs.
It contains plasma, RBCs WBCs, and
platelets.
It is associated with the circulation of oxygen
and carbon dioxide, nutrients harmones,
waste products etc.
Its plasma has proteins, calcium, and
phosphorus.
The flow of blood in the blood vessels is fast.

Q25: Sino-atrial (SA) node is called the pacemaker of our heart. Why?

Ans: Sinoatrial node is a specialised bundle of neurons located in the upper part of the right
atrium of the heart. The cardiac impulse originating from the SA node triggers a sequence of
electrical events in the heart, thereby controlling the sequence of muscle contraction that
pumps blood out of the heart. Since SA node initiates and maintains the rhythmicity of the
heart. SA node is also called heart within heart.

Q26: What is the significance of atrio-ventricular node and atrio-ventricular bundle in

the functioning of heart?

Ans: The atrioventricular (AV) node is present in the right atrium, near the base of the inter-
auricular septum that separates the right auricle from the ventricle. It gives rise to the bundle
of His that conducts cardiac impulses from the auricles to the ventricles. As the bundle of
His passes the ventricle along the inter-ventricular septum. It divides into two branches – the
right ventricle and the left ventricle. The end branches of this conducting system then forms
a network of Purkinje fibres that penetrate into the myocardium. The auricular contraction
initiated by the wave of excitation from the sino-atrial node (SA node) stimulates the atrio-
ventricular node. Thereby leading to the contraction of ventricles through the bundle of His
and purkinje fibres. Hence, the atrio-ventricular node and the atrioventricular bundle play a
role in the contraction of ventricles.

Q27: Define a cardiac cycle and the cardiac output?

Ans: Cardiac cycle is defined as the complete cycle of events in the heart from the beginning
of one heart beat to the beginning of the next. It comprises three stages- atrial systole,
ventricular systole, and joint diastole. Cardiac output is defined as the amount of blood
pumped out by the ventricles in a minute.

Q28: What is the significance of Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) in kidney function?

Ans: Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) is a complex structure made up of a few cells of

glomerulus, distal tubule, and afferent and
efferent arterioles. It is located in a
specialised region of a nephron, wherein the
afferent arteriole and the distal apparatus
contains specialised cells of the afferent
arteriole known as juxtaglomerular cells.
These cells contain the enzyme rennin that
can sense blood pressure. When glomerular
blood flow ( glomerular blood pressure or
glomerular filtration rate) decreases. It
activates juxtaglomerular cells release
rennin.

Q29: Define Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR).

Ans: Glomerular filtration rate is the amount of glomerular filtrate formed in all the nephrons
of both the kidneys per minute. In a healthy individual, it is about 125 mL/minute.
Glomerular filtrate contains glucose, amino acids, sodium, potassium, urea, uric acid, ketone
bodies, and large amounts of water.

Q30: Explain the autoregulatory mechanism of GFR?

Ans: The mechanism by which the kidney regulates the glomerular filtration rate is
autoregulative. It is carried out by the juxtaglomerular apparatus. Juxtaglomerular apparatus
is a microscopic structure located between the vascular pole of the renal corpuscle and the
returning distal convoluted tubule fo the same nephron. It plays a role in regulating the renal
blood flow and glomerular filtration rate. When there is a fall in the glomerular filtration
rate, it activates the juxtaglomerular cells to release rennin. This stimulates the glomerular
blood flow, thereby bringing the GFR back to normal. Renin brings the GFR back to normal
by the activation of the rennin angiotensin mechanism.

Q31: Explain micturition?

Ans: Micturition is the process by which the urine from the urinary bladder is excreted. As
the urine accumulates, the muscular walls of the bladder expand. The walls stimulate the
sensory nerves in the bladder, setting up a reflex action. This reflex stimulates the urge to
pass out urine. To discharge urine, the urethral sphincter relaxes and the smooth muscles of
the bladder contract. This forces the urine out from the bladder. An adult human excretes
about 1-10-.5 litres of urine per day.

Q32: What is peripheral Nervous system?

Ans: It consists of nerves and ganglia. Ganglia are a cluster of nerves. Peripheral Nervous
system connects central nervous system to different organs and limbs.
Peripheral nervous system is divided into Autonomic Nervous System and Somatic Nervous
system. Autonomic nervous system is associated with communication to internal organs and
glands. Somatic nervous system communicates with sensory organs and voluntary muscles.

Autonomic Nervous system is further divided into Parasympathetic Nervous system and
sympathetic Nervous system.

Q33: Distinguish between blind spot and yellow spot.

Ans:
Blind spot Yellow spot
1. Blind spot is a spot on the retina Yellow spot is a small area on the retina
 present at the point of origin of the present at the posterior pole of the eye, lateral
optic nerve. to the blind spot.
2. Photoreceptor cells are absent from Only cones are present in this region.
this region.
3. They are insensitive to light as both They are sensitive to bright light as cones are
rods and cones are absent. present.

Q34: Explain the Mechanism through which a sound produces a nerve impulse in the
inner ear.

Ans: The pinna of the external ear collects the sound waves and directs them to the tympanic
membrane (ear drum) via the external auditory canal. The ear drum then vibrates the sound
waves and conducts them to the internal ear through the ear ossicles. The ear ossicles
increase the intensity of the sound waves. These vibrating sound waves are conducted
through the oval window to the fluid in the cochlea. Consequently a movement is created in
the lymph. This movement produces vibrations in the basilar membrane, which in turn
stimulate the auditory hair cells. These cells generate a nerve impulse, conducting it to the
auditory cortex of the brain via afferent fibres. The auditory cortex region interprets the
nerve impulse and sound is recognised.

Q35: Give a brief account of Mechanism of synaptic transmission:

Ans: Mechanism of synaptic transmission: Synapse is a junction between two neurons. It

is present between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of next neuron separated
by a cleft.

There are two ways of synaptic transmission.

(1) Chemical transmission- When a nerve impulse reaches the end plate of axon, it releases
a neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) across the synaptic cleft. This chemical is synthesized in
cell body of the neuron and is transported to the axon terminal. The acetylcholine diffuses
across the cleft and blinds to the receptors present on the membrane of next neuron. This
causes depolarization of membrane and initiates an action potential.

(2) Electrical transmission- In this type of transmission, an electric current is formed in the
neuron. This electric current generates an action potential and leads to transmission of nerve
impulse across the nerve fibre. This represents a faster method of nerve condition than the
chemical method of transmission.

Q36: Name the hormones secreted by Thyroid Gland?

Ans: It is located on either side of the larynx. It is a largest Endocrine Gland. It secretes two
Hormones –Thyroid Hormone and Calcitonin.
Thyroid Gland is made up of two types of Cellls- Follicular cells that secrete thyroxine and
parafollicular cells that secretes calcitonin.

Thyroid hormone stimulates sugar transport, stimulates metabolic activity by increasing the
number of mitochondria, stimulates synthesis of respiratory enzymes. It also accumulates
iodine in blood which is required component of thyroid function.

Calcitonin decreases blood calcium level by decreasing the mobilization of calcium from the
bone.

Q37: Write short notes on the functions of Insulin and Glucagon:

Ans: Insulin and glucagon- Glucagon and insulin are secreted by cells of pancreas. They
regulate the blood glucose level in the body. 𝛼𝛼-cells secrete glucagon that maintains a normal
blood glucose level in the body, where 𝛽𝛽-cells secrete insulin that regulates the storage of
glycogen in the liver.

Function of insulin: Insulin stimulates glycogenesis (conversion of glucose to glycogen).

The rapid conversion of glucose from the blood to glycogen in hepatocytes and adipocytes
results into a decreased glucose level. Insulin also prevents the formation of glucose from
no-carbohydrate substances such as proteins and fats. Hence, it acts as a regulator of
carbohydrate metabolism.

Function of glucagon- The main function of glucagon is to increase the level of glucose
when there is a deficiency of glucose in the body. This process is known as glycogenolysis.

Q38: Give examples of Hyperglycemic hormone and hypoglycaemic hormone.

Ans: Hyperglycemic hormone is glucagon, while hypoglycaemic hormone is insulin.

Q39: Write short notes on the functions of Androgens:

Ans: Androgens- the Leydig cells of testis produce androgens such as testosterone.
Testosterone is a male sex hormone that regulates the development of secondary sex
characteristics such as facial hair, hoarse voice, development of reproductive organ, etc.
Androgens also regulate the development, maturation, and functions of various male
accessory organs such as epididymis and prostate glands. It stimulates spermatogenesis and
formation of mature sperms. It also influences male sexual behaviour.

Long Answer Type Questions with Answers

(5 marks Each)
Q40: Difference between Mitosis and Meiosis.
 Mitosis Meiosis
1. In mitotic division, a single division Meiotic division involves two successive
results in two daughter cells. divisions – meiosis I and meiosis II and these
divisions result in four daughter cells.
2. Mitosis is known as equational Meiosis I is known as reductional division.
division. This is because the daughter This is because the chromosome number is
cells have the same diploid number of reduced to half.
chromosomes as the parent. Meiosis II is known as equational division.
This is because the sister chromatids separate
and the chromosome number remains the same.
3. Prophase is short and does not Prophase I is very long and comprises 5 phases
comprise any phase. –leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, and
diakinesis.
4. There is no pairing of chromosomes, In the zygotene stage of prophase, the pairing
crossing-over, or chiasmata-formation of chromosomes occurs. During pachytene, the
during prophase. crossing-over occurs. The chiasmata are formed
in the diplotene stage.
5. Synaptonemal complex is not formed. Synaptonemal complex is formed during the
zygotene stage of prophase I.
6. Anaphase involves the separation of During anaphase I, the homologous
the chromatids of each chromosome. chromosomes separate, while the chromatids
remain attached at their centromeres.
During anaphase II, the chromatids separate as
a result of the splitting of the centromere.
7. Mitosis plays a significant role in the Meiosis brings about variation and maintains
healing, repair, and growth of a cell. the chromosome number from generation to
generation.

Q41: Difference between 80S Ribosome and 70S Ribosome.

 80S Ribosome 70S Ribosome
1. They occur only in eukaryotic cells. It occurs in Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cell
2. They occur inside the cytoplasm of They are present free in cytoplasm
eukaryotes either freely or attached
to ER.
3. The sedimentation co-efficient is 80. The sedimentation co-efficient is 70.
4. The two subunits are 40S and 60S. The two units are 30s and 50s
Q42: Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell.
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
1. Well defined nucleus is absent Well defined nucleus is present
2. Nucleus contains prochromosomes Nucleus contains chromosomes
3. Nucleiod or genophore is present Nucleiod is absent
4. All organelles are absent except All organelles are present including ribosome
ribosome
5. 70s ribosome is present Both 70s and 80s ribosome’s are present
6. Circular DNA which are called Plasmids are absent
plasmids are present
7. 7. Cell wall is present Cell wall is present in fungi and plants but
absent in animals
8. Cell wall is made up of In fungi cell wall is made up of Chitin and in
peptidoglycans plants cell wall is made up of cellulose
9. Hoponoids acts as stabilizers Cholesterol acts as stabilizer
10. Appendages are present in the form Appendages are present in the form of cilia and
of sex plii, fimbrae, and flagella flagella

Q43: Difference between Cilia and Flagella.

Characteristics Cillia Flagella
Definition Cilia are short, hair like Flagella are long, threadlike
appendages extending from appendages on the surface of a living
the surface of a living cell. cell.
Number Numerous Less in Number
Length Short and hair like organelle Long wipe like organelle (150µ)
(5-10µ)
Occurrence Occurs throughout the cell Presence at one end or two ends or all
surface. over the surface.
Cross section Nexin arm present. Nexin arm absent
Density Many (hundreds) per cell Few (less than 10) per cell
Beating Cilia beat in a coordinated They beat independent of each other.
rhythm either simultaneously
(synchronous) or one after
the other (metachronic).
Motion Rotational, like a motor, very Wave-like, undulating, sinusoidal,
fast moving slow movement compared to cilia
Found in Eukaryotic cells Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
Energy Production Cilia use ‘kinesin’ which has
an ATPase activity that
produces energy to perform
the movement.
Functions Helps in locomotion, feeding
circulation, aeration, etc.
Examples Cilia present in Paramecium
Flagella are powered by the proton-
motive force by the plasma
membrane.
Help mainly in locomotion only.
Flagella present in Salmonella

Q44: Difference between Chordates and Non chordates.

The basis of Chordate Non-chordate
comparison
Notochord Chordates have a notochord at Notochord is not present at any stage
some stage in their life. in the life of a non-chordate.
Respiration Respiration in chordates is Respiration in non-chordates takes
through gills or lungs. place through body surface, gills or
trachea.
The Central The central nervous system of The central nervous system of non-
Nervous chordates is hollow and dorsal. chordates is solid and either ventral or
System lateral within the body.
Post-anal-tail Chordates have a post-anal-tail Non-chordates do not at all have a
at some stage in their life. post-anal-tail in their stages of life.
The Pharyngeal The pharyngeal gill slits occur Pharyngeal gill slits do not occur in
Gill Slits in the adult or embryonic stages non-chordates.
of chordates.
Circulatory Chordates feature a closed Non-chordates the body features an
System circulatory system. open type of circulatory system and
front side central nervous system.
Heart The chordates’ heart is ventral. Non-chordates the heart is usually
dorsal if present.
Red Blood Chordates may either have red Non-chordates do not have red blood
Cells blood cells or not, in case the cells and in case, hemoglobin and
Component red blood cells are present, their other respiratory pigments are present,
content will have hemoglobin. they will be found suspended in the
blood plasma.
Examples Examples of chordates include: Examples of non-chordates include
Hemichordata, cyclostomata, protozoa, Arthropods, annelids etc.
Aves, Reptiles, Amphibia and
mammals.
Reproduction Reproduction in chordates is Reproduction in non-chordates is
predominantly sexual. predominantly asexual.

Q45: Difference between Osteichthyes and chonrichthyes.

Chonrichthyes Osteichthyes
1. The endoskeleton is cartilaginous they are The endoskeleton is bony therefore they are
 also called cartilaginous fishes
2. The mouth is ventral in position.
3. The body is covered with placoid scales,
the skin is tough.
4. Paired pelvic fins are provided with
claspers in males.
5. The tail is heterocercal or unsymmetrical.
6. The head is dorsoventrally flattened.
7. Gill slits, usually five pairs, open sepa-
rately and directly to the exterior.
also called bony fishes
The mouth is apical or terminal in position.
The body is covered with cycloid or
ctenoid or ganoid scales. The skin is soft.
Claspers are absent.
The tail is homocercal or symmetrical
The head may be dorsoventrally or laterally
flattened.
Gill slits, usually four pairs, open in a gill
chamber.

8. Operculum always absent. Operculum with branchiostegal membrane

always present.

Q46: Open and closed type circulatory system.

Open circulatory System
1. Blood is present in open
spaces which are called as
sinuses or lucanae
2. It is present in all non-
chordates except anelida
3. Blood pressure is not
maintained
4. Internal organs are bathed
by blood
5. Blood flows at low speed Blood flows at high speed
Closed Circulatory system
Blood is present in confined
blood vessels
It is present in all chordates
and anelida
Blood pressure is present
Internal organs are not bathed
by blood

Q47: Difference between and double circulation?

Single circulation Double circulation

1. Blood flows only once through the heart Blood flows twice through the heart during
during one cycle of passage through the one cycle of passage through the body.
body.
2. Occurs in all other vertebrates other than
Occurs only in fishes. fishes.
3. Only venous blood passes through the Mixed or oxygenated or venous blood passes
heart through the heart.
4. Less efficient as gill capillaries slow More efficient as blood flows at higher
down the blood flow. pressure especially in birds and mammals.
5. The body receives blood at a low pressure This increases the rate of supply of food and
which decreases the rate of oxygen supply oxygen to the cell and also rapid removal of
to the cells. wastes from them

Single Circulation Double Circulation

Q48: Difference between red muscle and white muscle .

Red Muscle Fibers (Tonic) White Muscle Fibers (Twitch)
1. These are thin and smaller in size. These are thick and larger in size.
2. They are red in colour as they contain They are white in colour as they contain a small
a large amount of myoglobin. amount of myoglobin.
3. They contain numerous mitochondria. They contain less number of mitochondria.
4. They carry out slow and sustained They carry out fast work for a short duration.
contractions for a long period.
5. Sarcoplasmic reticulum is moderately Sarcoplasmic reticulum is well developed.
developed.
6. The fibres are supplied with abundant They are moderately vascularised.
blood capillaries.
7. Lactic acid does not accumulate. Lactic acid accumulates.
8. They perform aerobic respiration. During strenuous exercise, it switches over to
anaerobic respiration.
Q49: Difference between Cortical and Juxtamedullary nephron.
Cortical nephron
1. 1. It contains short loop of Henle
2. 2. Loop of Henle penetrates to the
outer renal medulla
3. 3. Vasa recta is small
4. 4. 85% nephrons are cortical in
human beings
5. 5. It carries major function in
regulation of excretion
Juxtamedullary nephron
It contains long loop of Henle
Loop of Henle is present in deep renal medulla
Vasa recta is large
15% are juxtamedulary nephrons
It helps in concentration and dilution of urine

Q50: Difference between Cold Blooded and Warm Blooded.

Cold Blooded Warm Blooded
1. They cannot maintain constant They can maintain constant temperature
temperature
2. Energy is obtained from the Energy is obtained from the food consumption
surrounding environment
3. Body temperature varies with the Body temperature is between 35 to 40o C
temperature of the surrounding
4. Rate of metabolism changes with the Environmental changes do not affect rate of
change in environment metabolism
5. They cannot sustain in extreme They easily adapt to any temperature condition
temperature conditions
6. Reptiles, insects, fish, amphibians, Birds and mammals are warm blooded animals
etc are examples of cold blood
organisms

Q51: Difference between Intra and Extra cellular digestion.

Intercellular Digestion Extracellular Digestion
1. Digestion occurs in the food vacuoles Digestion occurs outside of cells in the lumen
within cells. of the alimentary canal.
2. Lysosomal enzymes are secreted into Salivary, gastric pancreatic and intestinal
the food vacuole. enzymes are secreted into the digestive cavity

3. Products of digestion diffuse into the
cytoplasm through the vacuolar
membrane
4. Ingestion occurs through pinocytic
vesicle,e.g. protozoans, sponges and
coelenterates.
Digested food materials are absorbed into the
blood through gut epithelia.
Ingestion occurs through the mouth, e.g.
coelenterates to chordates.

Q52: Direct and indirect development difference.

Direct development Indirect development
1. In this type of development, an embryo
develops into a young one without any
intermediate larval stage
2. Young ones resemble the adult
3. Embryo is similar to adult
4. Seen in fishes, reptiles, birds and
mammals
Q53. Difference between Coelomats and Pseudocoelomates.
Coelom
1. Coelom is a fluid filled true body cavity,
present between the body wall and the
digestive tract.
2. 2. Coelom is also known as eucoelom or
true coelom.
3. 3. The animals with true coelom are
known as coelomates and the group of
animals is referred to as coelomata.
4. 4. Coelom or true body cavity is lined
with peritoneum.
5. 5. The coelom is developed by splitting
of the mesoderm.
6. 6. In this case, the blood stream carries
the nutrients.
7. 7. Coelom is present either in vertebrates
or invertebrates.
8. 8. The organs present inside the coelom
are Well-organized.
9. Examples: Annelida, Arthropoda,
Mollusca, Echinordermata,
Hemichordata, Chordata, etc.
Q54: Difference between Pharangeal and Septal nephridia.
Septal nephridium
1. It is attached to the intersegmental septa
In this type of development, an embryo
develops into a young one with some
intermediate larval stages.
Young ones do not resemble the adult
Larva is completely different from adult
Seen in invertebrates and amphibians
Pseudocoelom
Pseudocoel is a fluid-filled body cavity,
present between the mesoderm and the
endoderm.
Pseudocoelom is also known as false coelom.
Animals with a pseudocoel are known as
pseudocoelomates and the group of animals
is referred to as pseudocoelomata.
Pseudocoelom or false body cavity is
partially lined with peritoneum.
The pseudocoelom is developed from the
blastocoel of the embryo.
In this case, the nutrient transportation occurs
through osmosis and diffusion.
Pseudocoelom is present only in
invertebrates.
The organs present inside the pseudocoelom
are less-organized.
Examples are Aschelminthes
Pharyngeal nephridium
They are tufted nephridia and paired
bunches
2. Present from 15/16 to last segment Present from 4,5,6 segments.
3. Nephrostome is present, Nephrostome is absent.
4. Nephridiopore is absent Nephridiopore is absent.
5. So they are called Open-enteronephric So the are called Closed enteronephric .
6. It collects waste from coelomic fluid and It collects waste from blood.
blood.
7. It's function is excretion and It's function is excretion and
osmoregulation. osmoregulation

Long Answer Type Questions

Q55: Diagram of nephron and Neuron?

 Neuron

Nephron

Q56: Structure of Heart.

Q57: Composition of blood.

Ans. Main Components of Blood are:

Plasma: It is a clear, slightly sticky, yellowish coloured liquid that contains the dissolved
proteins, mineral ions, glucose, hormones, carbon dioxide, including the blood cells. Around
90% of the plasma is made up of water and around 6 % of it constitutes the proteins. Albumin is
the main protein in the plasma, which regulates the osmotic blood pressure. 55% of the blood
fluid is made up of plasma.

Blood Cells: These constitute the other half, around 45%. There are three types of cells, namely:
• Erythrocytes or Red Blood cells ( RBC)
• Leucocytes or White Blood Cells ( WBC)
• Thrombocytes or Platelets

Erythrocytes – They form around 40%-45% of its volume. They are generated from the bone
marrow at an astonishing rate of four to five billion cells per hour. The lifespan of these cells is
120 days. The RBCs are destroyed in the organ called spleen, which is also called as the
graveyard of RBC. These cells are red in colour, due to the presence of haemoglobin, which is an
iron-containing complex protein.

Leucocytes – They account for 1 % of the total volume, but have a very important role to play.
They help in fighting diseases and attack the foreign bodies in the blood. These cells are
colourless as they do not have haemoglobin. They are also constantly generated from the bone
marrow. Leucocytes are of five types :

1. Neutrophils: Neutrophils are the most abundant white blood cell, constituting 60-70% of the
circulating leukocytes.

2. Eosinophils: Eosinophils compose about 2-4% of the WBC total. Eosinophils are also the
predominant inflammatory cells in allergic reactions.

3. Basophils: Basophils are chiefly responsible for allergic and antigen response by releasing the
chemical histamine causing the dilation of blood vessels. Because they are the rarest of the white
blood cells (less than 0.5% of the total count) and share physicochemical properties with other
blood cells
4. Monocytes: Monocytes, the largest type of WBCs, share the "vacuum cleaner" (phagocytosis)
function of neutrophils, but are much longer lived as they have an extra role: they present pieces
of pathogens to T cells so that the pathogens may be recognized again and killed.

5. Lymphocytes: Lymphocytes are much more common in the lymphatic system than in blood.
Lymphocytes are distinguished by having a deeply staining nucleus that may be eccentric in
location, and a relatively small amount of cytoplasm. Lymphocytes include:

B cells make antibodies that can bind to pathogens, block pathogen invasion, activate the
complement system, and enhance pathogen destruction.

T cells: CD4+ helper T cells: T cells displaying co-receptor CD4 are known as CD4+ T cells.
These cells have T-cell receptors and CD4 molecules that, in combination, bind antigenic
peptides presented on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules on antigen-
presenting cells. Helper T cells make cytokines and perform other functions that help coordinate
the immune response. In HIV infection, these T cells are the main index to identify the
individual's immune system integrity.

Natural killer cells are able to kill cells of the body that do not display MHC class I molecules, or
display stress markers such as MHC class I polypeptide-related sequence A (MIC-A). Decreased
expression of MHC class I and up-regulation of MIC-A can happen when cells are infected by a
virus or become cancerous.
Thrombocytes – These are cell fragments that are produced from the specialized cells of the
bone marrow. Their role is very significant. They are responsible for controlling bleeding or in
clotting of blood. They are also called platelets.

Q58: O2 Dissociation Curve.

Ans. The oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation

curve, also called the oxyhemoglobin
dissociation curve or oxygen dissociation curve
(ODC), is a curve that plots the proportion of
hemoglobin in its saturated (oxygen-laden)
form on the vertical axis against the prevailing
oxygen tension on the horizontal axis. This
curve is an important tool for understanding how our blood carries and releases oxygen.
Specifically, the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve relates oxygen saturation (SO2) and partial
pressure of oxygen in the blood (PO2), and is determined by what is called "hemoglobin affinity
for oxygen"; that is, how readily hemoglobin acquires and releases oxygen molecules into the
fluid that surrounds it.

Q59: Mechanism of muscle contraction.

Ans. Mechanisms of muscle contraction:

There are many different concepts which are
used to explain the process of muscle
contraction. There is a contractile unit of the
muscle which is called as the sarcomere. The
sarcomere is composed of two types of
filaments, myosin and actin. These filaments
during contraction slide over one another.
During contraction, the length of A-band
remains constant and the length of I-band
changes. As a result, the Z discs are pulled
together. This leads to the contraction of the
muscle. ATP as the source of energy for
contraction. The ATP molecules binds to the
myosin head and then gets attached to the
actin filament and help in contraction.
Initiation of muscle contraction: Initiation of contraction of skeletal muscle starts with the
generation of action potential in the muscle fibres. These elicit electrical currents due to which
Ca ions are released. The Ca ions initiate the chemical events of the contractile process. This
overall process of controlling muscle contraction is called excitation.

The sliding filament theory explains the mechanism of muscle contraction based on muscle
proteins that slide past each other to generate movement. According to the sliding filament
theory, the myosin (thick) filaments of muscle fibers slide past the actin (thin) filaments during
muscle contraction, while the two groups of filaments remain at relatively constant length.
It was independently introduced in 1954 by two research teams, one consisting of Andrew F.
Huxley and Rolf Niedergerke from the University of Cambridge, and the other consisting of
Hugh Huxley and Jean Hanson from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.[2][3] It was
originally conceived by Hugh Huxley in 1953. Andrew Huxley and Niedergerke introduced it as a
"very attractive" hypothesis.

Before the 1950s there were several competing theories on muscle contraction, including
electrical attraction, protein folding, and protein modification.[5] The novel theory directly
introduced a new concept called cross-bridge theory (classically swinging cross-bridge, now
mostly referred to as cross-bridge cycle) which explains the molecular mechanism of sliding
filament. Cross-bridge theory states that actin and myosin form a protein complex (classically
called actomyosin) by attachment of myosin head on the actin filament, thereby forming a sort
of cross-bridge between the two filaments. The sliding filament theory is a universally accepted
explanation of the mechanism that underlies muscle contraction.

Q60: Joints and its types.

Ans. A joint, also known as an articulation or articular surface, is a connection that occurs
between bones in the skeletal system. Joints provide the means for movement. The type and
characteristics of a given joint determine its degree and type of movement. Joints can be
classified based on structure and function.
The joints help us to rotate our shoulder, bend our knees and elbows, swivel our neck and more.
By definition, a joint is a point where two bones meet to provide a framework that permits
movement. Bones are attached to one another by tissues called ligaments. Muscles are attached
to bones through tendons.

Classification of Joints:
There are two different types of joints- Structural and Functional classification of joints.

Structural classification of joints: According to the structural classification of joints, they are
divided into 3 types, namely:
Fibrous Joints: Fixed joints, also called immovable joints, are found where bones are not
flexible. In such joints, bones have been fused together in such a way that they are fixed to that
part, most commonly to create a structure. A prominent example of a fixed joint is the skull,
which is made up of a number of fused bones. Other examples include the upper jaw, rib cage,
backbone, and pelvic bone, etc.

Cartilaginous Joints: Cartilaginous joints are partly movable joints comprising of symphysis or
synchondrosis joints. These joints occur only in those regions where the connection between the
articulating bones is made up of cartilage. Synchondrosis are temporary cartilaginous joints
which are present in young children and last until the end of their puberty.
For example, the epiphyseal plates present at each end of the long bones is responsible for bone
growth in children. The symphysis or the secondary cartilaginous joints (the place where bones
join) is permanent. Examples include the pubic symphysis. Other examples of cartilaginous types
of joints include the spinal column and the ribcage.

Synovial Joints: The synovial joints are the most common type of joint because this joint helps
us to perform a wide range of motion such as walking, running, typing and more. Synovial joints
are flexible, movable, can slide over one another, rotatable and so on. These joints are found in
our shoulder joint, neck joint, knee joint, wrist joint, etc.

Functional classification of joints:

Functional classification of joints is based on the type and degree of movement permitted. Based
on the type and degree of movement permitted. There are six types of freely movable joint and
are mentioned below with the examples: Human Skeletal System - Joints
Types of Joints and their range of motions

Ball and Socket Joints: Here, one bone is hooked into the hollow space of another bone. This
type of joint helps in rotatory movement. An example ball and socket joint are the shoulders.

Pivotal Joints: In this type of joint, one bone has tapped into the other in such a way that full
rotation is not possible. This joint aid in sideways and back-forth movement. An example of a
pivotal joint in the neck.

Hinge Joints: Hinge joints are like door hinges, where only back and forth movement is
possible. Example of hinge joints is the ankle, elbows, and knee joints.

Saddle Joints: Saddle joint is the biaxial joint that allows the movement on two planes–
flexion/extension and abduction/adduction. For example, the thumb is the only bone in the
human body having a saddle joint.
Condyloid Joints: Condyloid joints are the joints with two axes which permit up-down and side-
to-side motions. The condyloid joints can be found at the base of the index finger, carpals of the
wrist, elbow and the wrist joints. This joint is also known as a condylar, or ellipsoid joint.

Gliding Joints: Gliding joints are a common type of synovial joint. It is also known as a plane or
planar joint. This joint permit two or more round or flat bones to move freely together without
any rubbing or crushing of bones. This joint is mainly found in those regions where the two
bones meet and glide on one another in any of the directions. The lower leg to the ankle joint and
the forearm to wrist joint are the two main examples of gliding joints.

Q61: Generation and conduction of nerve impulse.

Ans. When neurons are not conducting any impulse they are in a resting-state. The membrane, in
this event, is not permeable to sodium ions and negatively charged proteins found in the
axoplasm and are more permeable to potassium ions. There is a high concentration of proteins
and potassium ions in the plasma in axon while the concentration of sodium ions is low. The
fluid in the periphery of the axon has a low concentration of potassium ions and a high
concentration of sodium ions. As a result, a concentration gradient is established. Active
transportation of ions takes place through the membrane via the sodium-potassium pump
wherein 2 potassium ions enter the cell and 3 ions of sodium are transported outwards.
Consequently, the inner surface is negatively charged and the membrane’s outer surface is
positively charged. The cell is now in a polarised state. Resting potential is the electrical potential
difference, established through the resting plasma membrane.
The membrane, at a particular region on the polarised membrane, turns freely permeable to ions
of sodium when a stimulus is applied. As a result, sodium ions pass into the cell. The inner side
of the membrane turns positively charged while the outer side becomes negatively charged. Now,
the membrane is in the depolarised state. An electrical potential difference is hence established.
This difference at the site through the plasma membrane is referred to as a nerve impulse or
action potential. The area turns into a stimulus for the adjacent region of the membrane that turns
depolarised. The previous membrane is repolarised as a result of the exit of the sodium ions from
the cell. Hence, the conduction of impulses.

Q62: Structure of human eye.

Ans. Our paired eyes are located in sockets of the

skull called orbits.
Parts of eye
The adult human eye ball is nearly a spherical
structure. The wall of the eye ball is composed of
three layers external layer is composed of a dense
connective tissue and is called the sclera anterior
portion of this layer is called the cornea middle
layer is choroid, which contains many blood
vessels and looks bluish in colour. The choroid
layer is thin over the posterior two-thirds of the
eye ball, but it becomes thick in the anterior part to form the ciliary body. The ciliary body itself
continues forward to form a pigmented and opaque structure called the iris which is the visible
coloured portion of the eye. The eye ball contains a transparent crystalline lens which is held in
place by ligaments attached to the ciliary body. In front of the lens, the aperture surrounded by
the iris is called the pupil. The diameter of the pupil is regulated by the muscle fibres of iris. The
inner layer is the retina and it contains three layers of cells, from inside to outside ganglion cells,
bipolar cells, photoreceptor cells. There are two types of photoreceptor cells rods. Photoreceptor
cells contain the light-sensitive proteins called the photopigments. The daylight vision and colour
vision are functions of cones and the twilight vision is the function of the rods. The rods contain a
purplish-red protein called the rhodopsin or visual purple, which contains a derivative of Vitamin
A. In the human eye, there are three types of cones which possess their own characteristic
photopigments that respond to red, green and blue lights. The optic nerves leave the eye and the
retinal blood vessels enter it at a point medial to and slightly above the posterior pole of the eye
ball. Photoreceptors cells are not present the medial region and hence it is called the blind spot.
At the posterior pole of the eye lateral to the blind spot, there is a yellowish pigmented spot called
macula lutea with a central pit called the fovea, is a thinned-out portion of the retina where only
the cones are densely packed. The space between the cornea and the lens is called the aqueous
chamber and contains a thin watery fluid called aqueous humor. The space between the lens and
the retina is called the vitreous chamber and is filled with a transparent gel called vitreous humor.

Mechanism of vision:
The light rays in visible wavelength focused on the retina through the cornea and lens generate
potentials in rods and cones. The photosensitive compounds (photopigments) in the human eyes
is composed of opsin and retinal. Light induces dissociation of the retinal from opsin resulting in
changes in the structure of the opsin, which causes membrane permeability changes and that is
why potential differences are generated in the photoreceptor cells, which produces a signal that
generates action potentials in the ganglion cells through the bipolar cells. The action potentials
are transmitted by the optic nerves to the visual cortex area of the brain, where the neural
impulses are analyzed and the image formed on the retina is recognized.

Short Answer Type Questions

Q63: Epithelial tissue and its types.

Q64: Types of junctions.

Ans. Cell junctions are the specialized junctions that provide both structural and functional links
between its individual cells.

Three types of cell junctions are : tight junction, adhering junction and gap junction.
Tight junctions help to stop substances from leaking across a tissue.

Adhering junctions perform cementing to keep neighboring cells together.

Gap junctions facilitate the cells to communicate with each other by connecting the cytoplasm
of adjoining cells, for rapid transfer of ions, small molecules.

Q65: Define centromere and what are the different types of chromosomes on the basis of
position of centromere?
Ans. The centromere is a constriction present on the chromosomes where the chromatids are held
together.
Chromosomes are divided into four types based on the position of the centromere.

(i) Metacentric chromosome

The chromosomes in which the centromere is present in the middle and divides the chromosome
into two equal arms is known as a metacentric chromosome. During anaphase, they appear V-
shaped.

(ii) Sub-metacentric chromosome

The chromosome in which the centromere is slightly away from the middle region is known as a
sub-metacentric chromosome. In this, one arm is slightly longer than the other. During anaphase,
they appear L-shaped.

(iii) Acrocentric chromosome

The chromosome in which the centromere is located close to one of the terminal ends is known
as an acrocentric chromosome. In this, one arm is extremely long and the other is extremely
short. During anaphase, they appear J-shaped.

(iv) Telocentric chromosome

The chromosome in which the centromere is located at one of the terminal ends is known as a
telocentric chromosome. During anaphase, they appear I-shaped.

Q66:
Writ
e in
brief about endomembrane system.
Ans. The endomembrane system (endo =
“within”) is a group of membranes and
organelles in eukaryotic cells that works
together to modify, package, and transport
lipids and proteins. It includes the nuclear
envelope, lysosomes, vesicles, and the
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus,
which we will cover shortly. Although not
technically within the cell, the plasma
membrane is included in the endomembrane
system because, as you will see, it interacts
with the other endomembranous organelles.
The endomembrane system does not include
the membranes of either mitochondria or
chloroplasts.

Q67: Mesosomes and its functions.

Ans. Mesosomes or chondrioids are folded invaginations in the plasma membrane of bacteria.
These extensions are in the form of vesicles, tubules, and lamellae. Mesosomes perform
replication of DNA, cell wall formation, cell division, respiration and reproduction.