CE 32/L

STRUCTURAL
THEORY
MODULE 1
Introduction to Structural
Analysis and Loads

Prepared by:

ENGR. SHEENA ANNE C. ECHAGUE

Instructor

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This module has the following sections and

corresponding icons

OVERVIEW

LECTURE PROPER

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

ASSESSMENT

SUPPLEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE

ANSWER KEY

REFERENCES

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COURSE DESCRIPTIONS

A professional course common to all civil engineering students designed to provide

fundamental concepts, principles, and theories in the theory of structures and structural
analysis for internal actions in a structure and its deformations under load.

COURSE OUTCOMES

1. Determine different types of structures and loads.

2. Evaluate the structural behavior of determinate and indeterminate structures.
3. Analyze deflected shapes of structures under loading using appropriate methods.

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Identify the Different Types of Structures and Loads.

2. Calculate the load of the structural element.

TIME FRAME

This module can be covered in two (2) weeks.

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LECTURE NO. 1
Structural analysis is the prediction of the performance of a given structure under prescribed loads
and/or other external effects, such as support movements and temperature changes. The
performance characteristics commonly of interest in the design of structures are stresses or stress
resultants, such as axial forces, shear forces, and bending moments; deflections; and support
reactions. Thus, the analysis of a structure usually involves determination of these quantities as
caused by a given loading condition.

1.1 Introduction
Structure refers to the system of connected parts used to support loading. Significant
aspects of civil engineering include structures, bridges and towers, and in many fields of industry,
vessel and aircraft frames, tanks, pressurized containers, mechanical and electrical support
structures.

1.2 Classification of Structures

It is necessary for a structural engineer to understand the different types of elements that
make up a structure, and to be able to distinguish structures according to their shape and purpose.
We will now discuss some of these factors and extend them across the text at appropriate points.
Structural Elements
Tie rods or bracing struts are structural elements subject
to tensile force. These members are very slender due to
the existence of this load, and are often selected from
rods, bars, angles, or channels.

Beams are typically straight horizontal components used

mainly to bear vertical loads. Quite frequently they are
listed according to the way they are treated, as shown in
the figure. These are specifically designed to endure the
moment of bending; but, because they are short and hold
heavy loads, the internal shear force can become very high
and this force can control their construction.

Columns are members that are typically vertical and that

handle compressive axial loads. For metal columns, tubes
and wide-flange cross sections are mostly used, and for
those constructed of concrete, circular and rectangular
cross sections with supporting reinforcing steel bars are
added. Occasionally, columns are subjected to both an
axial load and a bending moment as shown in the figure.

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The combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are composed is
referred to as a structural system. Each system is constructed of one or more of four basic types of
structures.

Types of Structures
Trusses compose of slender elements, which are typically
arranged in triangular form. Planar trusses consist of
members on the same plane and are mostly used for
bridge and roof support, while space trusses have three-
dimensional members and are ideal for derricks and
towers.
Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension.
They are commonly used to support bridges while arche
achieves its strength in compression, since it has a
reverse curvature to that of the cable.
Cable

Arche

Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of

beams and columns that are either pin or fixed
connected. Like trusses, frames extend in two or three
dimensions. The loading on a frame causes bending of its
members, and if it has rigid joint connections, this
structure is generally “indeterminate” from a standpoint
of analysis. The strength of such a frame is derived from
the moment interactions between the beams and the
columns at the rigid joints.
A surface structure is made from a material having a very
small thickness compared to its other dimensions.
Sometimes this material is very flexible and can take the
form of a tent or air-inflated structure. In both cases the
material acts as a membrane that is subjected to pure
tension.

1.3 Loads
If the dimensional specifications have been established for a structure, it is important to
determine the loads that the structure will bear. Sometimes it is the expectation of the specific
loads that will be placed on the structure that will provide the basic type of structure to be
considered for design. Since a structure is generally subjected to several types of loads, a brief
discussion of these loadings will now be presented to illustrate how one must consider their effects
in practice. The minimum design loads and the load combinations for which the structures must be

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designed are usually specified in building codes. The loads described in the codes are usually based
on past experience and study and are the minimum for which the various types of structures must
be designed.

Structural Systems for Transmitting Loads

In most common buildings, bridges and other civil engineering facilities, two or more of the basic
structural types are assembled together to form a structural system that can transmit the applied
loads to the ground through the foundation. Such structural systems are also referred to as
framing systems or frameworks.

An example of the load-carrying system for a single-story building is shown in figure above. The
system consists of a reinforced-concrete roof slab resting on four steel beams, which in turn, are
supported by two larger beams(girders). The girders are then supported on four columns attached
to the footings at the ground level. All connections are assumed to be bolted connections; they
can only transmit forces but not moments. Thus, diagonal braces are needed to resist the
horizontal loads caused by wind and earthquakes. The cross-bracing is shown only on two sides of
the building for simplicity. Such bracing should be provided on all four sides of the building to resist
loads applied in any direction in the horizontal plane. Note that the architectural features, such as
exterior brickwork, partitions or non-load-bearing walls, doors and windows, are not considered
to be a part of the load-resisting structural system, although their weights are considered in the
design calculations.

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The vertical (gravity) load path for the single-story building is shown in the figure. Any vertical
distributed area load (force per area), such as due to snow, applied to the roof slab is first
transmitted to the beams EF, GH, IJ, and KL as a distributed line load (force per length). As the
beams are supported by girders EK and FL, the beam reactions become concentrated forces. As
the beams are supported by girders EK and FL, the beam reactions become concentrated forces
on the girders (in reverse directions), thereby transmitting the roof load to the girders as
concentrated loads at points E through L. Similarly, the girders, that are supported by columns AE,
BF, CK, and DL, transfer the load, via their reactions, to the columns as axial compressive forces.
The columns, in turn, transmit the load to the footings (A through D), which finally distribute the
load to the ground. Note that the diagonal braces do not participate in transmitting the gravity
load.

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The horizontal (lateral) load path for the same single-story building is shown in the figure. Any
horizontal load (such as due to wind or earthquake) applied to the roof slab is transmitted by the
slab as in plane lateral forces to the two vertical frames, AEFB and CKLD, which then carry the load
to the footings. As shown in the figure, each vertical frame consists of a beam, two columns and
two inclined braces, connected together by hinged connections. Such frames, called the braced
frames, essentially act as plane trusses under the action of lateral loads, with the braces
transmitting the load from the roof-level to the footings.

Regardless of the structural system used, the basic concept of load transmission remains the same,
that is, the applied load is carried continuously from member to member until it has been fully
transmitted to the ground.

Floor Systems and Tributary Areas

As in the case of the single-story building discussed previously, the floor and roof slabs of multi-
story buildings, and the deck slabs of bridges, are often supported on rectangular grids of beams
and girders called floor systems.
During the design process, an engineer needs to determine how much of the total distributed
load applied over the area of the slab is carried by each member (i.e., a beam, a girder or a
column) of the floor system. The portion of the slab area whose load is carried by a particular
member is called the tributary area of the member.

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The slabs used in buildings and bridges are usually designed as one-way slabs. Such slabs are
assumed to be supported on two sides, and bend only in one direction like wide beams. For floor
systems with one-way slabs, the tributary area of each beam is considered to be rectangular, of a
length equal to that of the beam, and a width extending to half the distance to the adjacent beam
on each side, as shown in the figure b above. On the other hand, for floor systems with a beam
length to spacing ratio of less than 1.5 (L/s < 1.5), the slabs are designed as two-way slabs,
supported on all four sides. Such a slab is assumed to bend in two perpendicular directions like a
plate, and transmits its load to all four supporting beams along its edges. These figures also show
the loads carried by edge beams due to a uniformly distributed pressure w (force per unit area)
applied to the surface area of the slab. Two-way slab load distribution is illustrated in the figure a
& b below.

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Dead Load
Dead loads consist of the weights of the various members of the structure and the weights of any
materials permanently fixed to the system. Therefore, the dead loads for a structure comprise the
weights of the floors, beams, and girders, the floor slab, roofing, walls, windows, ventilation,
electrical fittings, and other miscellaneous fixtures.

In some cases, a structural dead load can be estimated satisfactorily from simple formulas based
on the weights and sizes of similar structures. Refer to National Structural Code of the Philippines
(NSCP) 2015 Vol.1 7th Edition - Chapter2 Section 204 p.2-12 for the densities for design loads from
materials and minimum design dead load used in construction for local standards and
specifications.
Table 1.3 Minimum Densities for Design Loads from Materials

Reference: American Society of Civil Engineers Minimum Design Loads for

Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE/SEI 7-10
Table 1.3.1 Minimum Design Dead Loads

Reference: American Society of Civil Engineers Minimum Design Loads for

Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE/SEI 7-10

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Example 1.3a
The floor beam shown in the figure is used to support
the 1.83 m width of a lightweight plain concrete slab
having a thickness of 102 mm. The slab serves as a
portion of the ceiling for the floor below, and
therefore its bottom is coated with plaster.
Furthermore, a 2.44 m high, 305 mm thick lightweight
solid concrete block wall is directly over the top flange
of the beam. Determine the loading on the beam
measured per m of length of the beam.

Solution
Concrete Slab: (0.015 kN/m2.mm)(102 mm)(1.83 m) = 2.80 kN/m
Plaster Ceiling: (0.24 kN/m2)(1.83 m) = 0.44 kN/m
Block wall: (16.5 kN/m3)(2.44 m)(0.305 m) = 12.26 kN/m
Total Load 15.50 kN/m Ans

Example 1.3b
The floor system of a building consists of a 5-in.-thick reinforced concrete slab resting on
four steel floor beams, which in turn are supported by two steel girders, as shown in the
figure. The cross-sectional areas of the floor beams and the girders are 14.7 in.2 and 52.3
in.2, respectively. Determine the dead loads acting on the beams CG and DH and the girder
AD.

Solution
For Beam CG:
Concrete Slab: (150 lb/ft3)(10 ft)(1 ft)(5/12) ft = 625 lb
Steel Beam: (490 lb/ft3)(14.7/144 ft2)(1 ft) = 50 lb
Total Load 675 lb Ans
As the beam is symmetrically loaded, the magnitudes of the reactions are:
RC = RG = ½(675 lb/ft) (24 ft) = 8100 lb

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Note that the magnitudes of these end reactions represent the downward loads being
transmitted to the supporting girders AD and EH at points C and G, respectively.
For Beam DH:
Concrete Slab: (150 lb/ft3)(5 ft)(1 ft)(5/12) ft = 312.5 lb
Steel Beam: (490 lb/ft3)(14.7/144 ft2)(1 ft) = 50 lb
Total Load 362.5 lb Ans
As the beam is symmetrically loaded, the magnitudes of the reactions are:
RD = RH = ½(362.5 lb/ft) (24 ft) = 4350 lb
For Girder AD:
Because of the symmetry of the framing system and loading, the loads acting on beams BF
and AE are the same as those on beams CG and DH, respectively. The load on girder AD
consists of the uniformly distributed load due to its own weight, which has a magnitude of
(490 lb/ft3)(52.3/144 ft2)(1 ft) = 178 lb
and the concentrated loads transmitted to it by the beams at points A, B, C, and D, as
shown in Fig.(d). Ans

Live Load
Live Loads can vary both in their magnitude and location. They may be caused by the weights of
objects temporarily placed on a structure, moving vehicles, or natural forces. The minimum live
loads specified in codes are determined from studying the history of their effects on existing
structures. Usually, these loads include additional protection against excessive deflection or
sudden overload. Refer to National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP) 2015 Vol.1 7th Edition
- Chapter2 Section 205 p.2-12 for minimum design live load used in construction for local standards
and specifications.
Building Loads. The floors of buildings are assumed to be subjected to uniform live loads, which
depend on the purpose for which the building is designed. These loadings are generally tabulated
in local, state, or national codes.
Minimum Live Loads

Reference: American Society of Civil Engineers Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE/SEI
7-10
For some types of buildings having very large floor areas, many codes will allow a reduction in the
uniform live load for a floor, since it is unlikely that the prescribed live load will occur
simultaneously throughout the entire structure at any one time. This reduced live load is calculated
using the following equation:

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where
L = reduced design live load per square foot or square meter of area
supported by the member.
LO = unreduced design live load per square foot or square meter of
area supported by the member.
KLL = live load element factor. For interior columns K LL = 4.
AT = tributary area in square feet or square meters.*
The reduced live load defined by the equation is limited to not less than 50% of LO for members
supporting one floor, or not less than 40% of L O for members supporting more than one floor. No
reduction is allowed for loads exceeding 100 lb>ft2 (4.79 kN>m2), or for structures used for public
assembly, garages, or roofs.

Example 1.3c
A two-story office building shown in the photo has interior columns that are spaced 22 ft apart in
two perpendicular directions. If the (flat) roof loading is 20 lb>ft2 , determine the reduced live load
supported by a typical interior column located at ground level.

As shown in the figure, each interior column has a tributary area or effective loaded area of AT =
(22 ft)(22 ft) = 484 ft2. A ground-floor column therefore supports a roof live load of
FR = (20 lb/ft2) (484 ft2) = 9680 lb = 9.68 k
This load cannot be reduced, since it is not a floor load. For the second floor, the live load is taken
from the Table: Lo = 50 lb>ft2. Since KLL = 4, then 4AT = 4(484 ft2) = 1936 ft2 and 1936 ft2 > 400 ft2
, the live load can be reduced using the equation of live load reduction. Thus,

Ans

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Highway Bridge Loads. The primary live loads on bridge spans are those due to traffic, and the
heaviest vehicle loading encountered is that caused by a series of trucks.
Railroad Bridge Loads. The loadings on railroad bridges are specified in the Specifications for Steel
Railway Bridges published by the American Railroad Engineers Association (AREA).
Impact Loads. Moving vehicles may bounce or sidesway as they move over a bridge, and therefore
they impart an impact to the deck. The percentage increase of the live loads due to impact is called
the impact factor, I. This factor is generally obtained from formulas developed from experimental
evidence.
Wind Loads. When the speed of the wind is very high, it can cause massive damage to a structure.
The reason is that the pressure created by the wind is proportional to the square of the wind speed.
To understand the effect of a horizontal wind blowing over and around a building, consider the
simple structure shown in the figure below. Here the positive pressure (pushing) on the front of
the building is intensified, because the front will arrest the flow and redirect it over the roof and
along the sides. Because air flows faster around the building, by the Bernoulli effect this higher
velocity will cause a lower pressure (suction). This is especially true at the corners, under the eaves,
and at the ridge of the roof. Here the wind is redirected and the damage is the greatest. Behind
the building there is also a suction, which produces a wake within the air stream.

Earthquake Loads. Earthquakes produce lateral loadings on a structure through the structure’s
interaction with the ground. The magnitude of an earthquake load depends on the amount and
type of ground accelerations and the mass and stiffness of the structure.
Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure. When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular
materials, the pressure developed by these loadings becomes an important criterion for their
design. Examples of such types of structures include tanks, dams, ships, bulkheads, and retaining
walls. Here the laws of hydrostatics and soil mechanics are applied to define the intensity of the
loadings on the structure.
Other Natural Loads. Several other types of live loads may also have to be considered in the
design of a structure, depending on its location or use. These include the effect of blast,
temperature changes, and differential settlement of the foundation.

1.4 Structural Design

ASD. Allowable-stress design (ASD) methods include both the material and load uncertainties into
a single factor of safety. The many types of loads discussed previously can occur simultaneously
on a structure, but it is very unlikely that the maximum of all these loads will occur at the same
time.
LRFD. Since uncertainty can be considered using probability theory, there has been an increasing
trend to separate material uncertainty from load uncertainty. This method is called strength design
or LRFD (load and resistance factor design).

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PRACTICE PROBEMS

1. The building wall consists of 8-in. clay brick. In the interior, the wall is made from 2 * 4 wood
studs, plastered on one side. If the wall is 10 ft high, determine the load in pounds per foot of
length of wall that the wall exerts on the floor.

2. A building wall consists of 12-in. clay brick and 12-in. fiberboard on one side. If the wall is 10 ft
high, determine the load in pounds per foot that it exerts on the floor.

3. The floor classroom is made of 125-mm thick lightweight plain concrete. If the floor is slab
having a length of 8 m and with of 6 m, determine the resultant force caused by the dead load
and live load.

4. A two-story office building has interior columns that are spaced 6.71 m apart in two
perpendicular directions. If the (flat) roof loading is 0.96 kN/m2, determine the reduced live load
supported by the ground floor column.

5. A three-story hotel has interior columns that are spaced 20 ft apart in two perpendicular
directions. If the loading on the flat roof is estimated to be 30 lb/ft2, determine the live load
supported by a typical interior column at (a) the ground-floor level, and (b) the second-floor
level.

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ASSESSMENT

Plate No.1: Structural Loads Calculation

1. The hollow core panel is made from plain stone concrete. Determine the dead weight of the
panel. The holes each have a diameter of 100mm.

2. The pre-cast T-beam has the cross-section shown. Determine its weight per foot of length if it is
made from reinforced stone concrete and eight 3/4-in. cold-formed steel reinforcing rods.

3. The precast floor beam is made from concrete having a specific weight of 23.6 kN/m3. If it is to
be used for a floor in an office of an office building, calculate its dead and live loadings per meter
length of beam.

4. A four-story office building has an interior column spaced 9 m apart in two perpendicular
directions. If the flat roof loading is estimated to be 1.5 kN/m2, determine the reduced live load
supported by a typical interior column located at ground level.

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SUPPLEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE

For additional information, you may visit and read the following articles and journals:
1. http://www.learnaboutstructures.com/Structural-Analysis

ANSWER KEY

Answer to practice problems.

1. L = 910 lb/ft
2. L = 85.0 lb/ft2
3. L = 182.16 kN
4. L = 107 kN
5. a) L = 32.0 k
b) L = 22.0 k

REFERENCES

1. R. C. Hibbeler (2017). STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 9TH Edition: Pearson Education Inc.

2. Kassimali, A. (2015) Structural Analysis Fifth Edition: Cengage Learning

For educational purposes only.