Complete Thesis

Experimental Investigation on Inclined Bridge Pier Scouring
Author
Akhtar Abbas
2k18-FT-MS-WRI-05
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MSc Civil Engineering
Thesis Supervisor:
Dr. Usman Ghani
Professor Civil Engineering Department
External Examiner Signature:____________________________________________
Thesis Supervisor Signature:_____________________________________________
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, TAXILA
January 2020
ABSTRACT
Bridges are one of the important structures in any country. They play an important role in the
transportation of goods and people to and from the main economic center. Major bridge failures
can destroy the economy of local areas and cause serious injuries and deaths. Most bridge
failures occur due to many factors where natural disasters, manufacturing errors and design flaws
are common, poor maintenance, construction failures and vehicle collisions, but scour of the
bridge piers is the main cause of serious damage. Scouring is a phenomenon in which sediments
are removed from bridge piers and due to the hydraulic action of running water. Therefore, it is
important to estimate the scour around the bridge piers for safe bridge design. Various methods
and techniques have been used to study the scouring around piers. Therefore, it is necessary to
reduce scour around the bridge piers to minimize bridge failure. Despite the fact that many
investigative techniques and countermeasures have been put in place to control scouring.
Inclined bridge piers play an important role in reducing scour in a single bridge pier, but current
research is examining the relationship between the angles of inclination of two piers and
scouring around the piers. In this investigation, double circular, diamond, and rectangular bridge
piers were integrated into a uniform graded sand bed (diameter = 0.57 mm) of the laboratory
channel with five different inclination angles of 0°, 5°, 10°, 15° and 20°. Flow rates of 0.022
m3/s, 0.027 m3/s, 0.033 m3/s, 0.039 m3/s and 0.044 m3/s were used in each test. The duration of
each test was maintained for 3 hours. The local scour of the two piers was measured separately
around the diagonal upstream, downstream, left, right, upstream, and diagonal downstream with
the point gauge. When the inclination angle varied from 00 to 200, there was a 45% reduction in
local scouring. The depth of the local scour around the upstream was greater than the depth of
the local scour around the downstream of the bridge pier.
Keywords: Inclined piers; maximum scour depth; pier shapes; Froude number; flow intensity.
UNDERTAKING
I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in
accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that research work titled
“Experimental investigation on inclined bridge pier scouring” is my own work. The work has
not been presented elsewhere for assessment. Where material has been used from other sources it
has been properly acknowledged / referred.
Signature of Student
Akhtar Abbas
2K18-FT-MSc-WRI-05
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank ALLAH ALMIGHTY, The Most Gracious, The Most Bountiful, who
blessed me the power and ability to do my research thesis. All the respect to our beloved Holy
Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), who after a lot of hardships and difficulties, made us able to
recognize our Allah and to distinguish virtue and evil.
I have no words for my parent’s contribution; My Father never gave me even a feeling of any
problem during my study. My mother’s prayers were the key to relief whenever I got difficulties.
I again thank to my parents who sacrificed their comfort for me. I would like to say thank to my
brothers and sisters who always wished me success and gave confidence.
I thank to my supervisor PROF. DR. USMAN GHANI who taught me the lesson of hardworking
and time management. I express my sincere thanks to him, for he provided me a chance to work
on this project, which I hope, shall prove to be valuable in my future career as well.
Special thanks to my best and prestigious fellows Engr. Ali Raza, Muhammad Asadullah, Sabir
Hussain, Engr. Zeeshan Akbar & Engr. Salman Masood who broadened my mind. I enjoyed their
help in research methodology during my research work.
I would also like to thank to the staff of Water Resources and Hydraulic Engineering Laboratory
for their support and help in conducting this research especially.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract...................……………………………………………………………………………ii
Undertaking................................................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgements.................................................................................................................iv
Table of Contents........................................................................................................................v
List of Figures.........................................................................................................................viii
List of Tables............................................................................................................................xiv
CHAPTER I: Introdution............................................................................................................1
1.1 General............................................................................................................................1
1.2 Problem Statement..........................................................................................................4
1.3 Utilization and Scope......................................................................................................4
1.4 Scour...............................................................................................................................4
1.4.1 Types of scour...........................................................................................................5
1.5 Scour Regimes................................................................................................................7
1.5.1 Clear water scour......................................................................................................8
1.5.2 Live-bed scour...........................................................................................................9
1.6 Local scour depth..........................................................................................................10
1.6.1 Equilibrium scour depth..........................................................................................10
1.6.2 Temporal variation of scour....................................................................................10
1.6.3 Equations for Temporal Variation of Scour............................................................11
1.6.4 Estimation of Equilibrium Scour Depth..................................................................13
1.7 Scour countermeasure techniques:................................................................................14
1.7.1 Bed armoring technique..........................................................................................14
1.7.2 River Training Technique.......................................................................................15

1.7.3 Gabions as armoring technique...............................................................................16
1.7.4 Articulated concrete blocks.....................................................................................16
1.7.5 Rock Riprap Technique..........................................................................................17
1.7.6 Flow Alteration Technique.....................................................................................17
1.7.7 Structural Countermeasure Technique....................................................................18
1.8 Factors Affecting Local Scour Depth:..........................................................................18
1.8.1 Effect of downward flow........................................................................................18
1.8.2 Effect of approaching flow depth............................................................................22
1.8.3 Effect of sediment grading......................................................................................22
1.9 Bridge Piers...................................................................................................................23
1.9.1 Types of Pier...........................................................................................................23
1.9.2 Solid piers:..............................................................................................................23
1.9.3 Open piers...............................................................................................................24
1.9.4 Typical Framed Piers..............................................................................................25
CHAPTER II: Literature Review..............................................................................................27
2.1 Aims and Objectives.....................................................................................................41
CHAPTER III: Methodology....................................................................................................43
3.1 Laboratory flume:.........................................................................................................43
3.1.1 Inflow Pipe..............................................................................................................43
3.1.2 Main channel...........................................................................................................44
3.1.3 Silting basin.............................................................................................................44
3.1.4 Outflow pipe...........................................................................................................45
3.1.5 Bed material............................................................................................................45
3.1.6 Pier shape & Dimension.........................................................................................46
3.2 Experimental procedure................................................................................................52

3.2.1 Preparation of the experiment.................................................................................54
3.3 Flow measurement:.......................................................................................................55
CHAPTER IV: Results and Disussion......................................................................................56
4.1 Effect of the inclination angle (θ) of different geometrical shapes...............................56
4.2 Effect of the different flow intensities (V/Vc)...............................................................58
4.3 Effect of the Froude number (Fr)..................................................................................59
4.4 Effect of inclination angle (θ) on different shapes........................................................61
4.5 Effect of intensities (V/Vc) on different shapes.............................................................62
4.6 Comparison of longitudinal and lateral profiles of different shapes.............................63
4.7 Effect of inclination of piers on the topography of the bed..........................................78
CHAPTER V: Conclusions and Recommendations.................................................................89
5.1 Conclusions...................................................................................................................89
5.2 Recommendations.........................................................................................................90
REFERENCES.........................................................................................................................91
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1.1: Demonstration of flow pattern around pier........................................................................5
Fig 1.2: Types of the scour in the vicinity of bridge........................................................................5
Fig 1.3: General contraction scours a) Plan view b) Profile............................................................7
Fig 1.4: Local scour profile..............................................................................................................7
Fig 1.5: Scour depth under clear water and live bed scour..............................................................8
Fig 1.6: Variation of scour depth with approach flow velocity.......................................................9
Fig 1.7: Riverbed armoring technique...........................................................................................15
Fig 1.8: River Training Technique.................................................................................................16
Fig 1.9: Rock Riprap Technique....................................................................................................17
Fig 1.10: Development of Horseshow vortex................................................................................20
Fig 1.11: Development of wake vortex............................................................................………..21
Fig1.12: Development of Bow vortex...........................................................................................21
Fig 1.13: Factor ‘K𝜎’ is a function of the standard deviance in the particles size
distribution (Raudkivi, 1993).........................................................................................................23
Fig 1.14: Missouri River Bridge....................................................................................................24
Fig 1.15: Fixed piers......................................................................................................................26
Fig 1.16: Free piers........................................................................................................................26
Fig 3.: Top view of experimental channel ………………………………………………….......42
Fig 3.2: Soil grading curve ………………………………………………………………………45
Fig 3.3: Circular bridge pier with 00 inclination
………………………………………………….47
………………………………………………….47
Fig 3.5: Circular bridge pier with 100 inclination ……………………………………………......47
Fig 3.6: Circular shaped bridge pier with 150 inclination
……………………………………......48
……………………………………………......48
Fig 3.8: Diamond shaped bridge pier with 150 inclination
……………………………………….48
…………………………………….......49
……………………………………...49
Fig 3.: Diamond shaped bridge pier with 150 inclination ……………………………...............49
Fig 3.: Diamond shaped bridge pier with 200 inclination ………………………………….......50
Fig 3.: Rectangular shaped bridge pier with 00 inclination …………………………………….50
Fig 3.: Rectangular shaped bridge pier with 50 inclination …………………………………….50
Fig 3.: Rectangular shaped bridge pier with 100 inclination ……………………………………51
Fig 3.: Rectangular shaped bridge pier with 150 inclination …………………………………...51
Fig 3.: Rectangular shaped bridge pier with 200 inclination …………………………………...51
Fig 3.: Measurement of scour depth around circular shaped bridge piers………………….......52
Fig 3.: Measurement of scour depth around diamond shaped bridge piers …………………….53
Fig 3.: Measurement of scour depth around rectangular shaped bridge piers ………………….53
Fig 3.: Compound rectangular trapezoidal sharp crested weir ……………………………….55
YFig 4.1: The inclination Ө versus ds/D for circular shaped bridge piers at θ = 00, 50, 100, 150 &
200 ….……………………………………………………………………………………………57
Fig 4.2: The inclination Ө versus ds/D for diamond shaped bridge piers at θ = 0 0, 50,
100, 150 & 200.................................................................................................................................57
Fig 4.3: The inclination Ө versus ds/D for rectangular shaped bridge piers at θ = θ =
00, 50, 100, 150 & 200......................................................................................................................57
Fig 4.4: The ds/D at intensities of 0.47, 0.59, 0.72, 0.84 & 0.97for θ = 0 0, 50, 100, 150
& 200 for circular shaped bridge pier.............................................................................................58
& 200 for diamond shaped bridge pier...........................................................................................59
& 200 for rectangular shaped bridge pier.......................................................................................59
Fig 4.7: The ds/D at vertical and inclined pier with different inclinations versus Fr for
circular shaped bridge pier.............................................................................................................60
Fig 4.8: The ds/D at vertical and inclined pier with different inclinations versus Fr for
diamond shaped pier......................................................................................................................61
Fig 4.9: ds/D on the vertical and inclined piers with an angle other than Fr for
rectangular bridge pier …………………………………………………………………………...61
Fig 4.10: ds/D verses inclination (θ) for circular, diamond and rectangular shaped
bridge piers....................................................................................................................................62
Fig 4.11: Effect of flow intensity (V/Vc) on the maximum scour depth (ds/D) for
different pier shapes at (θ = 00, 50, 100, 150 & 200)........................................................................62

Fig 4.12: Longitudinal scour profile of circular shaped bridge Pier at v = 0.16 m/s.....................63
Fig 4.13: Lateral scour profile of circular shaped bridge Pier at v = 0.16 m/s..............................64
Fig 4.22: Longitudinal scour profile of diamond shaped bridge Pier at v = 0.16m/s....................68
Fig 4.23: Lateral scour profile of diamond shaped bridge Pier at v = 0.16 m/s............................69
Fig 4.24: Longitudinal scour profile of diamond shaped bridge Pier at v = 0.20m/s....................69
Fig 4.25: Lateral scour profile of diamond shaped bridge Pier at v = 0.20m/s.............................70
Fig 4.26: Longitudinal scour profile of diamond shaped bridge Pier at v = 0.24 m/s...................70
Fig 4.32: Longitudinal scour profile of rectangular shaped bridge Pier at v = 0.16 m/s...............73
Fig 4.33: Lateral scour profile of rectangular shaped bridge Pier at v = 0.16 m/s........................74
Fig 4.42: Contour map for circular shaped bridge pier at ‘00’ inclination.....................................79
Fig 4.43: Contour map for circular shaped bridge pier at ‘50’ inclination.....................................79
Fig 4.44: Contour map for circular shaped bridge pier at ‘100’ inclination...................................79
Fig 4.47: Contour map for diamond shaped bridge pier at ‘00’ inclination...................................80
Fig 4.48: Contour map for diamond shaped bridge pier at ‘50’ inclination...................................81
Fig 4.49: Contour map for diamond shaped bridge pier at ’100’ inclination.................................81
Fig 4.50: Contour map for diamond shaped bridge pier at ‘150’ inclination.................................81
Fig 4.51: Contour map for diamond shaped bridge pier at ‘200’ inclination.................................82
Fig 4.52: Contour map for rectangular shaped bridge pier at ‘00’ inclination...............................82
Fig 4.53: Contour map for rectangular shaped bridge pier at ‘50’ inclination...............................82
Fig 4.54: Contour map for rectangular shaped bridge pier at ‘100’ inclination.............................83
Fig 4.57: Reduction percentage of scour depth % versus V/ Vc at different inclinations for
circular shaped pier.........................……………………………………………………………...84
Fig 4.58: Reduction percentage of scour depth % versus V/ Vc at different inclinations
for diamond shaped pier....................……………………………………………………………85
Fig 4.59: Reduction percentage of scour depth % versus V/ Vc at different inclinations
for rectangular shaped pier....................…………………………………………………………85
Fig. 4.60: Comparison between measured and forecasted scour depth using the predicted
formulas for vertical and inclined piers with different inclinations for circular
piers………………………86
formulas for vertical and inclined piers with different inclinations for diamond
piers……………………...86
formulas for vertical and inclined piers with different inclinations for rectangular
piers…………………...87
LIST OF TABLES
YTable 1.1: The maximum scour depth for vertical and inclined piers with different inclined
angles ……………………………………………………………………………………………56
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.1 General
The bridges are one of important structures in any country. They play an important role for
transporting goods and people to and from major economic hub. Significant failures to bridges
can destroy the economy of local areas and cause serious injury and loss of life. Many factors are
responsible for failures of these bridges including infrastructure issues, accidents, high winds,
design flaws and manufacturing errors, fires earthquakes and floods but the scouring is main
reason of failure. Scouring is phenomena in which sediments are removed from piers and
abutments of bridges due to hydraulic action of running water. Bridge piers and abutments which
are present across the river would reduce the water flow cross section, when the flowing water
hit these supports and piers the horseshoe vortices are created due to diverted streamlines of
flowing water, the scouring around the bridge piers and abutments is due to these vortices. There
are three types of scouring (i) local scour, (ii) contraction scour and (iii) aggradations or
degradation. Scouring around the stream obstacle is known as local scouring. Local scour arises
due to the development of vertices around the obstacle as the one-way flow changes to three-
dimensional flow in the erodible channel. Whereas the scour due to the constriction of the flow is
called the contraction scour. Contraction scour is the removal of material from the bed in the
constriction shrinkage segment due to change in the geometry of flow segment. Most of this can
be attributed to the increase of velocity due to the decrease in waterway if width constriction
occurs. These two types of scouring are involved in the construction of the bridge pier. The third
type of scour, called aggravation or degradation and also called general scouring, occurs in the
channel of the portable bed. The global search generally occurred on its own due to characteristic
wonders, e.g. environmental changes, ground exercises, etc.
This local scour causes the failure of foundation which is main reason towards bridge failure.
The principal factor in local scouring compose of a series of secondary flows that consist of
horse show vortex system, wake vortex system, trailing vortex system and bow wave vortex.
Wake vortex system is that which moves the bed material upward to the floor This system
strength is dependent on the piers shape and water. Practically, this system does not subsist,
Trailing vortex system is not important, and it mostly occurs when piers are submerged.
Horseshoe vortex system forms due to fragmentation in the piers upstream flow. Horseshoe
vortex is the key factor to bed scouring around all sides of the pier especially at the upstream side
of bridge pier. Bow wave system is those which are present on the water surface and having
opposite direction to horseshoe vortices. Bow wave system is especially important in shallow
water flows where the water flow crashes into the pier and adjusts the strength of the downward
flow.
A number of laboratory and numerical investigations have been carried out to analyze the
equilibrium scour depth at bridge piers. Most of the studies, focused on equilibrium scour depth
in alluvial sand beds as explained by (significant parameters described . This leads directly to a
design method , which is used on some illustrative examples . The Shields diagram ( Henderson
1966 ) remains the most effective way of determining threshold conditions for uniform
sediments . For, 1989) . Similarly, estimation of time-dependent scour depth has been carried out
by many researchers. (Prediction, 1998) presented different techniques to measure the scour
depth at different pier shapes. Different pier shape factors were recommended, established on
few laboratory studies by (Laursen E M & Toch A, 1956). They used to multiply the correction
factors in most of the prediction methods. Furthermore, there is only single design curve to
consider the effect of angle of attack. This design curve is appropriate for the rectangular piers
having pier length to width ratio between 2 and 16.
(Hoffmans and Verheij 1997) presented sketches of scour-hole topography for the maximum
scour holes according to few available references. The understanding of geometric features of the
scour-hole provides suitable information for the bridge foundation design size and to select the
appropriate scour remedies.
Over the last ten decades, the statistical studies indicate that the main causes of the destruction
for the maximum affected bridges are due to hydraulic dynamics. (Shirole & Holt, 1991)
identified that since 1950 in U.S.A, 60% bridges collapsed out of 823 dues to the channel bed
scour and instability of the channel. This research stated that according to U.S. Federal Highway
Association, annually 50 bridges collapse approximately. (Brice and Blodgett, 1978) studied 383
river bridge failures and scour around pier, it was concluded that the primary reason of the 50%
of these failures were due to scouring. Based on above research.
(Millard et al 1998) described that the bridge failures at New York and Tennessee became the
cause of the death of 18 peoples in 1987 and 1989 respectively and 2 persons have fell to them
breathes because of the failure of a bridge span at Miami River in 1989. (Prediction, 1998) noted
that due to the storm of Alberto in Georgia gave rise to a cost of $130 million to rebuild over 100
bridges.it was noted that many of the river bridges failed or damaged because of the flood events
in Turkey.
Besides to the loss of property and life, failed bridges lose their functions. As a result, lead to
increase additional costs in interrupted traffic. Nowadays, river bridge failure has come to
important matter in turkey after the occurrence of too much floods as stated by (Yanmaz & Kose,
2007). USA and New Zealand show countrywide importance to this matter and upkeep the
research assignments regarding this matter. In the USA, the situation of the river bridge piers has
been noticed since 1991. It is examined that 66,000 are critical and 17,000 are under observation
to the scour problem. (Ebrahimi et al., 2018) The depth of scour around the pier was tentatively
concentrated using four different pier shapes, including octagonal, square, circular and oval
bridge piers and the scour depth of the pier was found for the octagonal minimum and maximum
scouring for the square pier of the bridge, so if it were when an event occurred, the depth of the
circular and oval face was in the center of the carriageway relative to the square and octagonal
bridge pier. (Ghani & Mohammadpour, 2016). A numerical model study was presented by using
FLUENT and GAMBIT to investigate the flow variable around bridge pier including stream
wise velocities, boundary shear stress it was observed that with increase in discharge the
turbulence at downstream side of pier was also increased. (Chaulagai, Safarian Bahri, & Osouli,
2016) In another studied that vegetation was proved best tool for reduction of scouring
characteristics, there was 39% reduction in scour depth in case of vegetated banks as compared
to unvegetated banks at flow rate 0.04 m3/sec.
This review work focuses on studying the flow change strategy by providing piers and in
combinations under similar flow conditions. Large-scale tests were carried out at the Fluid
Mechanics Research Center to survey the pier geometry on temporal development of scour in
circulation and scour pattern. The scouring of the most extreme equilibrium has been solved for
all cases under similar flow conditions.
1.2 Problem Statement
The bridge failure caused by the uncontrolled local scour due to floods which always have a
difficult and dangerous problem to hydraulic engineers. Scouring around the bridge pier is
phenomenon which is occurred due to many factors such as localized scour, modification of flow
field around bridge structures, debris flow, human interference, etc. However, it is investigated
that three-dimensional vortex are produced around pier are main cause of scouring. (Day, 2000)
presented study in which 1000 bridges were studied, and it was concluded that more than 60% of
these failures were due to scouring. (Shirole & Holt, 1991) examined 283 failures of bridges and
concluded that mostly of these failures was due to scouring. Bridge failure during the flood leads
to disorder in transportation systems and may cause loss of life and properties. So, the study on
the scour around the bridge pier has become a topic of continued interest to the investigators and
there is need of counter measures for scouring around the bridge piers. One of important
countermeasure for scour reduction is by providing inclined bridge piers. Therefore, inclination
consideration in the design of bridges is an important issue. So, it is necessary to examine the
relation between the scour depth and inclination angle at bridge pier to control and reduce the
bridge failure.
1.3 Utilization and Scope
Bridges are important structures their failure leads to serious injuries, loss of life and properties.
Since scouring is a major cause of bridge failure. So, this study will help other investigators
throughout world in investigating the reduction of local scouring by providing the inclined
bridge piers.
The outcomes of this research work will enhance the understanding regarding fundamental
knowledge of estimation of scouring around bridge pier and respective scour depth by using
inclined piers.
1.4 Scour
Scour is phenomena which mostly occur due to movement of flowing water due to any
abstraction and other hydraulic structure in river or stream. When the flowing water passes the
obstructions, the vortices mechanism created at face of obstruction due to velocity of mean flow.
This vortices mechanism is main cause of scoring. The abutments and piers are like wall in path
of flow, which blocks the water, reduce the mean flow velocity and increase the pressure. The
water level in front of pier and abutment is increased. A hole is created in front of the obstruction
or pier. as shown in Fig 1.1
Fig 1.: Demonstration of flow pattern around pier

1.4.1 Types of scour
Three primary categories of total scour are as follow:
1. General scour
2. Contraction scours at bridges.
3. Local scour around piers and abutments.
Therefore, accumulation of above elements makes up total-scour. Scour categories that can take
place in the vicinity of bridges are demonstrated in Fig. 1.2.
Fig 1.: Types of the scour in the vicinity of bridge
1.4.1.1 General scour
General scouring classifies because of natural developments irrespective of the presence of the
bridge or not at the cross section and can take place either as short or long-term erosion. Though
both types can be identified according to time they take to reach scour development. General
scour for very small interval progresses in case of single or sequential closed spaced floods.
Scour at the channel convergences, scour at head cuts and lateral movement involved in the
short-term scour. (Coleman et al 2003) stated that mostly, the development of the local and the
short-term scour take over the short-term erosion, it is difficult to predict it at structure;
therefore, short-term erosion not involved for the design calculations. Long- term scour evolves
with some alterations or naturally at watersheds and streams. It comes about over the years and
comparatively a long-time scale. Human reasons of the long-term erosion are streambed mining,
channel modifications and reservoir constructions. Furthermore, tectonic activities, climate
change and channel straightening develop long-term scour naturally.
1.4.1.2 Contraction scour
Contraction-scour is the movement of the sediments from the side and bottom of the rivers. It
takes place when area of stream channel in which flow occur is limited naturally. (Kumar et al,
2012) stated that contraction-scour is caused when the channel or bridge opening is narrowed
which increase the velocity of flow. Likewise, roadway embankment results into contraction
scour by resisting overbank flow towards main channel. Most of the time, mean velocity and
bed-shear stress rise when the flow area diminishes. (Prediction, 1998) investigated that extra
shear stress is created due to escalation in velocity on the bed surface, which result in an increase
in bed scour in the contraction area. Therefore, increase in retrogressive forces results in more
removal of sediments from contracted section than eroded to the section. Therefore, it carries on
up until the equilibrium stage is achieved. Bed-level is disturbed; bed stress and average velocity
minimize at the reach and rate of the bed materials eroded becomes equivalent to that of the bed
materials eroded to the reach as presented in Fig. 1.3.
Fig 1.: General contraction scours a) Plan view b) Profile

1.4.1.3 Local scour
Removal of sediments around bridge piers or abutments is known as local scour. Hydraulic
structures for instance abutments; bridge piers and guide banks are frequently used in the
riverbanks in combination with road construction works or river training. Encumbrance of man-
made constructions with the flow creates scour-holes in the vicinity of bridge abutments and
piers. As the flow collides to the obstruction, vortices are developed and flow is enhanced,
sediment particle are eroded around the obstruction.
Local pier scour pattern is presented in Fig. 1.4.
Fig 1.: Local scour profile
1.5 Scour Regimes
Local scour regimes are categorized into two categories, i.e., live bed scour and clear water
scour. In the bridge hydraulics, bed-material erosion plays vital role because it disturbs the
design of foundation of hydraulic structure. The development of the scour hole around bridge
pier in time and the connection between the pier scour-depth and approaching flow velocity in
front of the obstruction is influenced by the conditions of sediment material transport. Thereby,
the local-scour calculations to determine the equations derived by investigators are classified
agreeing with the conditions on which they are grounded. Fig. 1.5 presents a comparison
between clear water and live bed scour circumstances to the erosive depth as a relation of time.
Fig 1.: Scour depth under clear water and live bed scour
1.5.1 Clear water scour
Clear water scours take place, when the sediments do not move from upstream side of pier to
scour hole. At this state, the shear stresses, which are developed at the bed due to the flow of the
water, should be less significant than the critical shear stress ( τ o<τ c). (Yanmaz & Kose, 2007)
stated that when critical velocity is greater than the mean approaching velocity of the flow then
there would be no bed material movement takes place (V<Vc). Amount of erosion influences on
the flow characteristics in the erosive pit and the flow properties are affected in the erosive pit by
inertia of flow and pier geometry. For clear water condition, pier bed is scoured quickly at the
initial phases, but later scour pit development achieves equilibrium stage, as the extent of shear-
stresses are minimized because of the flow variation initiated due to presence of the scour hole.
(Yanmaz & Kose, 2007) presented a study and explained that equilibrium time is reached,
sediment materials are not moved away from the scour hole. Alteration in the depth of the scour
with respect to time is demonstrated in Fig 1.5, whereas (dse) represents maximum erosive depth
around bridge pier. Similarly, Half of equilibrium erosive depth occurs almost in 10 to 20% of
the equilibrium scour time.
In the past, investigators have examined that hydraulic situations indispensable, in order to
initiate the clear-water erosion. (Shen 1969) stated that the clear water erosion initiates when the
average approach velocity (Vo) achieves (50%) fifty percent of critical shear velocity (V*c).
1.5.2 Live-bed scour
This type of scouring occurs when as flow starts the sediment are eroded by river or stream.
When the flow magnitude rises and the bed-shear stresses at the front side of pier surpass the
critical-shear stress (τo<τc), bed material erosion in the flow course progressed. This observed
movement of sediments mutual to flow cause to produce the scour pit; thereby, evolution of
scour hole mainly depends on the flow conditions at the upstream and the flow in scour hole
collectively.(Yanmaz & Kose, 2007) explained that scour whole expansion swiftly escalates
initially, then reduces with time. As the resistance varies with time corresponding to bed
arrangements at upstream, bed material erosion in scour hole be influenced by further shear-
stress that is created at upstream of pier. The equilibrium scour state is obtained when the
sediments entering and exiting form the scour hole become equal. In this situation, scour depth
varies with time around equilibrium erosive depth with respect to variation of the position of bed
particles as demonstrated in Fig. 1.5. Variation is not noticed, when at upstream face of pier
there is no sediment movement. Variations in the scour depths with average approaching
velocity for the both conditions of clear and live bed scour is demonstrated in Fig. 1.6.
Fig 1.: Variation of scour depth with approach flow velocity
1.6 Local scour depth
The bridge failure problems caused by local scouring can be minimized. To start the foundation
design' cost effectiveness, anticipate the local scour depth around the bridge pier is of viable
significance.
1.6.1 Equilibrium scour depth
As described earlier, local pier scour can occur due to either live bed scour or clear water scour.
Most of the previous researches investigated the pattern of scour depth around the bridge piers.
Considering of the scour under clear condition, the purpose of the research is typically grounded
on the assessment of the equilibrium depth of the scour hole. (Rouse 1965) stated that the
equilibrium erosive depth is achieved when the time mean movement of sediment bed materials
entering scour pit and leaving from it are equal. The phenomena of the equilibrium scour depth
changes from many researchers. Scour is an always altering process and there is no actual
equilibrium scour depth. This opinion was agreed by various researchers. But mostly the
research community believes that an equilibrium condition of scour depth does exist and
explained its definition, (Laursen E M & Toch A, 1956) classified the equilibrium condition as
the point of scour evolution where no additional changes take place with the time. The
equilibrium as the asymptotic situation of the erosion achieved as the rate of scouring becomes
minor. Patrick (2006) stated that maximum scour depth is subjected to impact of sediment
parameters and flow. In the associated literature, equilibrium scour depth is dependent on the
velocity, depth of flow and size of moving sediments/materials.
1.6.2 Temporal variation of scour
In order to understand the mechanisms which are liable for the process of scouring, various
factors are present which can be simplified; the most important factor is the scoring around the
pier due to temporal variation. Local pier scour is a phenomenon that depends upon the time. It
is always shown by graph between the local scour depth and the time. It is very difficult to
obtain exact value of probable maximum scour depth due to complicated process of scouring in
each time. As a result, many methods have always been investigated to check the relation
between time equilibrium scour depths. (Bozkus & Çeşme, 2010) investigated local scouring
around single circular bridge pier in which the inclined and vertical bridge pier were used. It was
concluded that the scour depth can be minimized by increment in inclination of bridge pier.
(Heidarnejad et al, 2010) stated that slots can be used to minimize scouring around pier. In this
research it was investigated that by using the slots scour depth reduces by increasing the average
flow. (Kumar et al., 2012) found variation in local scour area and depth and change in its
geometry with the passage of time depends upon geometry and shape of pier.
Compound piers was used and concluded that the local scouring is changed when the elevation
of top surface foundation was varied. (Bozkus & Çeşme, 2010) Stated the scour depth in clay
was related the scour depth in sand bed, when proportion of clay is increased for mixed beds it
would decrease scour depth. (Guan, Chiew, Wei, & Hsieh, 2018) studied that time is also main
factor for scouring, with the passage of time the scour depth is also increased up to equilibrium
state is obtained while the time factor does not affect the shape of longitudinal profile.
(Yagc et al, 2017) stated that the scour depth can be minimized by providing the inclination to
piers. By applying inclination, the local scouring is reduced 50% and volume of scour hole is
reduced 73% at inclination 420 is provided to pile. (Bozkus & Çeşme, 2010) stated that scouring
phenomena was studied by experimental and numerical by using the submerged vertical circular
cylinders. Scour depth is minimized when the height of submerged cylinders is reduced. it was
concluded experimentally that there is direct relation between the height of cylinder and scour
depth while there was difference of 10-20% in result of numerical as compared to experimental.
(Ghani & Mohammadpour, 2016) studied inclined bridge pier and used inclination with vertical
and concluded that with increase in inclination angle the local scouring around the pier is
decreased. (Brandimarte, Paron, & Di Baldassarre, 2012) Stated that mostly bridge failure in
multi vent bridges also occurred due to scouring, to control the scouring many methods were
used and it was described that by using collar, the local scour is reduced up to 90% with current
deflector and sacrificial pile upstream piers.
1.6.3 Equations for Temporal Variation of Scour
(Richardson et al., 1993) examined a report by the US F.H.A. in 1973 that of 383 bridge piers
failures, 25% included the obliteration of the projections and 72% the destruction of the
abutment. A few specialists focused in on developing up the condition to depict the worldly
development of the scour set up in the local scour in piers and abutment. The equilibrium scour
depth is accomplished over the long time, which sets aside a long effort for equilibrium.
(Kohli and Hager 2001), (Oliveto and Hager 2002) and (Coleman et al., 2003); conclude that the
evolution of scour depth with time is logarithmic. (Kohli and Hager 2001) carried out test center
experiments to observe the effect of test interval on the scour depth at vertical wall abutments
situated in flood plain. They found that particle Froude number has a considerable influence on
the scour depth. They presented a logarithmic function of time-development of scour depth as
follow:
dst = (Fd2/ 10) (hl / cos 𝚹𝛼)0.5 log [t (∆gd)0.5 / 10h] (1.1)
In which Fd is the Froude number, 𝑙 is the protrusion length of abutment, h is approaching flow
depth, 𝜃𝛼 is the angle of attack, d is the median diameter of sediment particles.
(Oliveto and Hager 2002) performed a research on abutment and bridge pier scour grounded on a
comprehensive data set collected at ETH Zurich, Switzerland. Six different sediments were tried
out of which three were found uniform. An equation for temporal evolution of scour was
developed and confirmed with the available collected data. The limitations associated to
hydraulic and geometrical parameters are eliminated in the pier scour equation as follows:
dst / LR = 0.068 Nsσ g-1/2 Fd1.5 log (TR) Fd>Fdi
(1.2)
Where; 𝐿𝑅 is the reference length, 𝜎𝑔 is the geometric standard deviation, 𝑁𝑠 is the shape number,
𝑇𝑅 is the dimensionless time, Ns =1.25 for the rectangular abutment (or pier) and Ns as a shape
number equal to Ns = 1 for the circular shape pier. The sediment standard deviation σ g has a
definite effect on scour and was established for the commencement of sediment erosion.
(Bresuers 1967) studied the influence of experimental run duration on the maximum scour depth
at circular pier and proposed an exponential of the form as shown in equations.
𝑦𝑠 = 𝑦𝑠𝑒 [1 – 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (−𝐵𝑇𝐶)] (1.3)
ut
𝑇= (1.4)
D
Where, ys= scour depth, 𝑦𝑠𝑒 = equilibrium scour depth, T = dimensionless time, B and C are
constants, V = mean velocity of the approach flow, t = time and D = pier diameter. After
performing a series of experiments, Franzettiet al., (1982) develop the number range for B and
C; they assumed the average value of these constants. The equation in conclusion becomes,
d𝑠 = d𝑠𝑒 [1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (−0.028𝑇1/3)] (1.5)
ds V t
= exp {-0.03 ln 1/6} (1.6)
dse Vc te
Here ‘ds’ is the scour depth, ‘dse’ is the equilibrium scour depth, ‘V’ represents local velocity,
‘Vc’ is the critical velocity, ‘t’ is the time and ‘te’ is the equilibrium time.
In the current study, a long-time experiment was performed for 4 hours according to the
(significant parameters described . This leads directly to a design method , which is used on
some illustrative examples . The Shields diagram ( Henderson 1966 ) remains the most effective
way of determining threshold conditions for uniform sediments . For, 1989) criteria. The results
suggested that, depth of scour increases with time and there is a good correspondence between
experimental results and Equation (1.6) for the equilibrium time. It was observed that 90% of the
equilibrium scour depth was achieved in the initial 3 hours.
1.6.4 Estimation of Equilibrium Scour Depth
The assessment of the depth of the equilibrium perimeter is of interest for the safe and efficient
planning of the infrastructural parts of the scaffolding. Chime et al., 2001; He thought that
stopping or calibrating the patrol depth induced the shallow settlement plan, on the contrary,
overestimating the results in an uneconomic plan. A few scour readings were taken to provide
the best conditions to predict the scour depth.
It is guaranteed that during a flood, the equilibrium of the depth of the bush at the upper level of
the stream could be achieved long before normal harmony discovers depth; there are not many
studies to calculate the maximum scouring depth under the true flood flow. Rather, flat flow
conditions are selected to evaluate the scour depth at equilibrium.
The conditions for evaluating the depth of the balance are generally experimental conditions.
Field information and test information from the research center are key to creating these
conditions. Numerous tests have been carried out to understand and decide the depth of harmonic
scouring for scouring with clear water under a uniform and consistent stream, as expressed by
Shen et al., 1969; and (The critical limits are shown. This leads directly to a planned strategy,
which is used in some illustrative models. The Shields diagram (Henderson 1966) is still the best
method for deciding the boundary conditions for a uniform silt., 1989) . Breusers et al., 1967;
introduced a condition, in the light of the information (Laursen E M and Toch A, 1956), to
calculate the patrol depth of the equilibrium:
𝑦𝑠𝑒= 1.35 𝐾𝑖𝑏0.7 𝑦00.3 (1.7)
Where,
𝐾𝑖=1.0 for circular pier, y0 = flow depth, b = pier width.
Colorado State University developed an equation included the Froude number to anticipate the
equilibrium scour depth, the equation is as follows:
𝑦𝑠𝑒 = 1.0 𝐾𝑖𝑦0𝐹𝑟 0.43 (𝑏/𝑦 )0.65
0 (1.8)
Where,
Ki =1.1 for a circular pier with clear-water scour, Fr is Froude number.
1.7 Scour countermeasure techniques:
Several experiments were performed to check and minimize the local scouring around bridge
piers. There are various techniques to reduce erosion process near pier base.
 Bed armoring technique

 River Training Technique
 Gabions as armoring technique
 Articulated concrete blocks
 Rock Riprap Technique
 Flow alteration technique
1.7.1 Bed armoring technique
In the Bed armoring technique, the aim is to control the erosive process of the scour by utilizing
physical barriers or hard engineering materials such as rock riprap. Using provision of riprap is
one of the recognized bed armoring techniques to emasculate the local scour. Providing a riprap
sheet in the vicinity of the pier enhances the resistance, and erosion around the pier can be
controlled. There are two types of bed armoring local armoring and revetments. These both
techniques stop the erosion form the channel bed and banks. These are used in form of blankets
which cover the whole area and avoid the scouring. These can be made from rigid and flexible
material. Those revetments which are composed of rigid materials have impervious in nature and
these cannot be bear the changing or erodible variation in foundation and fail suddenly. While
they are composed of flexible material can bear the changes and erosion because these are well
settled after variation or erosion. The main purpose of these armoring techniques is to reduce the
velocity of flow and to decrease the flood energy at both side of piers upstream and downstream.
These may be provided in following forms wall pier, pile bent, column bent, wing walls, rock
riprap, concrete armor units, concrete pavements etc. (Yanmaz & Kose, 2007); analyzed the use
of the breakwater at the base of the destroyed pier and found a critical decrease in tailings
development around the pier. They deduced that two moles captured in a line corresponding to
the course of the canal with a breakwater in the bed reduced disintegration by up to 60%. To
emasculate nearby landslides around the pier, several distinctive modifications were also made.
Fig 1.: Riverbed armoring technique
1.7.2 River Training Technique
Armoring techniques alone are not enough for reduction of scouring. It is necessary to combine
the river training structures for river of higher velocity. When the river training technique is also
applied then the force and energy of flood is reduced, then the armoring techniques and system
becomes more effective. But this is too much costly there is necessity to reduce the cost of
system by providing reliable design having suitable width and depth of armoring bed. Mostly
river trainings revetments are concrete pavements, articulated concrete blocks, mattresses grout
filled, dumped riprap. It is necessary take care of scaling down factor of revetments to reduce the
charges of armoring, to decrease the dangerous effect of armoring. Design considerations must
be taken during installation of ripraps. Only natural hard having angular or rectangular shape
should be used. These stones should not be disintegrated during weathering affect. There should
be minimum 6inch excavation below the riverbed to avoid the encroachment of river. Below the
layer of this riprap it is necessary to provide filter of stones. The size of stones depends upon the
velocity of flow, depth of water, density of riprap etc. The failure in riprap technique cis caused
due to absence of filter, failure of slope, bad toe design, lack of suitable size of stones etc. These
are the structures which change the path of river and dissipate the energy of floods. Retards,
guide banks, collars, pyrones check dams may be provided in this technique.
Fig 1.: River Training Technique
1.7.3 Gabions as armoring technique
These are baskets or cylinders type containers which are composed of mesh of wires. Stones are
filled in these containers. These gabions are flexible in nature and have ability to set with change
in bed morphology with the time. These gabions are porous and loose which reduces the uplift
pressure and due to their flexibility, they settle and deform themselves. Gabions may be in form
of baskets gabions, sack gabions, reno mattresses and wire enclosed riprap.
1.7.4 Articulated concrete blocks
These concrete blocks are joined and connected with the wire or steel cable and a single concrete
material or sheet is formed around the piers or abutments to avoid the scouring. The interlocking
and bonding between these blocks provide the strength to mat and gravel is filled in between
these blocks to avoid the sliding. These blocks can be used at place of riprap due to shortage of
larger stones therefore these are also called “artificial riprap”. The stability of these blocks is
greater than the stones of riprap. The wire or cable used to bind these blocks is made by
polyester or galvanized steel. The mat of these blocks has capacity to resist the forces caused by
high magnitude floods and reduce the erosion around the piers and abutments. The size of blocks
used depends upon the velocity of flood, side slopes, slope of riverbed and distance between
these blocks. These blocks are placed by machinery at shallow depths of water around the pier
and abutments. These blocks are capable to withstand the strong currents and resistance against
ice.
1.7.5 Rock Riprap Technique
In this technique the layer of natural rocks is provided to protect the soil near and below the
vicinity of foundation and bridge pier. These layers avoid the direct contact of soil and erosive
forces which produce the higher velocities. These protections finish the strength of vortices
created at face of piers which creates the scour holes around the piers. The main advantage of
this technique is, after settling of soil particles it adopts and adjust again in new format around
piers. This technique is not so much costly, and it is acceptable in environment. These ripraps
may be provided alone or with the river training techniques. These may be provided in riprap
blankets, sloping ripraps, edge ripraps etc.
Fig 1.: Rock Riprap Technique

1.7.6 Flow Alteration Technique
Current regulation is any regulation of the characteristic current system of a watercourse or

watercourse or the water level of a lake or reservoir caused by human exercise. In the current
method of regulation, the goal is to clog vortex systems or move away from the dock scour
business. The collar design is one of the pelvic alteration strategies that are frequently used to
reduce the decomposition of silt around the scaffold pillars by redirecting the flow downward.
Fother and Jones (1993) have described a collar as a contraption, which acts as an obstacle
against the downdraft to subvert the force of the horseshoe vortex, to avoid dumping silt on the
dock. Melville and Coleman (2000) have stated that necklines of different thicknesses and
shapes are capable around the scaffold piers as defensive plates against silt ejection. In the
current adjustment strategy, reconciliation piles and upstream groundwater piles are used.
Whitehouse (1998) indicated that neck thickness could be increased up to a specific threshold,
otherwise severe flow disturbance would be caused in this way, causing unreasonable scouring.
Harri et al., 2004; examined the impact of the width of a collar on the disintegration of the
neighborhood around the rectangular shaped pier that has a snug nose and saw that the ideal
width of collar 3 (D refers to the size of the pier) is the impressive deterioration in decrease.
1.7.7 Structural Countermeasure Technique
Structural countermeasure contains the modification in bridge foundation or structure to prevent

its damages caused by scouring. The foundation of bridges is strengthened, and single span of
bridge should be converted with the multi span and pier geometry is changed. Mostly used the
structure countermeasure is curtain walls, concrete aprons, piles, extended footings, open
parapets.
1.8 Factors Affecting Local Scour Depth:
From the previous research it was observed that the local scouring is mainly affected due to bed
configurations, characteristics of bed material, and properties of fluid flowing, flow
characteristics, the pier shape and geometry and the time of flowrate. These factors mostly are
interconnected. Following factors are most important
 Effect of downward flow
 Effect of approaching flow depth
 Effect of sediment grading
1.8.1 Effect of downward flow
The flow dynamics around the piers is divided into four mechanisms.
 Downward flow
 Horseshoe vortex
 Wake vortices
 Bow wave
Vortices development near the bed of a pier is the primary cause of the development of the
erosive hole.
1.8.1.1 Downward flow
The pier, which rotates like a divider before moving to the water, tries to obstruct that flow in
this way the pressure factor increases and the flow velocity comes to nothing. This result is an
expansion of the water level before the dock. As the flow velocity decreases from the surface to
the bed, the dynamic pressure factor before the pier also decreases downward. The downdraft
makes an opening before the base of the dock, moves upwards and, cooperating with the
upstream movement, frames a complicated vortex frame. In this way, it performs a change in the
pressure factor between the upstream and backwater sources, which is addressed as ⍴V2/2 (⍴ =
density, V = current velocity). (Yanmaz and Kose, 2007) showed that the improvement in the
depth of the current depends on the shape of the pier and the movement towards the speed of the
current. Melville (1975) stated that the downdraft, rotating like a vertical fly, dissolves the bed
material. Likewise, it showed that the downdraft initially slides to frame a horseshoe-shaped
vortex that further extends the scour opening.
1.8.1.2 Horseshow vortex
For the case of the horseshow vortex, due to the downward and approaching flow, vortex is
developed at the pier’s upstream. This vortex formation is known as horseshoe vortex because of
the shape they develop at the scour pit. It is interesting to note that the horseshoe vortex formed
later the scour whole development. It formed due to the result of scour action; horseshoe vortex
plays a significant part in eroding material away from the pier scour pit. Raudkivi (1991) stated
that horseshoe vortex formation no longer maintains its power and turn into a part of overall
turbulence once spreading downwards for rare bridge pier diameters. Similarly, strength of the
formation of horseshoe-vortex right away influenced, by pier geometry and the rate of the
turbulent flow as discussed by Yanmaz (2002). It challenging to alter the flow situations around
pier thereby suitable pier shape should be preferred to minimize the sound outcomes of the
horseshoe vortex.
Fig 1.: Development of Horseshow vortex
1.8.1.3 Wake vortex
Downward flow and resulting horseshoe vortex play a vital role in erosive development. At the
upstream side of the pier, due to the development shear stress gradients, the wake vortex
formation creates from the flow distribution along the pier’s sides. Due to the result of
downward flow, wake vortex shifted downstream due to approach flow and act like vacuum
cleaner carrying the sediment entrained by the downward flow as stated by Melville and
Coleman (2000). The intensity of the wake-vortex reduces rapidly as space increases towards the
backside of the bridge piers. When linked to the horseshoe-vortex, the strength of the wake
vortex remains less. Hence, maximum scour-depth takes place at the upstream side of the pier.
Fig 1.: Development of wake vortex

1.8.1.4 Bow vortex
Bow wave is created at the front face of the pier on the water surface which rotates in opposite
path of the horseshoe vortex. As a result, there is an escalation in the depth of water as the flow
approaches towards pier. Bow wave creates impact on the formation of horseshoe vortex. With
the understanding that the flow depth falls, bow wave formation disturbs the presence of the
horseshoe-vortex to come to be weaker. Consequently, local pier erosive depth is minimized for
the shallower flow depth indicated by (Day, 2000).
Fig 1. Development of Bow vortex

1.8.2 Effect of approaching flow depth
Presence of a pier against flow direction leads surface roller at the front side of the pier and the
horseshoe-vortex at the bed. This eddy current that build up at the base and the surface of the
pier moves in reverse path. Yanmaz (2002) stated that development of the pier scours on
approaching flow depth is influenced by the disturbance in the eddy movements. Generally, the
two-rollers do not cooperate with each other; the local scour depth does not influence by the flow
depth. Raudkivi (1991) studied that when the flow depth remains enormous, the encumbrance
amongst the vortices reduces its strength. Similarly, surface roller come to be extra operative and
develops base vortices to emasculate base of the footing lesser with the declining of the depth of
flow.
1.8.3 Effect of sediment grading
Raudkivi and Ettema (1983) described the consequence of the sediment grading on the local
erosive depth at the clear water scour condition. By accessing their study, sediment grading
considerably disturbs the erosive depth. With the understanding that as the standard deviation of
the sediment grading (𝜎g) escalates, bed armoring outcome dominates. Cohesive materials
disperse widely over the fine sediment particles; thereby local pier erosive depth diminishes
noticeably. Yanmaz (2002) developed a regression equation for a period of 1.0 ≤𝜎g≥ 5.0,
depends on the correction factor (K𝜎) specified by Raudkivi (1986):
K𝛔= 0.013 𝜎g5 – 0.223 𝜎g4 + 1.406 𝜎g3 – 4.086 𝜎g2 + 5.007 𝜎g1 – 1.118 (1.9)
Regarding for Equation 1.9, the pier erosive depth in a non-uniform riverbed, whereas the
standard deviance in the sediment grading is approximately 3.50 for gravel rivers, reduces 80%,
related to the pier erosive depth in a riverbed with uniform sediments material. Melville and
Sutherland (1988) concluded that the consequences of the research carried out by the Raudkivi
and Ettema (1977). Raudkivi explains the equilibrium clearwater erosive depth separated by the
bridge pier diameter by means of the function of sediment grading. Raudkivi developed an
equation to evaluate maximum probable value of equilibrium depth of the clear water scour:
dse / D = K𝛔(dse/ D) (1.10)
Whereas, ‘dse’ is the equilibrium pier erosive depth in the uniform sediments, 𝜎g = 1. The factor
‘K𝜎’ is a function of the geometric standard deviance in the particles size distribution ‘𝜎g’ as
shown in Fig. 1.13.
Fig 1.: Factor ‘K𝜎’ is a function of the standard deviance in the particles size
distribution (Raudkivi, 1993)
1.9 Bridge Piers
The Pier Bridge strengthens the spans of the scaffolding and moves hundreds of people from
construction to the grounds. The springs must be strong enough to require a vertical load and
also power. The main task is to move the pile from the scaffold design to the structure. They are
exposed to hundreds of hubs, bi-pivot minutes and cutting powers. Springs are usually
pressurized parts of scaffolding.
1.9.1 Types of Pier

The type of piers to be used in the extension depends on the type of scaffolding, as well as the
conditions of the base in light of the methodology received to improve the extension. The
extension pier is mainly divided into 2 types.
 Solid piers
 Open piers
1.9.2 Solid piers:

These piers have solid and impervious structure. the widely used materials used for the
development of those kind of piers square measure bricks, stone Masonry, Concrete or
RCC, etc. They can be further classified as:
a) Solid masonry pier.
b) Solid RCC pier
The Pier Bridge strengthens the spans of the scaffolding and moves hundreds of people from
construction to the grounds. The springs must be strong enough to require a vertical load and
also power. The main task is to move the pile from the scaffold design to the structure. They are
exposed to hundreds of hubs, bi-pivot minutes and cutting powers. Springs are usually
pressurized parts of scaffolding. As shown in Fig. 1.13 Missouri River Bridge, the pier is solid
piers.
Fig 1.: Missouri River Bridge

1.9.3 Open piers
The piers which are open also allows the water to pass through the structure are called as open
piers. Open piers can be classified into the following types:
 Cylindrical piers
 Column bents
 Trestle piers or Trestle bent
 Pile bents
 Special or typical framed piers
1.9.3.1 Cylindrical piers
The poles that are built with the mild steel or cast-iron cylinder, in which the concrete is filled,
are called cylindrical poles. They are used for bridges of moderate height. Sometimes horizontal
and diagonal steel tie rods are also provided for added stability.
1.9.3.2 Column bents
A rigid edge usually made of reinforced concrete or steel that supports a vertical load and is
arranged transversely along a construction. The elbows are used regularly to assist bars and rests.
A curved end is the part that forms the supporting edge of a stud. Vertical individuals of an arch
are sections or mounds.
1.9.3.3 Trestle piers or Trestle bent
Includes a section of the hood twisted on the top. Based on the last tip, pins can also be donated.
It is mainly used for flyovers and elevated roads. They are reasonable for stretches where the
water flow is moderate and the river bed is fairly solid.
1.9.4 Typical Framed Piers
These are the latest types of springs used in extensions. In these pillars, the length of the
successful span for bracing decreases. Then the development will be practical. Order of
expansion of the platforms according to the motorized handling systems Depending on the type
of powers that press the platform, the following are delegated:
 Fixed piers
 Free piers
1.9.4.1 Fixed pier
This is be R.C.C pier. When a bridge pier casting with girder or slab simultaneously this is call
fixed pier as shown in Fig. 1.15.
Fig 1.: Fixed piers
1.9.4.2 Free Pier
Free Wharf is a kind of wooden pier. When an extension spring is made of wood and the section
or bracket simply stays on top of that spring without a fixed joint, it is called a free spring as
demonstrated in Fig. 1.16.
Fig 1.: Free piers

CHAPTER 2
2 Literature Review
Local scouring is the procedure of removal of sediments from the base of a hydraulic structure
by water due to waves and currents. It differentiates from the typical bed erosion as local
scouring only happens under man made hydraulic structures. Constructing a hydraulic structure
or aquatic environment effect its natural course, altering the flow and sediment movement
leading to local scouring. The obstruction to the flowing stream by means of a bridge pier will
cause the river to change either its natural regime obeying the principles of “mobile” boundary
hydraulics (Khaple, Hanmaiahgari, Gaudio, & Dey, 2017) or causes a turbulent flow field by
three-dimensional partitioning of approaching flow around the pier subsequently resulting into
local scouring around the pier (Dey, Bose, & Sastry, 1995). Local scouring under a bridge pier
primarily occur due to the down flow that generates along the upstream side of the pier resulting
the generation of a horseshoe vortex at the base of the pier (Dey et al., 1995). (Raykar,
Kozintsev, & Lienhart, 2005) examined the geometric properties of the development of scour
hole spatially and temporally by embedding a cylinder in a sand bed and measuring the shape,
upstream slope, maximum depth, volume, and radii of different azimuthally planes of the scour
whole made around the cylinder. They observed that local scouring initiates from the sides of the
cylinder, growing towards the upstream end eventually merging to form a scour hole. In recent
years, due to the increase in traffic load many new bridges have been constructed parallel or
alongside the old existing bridges. Few of the examples include two parallel bridges at river
Jhelum in Pakistan, another at river Chenab and a newly constructed bridge, Nivedita Setu, at a
downstream of an old existing bridge named Vivekananda Setu in Kolkata, India.
One method to reduce scouring around the bridge pier is to place large stones armoring the
powerful down flow and horseshow vortex e.g.,(Link et al., 2017). In another method, flow
altering devices are used to weaken and inhabiting the down word flow and horseshoe vortex.
Such flow altering countermeasures in order to reduce scouring includes piling (Eck, 2000), slots
through the pier (Raikar & Dey, 2005), collars (Dey & Sarkar, 2006), provision of bed sills
(Tafarojnoruz, Gaudio, & Dey, 2010), tetrahedral frames (Tafarojnoruz, Gaudio, & Calomino,
2012b), and a splitter plate (Grimaldi, Gaudio, Calomino, & Cardoso, 2009). In 2012, a
comprehensive review was presented by a group of scholars who divided the flow altering
devices into active and passive (Chiew, 1992). Those devices which consume energy were
declared as active devise whereas passive devices are characterized on their shape e.g., a
streamlined pier, altering the flow and, hence reducing the scouring. In case of active devices,
emerging is used to deviate the flow field by injection of water through the pier or hydraulic
structure in order to reduce scour. Considering the severity of the above phenomenon,
noteworthy studies have been done and are still inside focus from decades. These studies
primarily comprise investigations regarding the effect of pier shapes, sediments and their
characteristics, flow field conditions that contribute to scouring and its countermeasures.
Summarized under are few of the important studies held in the field of flow-altering scour
reduction countermeasures.
Providing Collars to the bridge piers have been a prime mitigating tool since 80’s
(“CONTROLLING M E C H A N I S M O F L O C A L scouring By Bijan Dargahi 1,” 1991).
(Grimaldi et al., 2009) investigated the different symmetries in collar application and found
inconclusive and negligible effects in down word flow formation. (TANG, DING, CHIEW, &
FANG, 2009) further concluded that the thickness of the collar applied around the pier inversely
affects its efficiency in reducing scouring. A series of experiments on a cylindrical pier
combining collars and slots proved to be quite efficient in reducing scouring as compare to other
countermeasures like riprap, concluded by (Dey & Sarkar, 2006). (Sharafati, Tafarojnoruz,
Shourian, & Yaseen, 2020) formulated an equation that predicts the scouring depth under
(Dargahi, 1990) the presence of a collar. It was on=observed that collar played its more
effectively when placed near the bed level rather than other positions. Further, (For, At, By,
Melville, & Chiew, 1999) and investigated the effect of collars around rectangular and circular
piers temporally and spatially. They found out that the collars can reduced the scour formation
more effectively that wide footings. Adding to it, the scholars further claimed that a collar thrice
time bigger than the pier diameter reduce the scour depth more significantly.
In a latest study by (Pandey, Azamathulla, Chaudhuri, Pu, & Pourshahbaz, 2020), an innovation
came into existence by transforming a circular collar into trapezoidal collar. An experimental
series was carried out with variable Froude and Reynolds numbers resulting impressively.
Without a collar, scour formation occurred at a higher rate at the beginning and then started
declining as the scour hole developed. In less than two hours during the experiment, 70% of the
scouring occurred. Surprisingly when the collar is applied, scouring occurred up to 80 minutes
from the start of the experiment and zero or negligible development was observed for the next
200 minutes. The scour depth became shallower with the application of collar as compared to the
scour depth without collar, but the sediment deposition at the downstream side of the pier was
observed with increase in upstream length and scour hole width.
Providing the pier with a slot has proved some impactful results in controlling the scour within
the last decades (Zarrati, Nazariha, & Mashahir, 2006). Slot is an opening in the face of the pier
that let the water pass through the pier reducing the strength and erosive power of the down word
flow and horseshow vortex. It influences the wake vortex system by modifying the flow flied
and its velocity around the pier. (Zarrati et al., 2006) tested couple of wide slot slots i.e. 33b and
0.67b where ‘b’ being the pier width that resulted into a reduction of maximum scour depth ‘dse’
by 18–30%.
(Kisi, Khosravinia, Nikpour, & Sanikhani, 2019), in his experiment, exhibited how a slot
reduced the intensity of horseshoe vortex diverting the flow coming downwards through the
openings of the slot near the bed. Whereas, a slot behaved similar to the case for a pier without
slot when designed near the surface, allowing lesser water to flow through the pier near surface.
But with the increase of slot width i.e. 0.25b and 0.50b, the maximum scour depth was observed
to be reduced up to 30 % placing the slots near the surface keeping slot length ‘ls’ equal to the
approach flow depth ‘h’, and slot width equal to0.5b. Exploring further, (Tafarojnoruz, Gaudio,
& Calomino, 2012a) experimented slots with variation lengths i.e. ls=h and ls=h+dse0, where
‘dse’ was the maximum scour depth without slot and width 0.25b. The maximum result was
achieved to be 30% reduction when a slot with ls=h+dse was used. (Tafarojnoruz et al., 2012a)
further implemented slots with variable lengths and width i.e. ls=b and ls=2b and w=0.25b on
round nosed and circular piers. His results didn’t show significant reduction in case of the
circular piers with slots near the water surface and 18% when placed near the bed. Moreover,
resourceful results were observed in the case of round nosed pier. However, the results found in
the literature cannot be comparable establishing a relation whether to locate the slot near the bed
or near the water surface with variable length and widths.
Carrying this into a depth, (Chiew, 1992) experimented a combination of placing a bed sill
downstream side of the pier with addition of a slot. Multiple laborites were used to run the
experiments aiming towards evaluating how effective this combination of a bed sill at the
downstream and slot zs /h could result. Couple of rectangular channels was used in their
experiment. The first channel was 12.7m long having the width of 0.8m, and the second channel
was 40.7m in length having a width of 2m. The first channel was horizontal, and the second
channel has the flexibility to tilt around 0-2.5% bed slope ‘S0’. A 0.35m deep recessed box of
3.1m length with coarsely graded uniform sand having a median diameter d50=1.3 mm and
geometric standard deviation g = d84, d16-0.5 = 1.46. In the second channel a false bed made of
concrete was installed with two 0.35m deep recessed boxes of 5m length having uniformly
coarse graded sand of median diameter d50=0.7 mm and geometric standard deviation g=1.44.
Circular piers with 75mm diameter were aligned with positioning along the centerline of the
cross section in channel 1, whereas the circular piers with 90mm and 120mm were positioned in
channel 2, respectively. Rectangular slots were drilled out the center of each pier. For modeling
the bed sills, maritime wooden plates of 20mm thickness were used. Each of the wooded bed sill
was placed in the at the bed level at the downstream side of the pier in the recessed box. An
electromagnetic flow meter having the accuracy of 0.1 Ls was employed to measure discharge, a
point gauge to measure flow depth and a decimal scale to measure bed level. Scour area and
volume was evaluated using a Leica Reflector Less Total Station having accuracy less than 3%.
(S. Kumar & Nussinov, 1999) claimed that a downstream bed sill can reduce the maximum scour
depth around circular bridge pier with specification i.e. L=0 rde =26%, rAe, and rVe=80%.
Moreover, the bed sills can totally remove the wake vortices if placed adjacent to the pier
altering the flow field and horseshoe vortex. While according to a hypothesis, a slot can inhabit
the strength of horseshoe vortex by diverting the down flow. Following the results, a
combination of two countermeasures configuring the bed sill at L=0 with an assumption zs
/h=1/3 resulted in the best slot performance.
Taking about the temporal development of scour hole, the role of bed sill against the scouring
action starts after a certain duration when the wake vortex interacts with the bed sills
(Mollasadeghi et al., n.d.). Therefore, concluding that the scour depth was controlled by the slots
primarily. The temporal evolution of the scouring around piers without countermeasures and
those with combined countermeasures were observed almost parallel. In case where Ut/b ≥
2x104, the bed sills were observed to slow down the scouring rate in comparison to the tests
using the slots only. Apparently, it was seemed that both the down flow and the horseshoe vortex
were affected by combined countermeasures especially with the slots. Bed sills, that totally
inhabits the wake vortices was observed to reduce the maximum scour depths up to 49 %, The
achieved values went up to 92.3 %, respectively. However, there still lies a huge void in
investigating the efficiency of slots and in particularly its behaviors in case of obstructions due to
flow materials in the water.
Another widely used flow altering countermeasure is constructing the sequence of sills to
mitigate erosive behavior of flowing water, altering the stream to flow like a stair pattern. The
most prominent results by bed sills can be achieved by employing them in sequential steps
followed by reaches at a comparatively milder gradient than original slope of the channel
(Grimaldi et al., 2009). Studies proved that flow altering structures i.e. bed sills leads to the
increase in bed roughness, dissipating the excess energy, slowing the flow velocity and shear
force near the stream bed, and therefore, inhabiting the movement of sediments particularly
under milder slopes or steeper ones with 1-4 times the interval of channel width, respectively
(Grimaldi et al., 2009). Although the phenomenon of interaction of sediments with the flow have
been studies by few researchers, the potential aspects of single bed sill in its abilities to alter
scouring depth around the bridge piers needs much attention in the years to come.
A recent study by (Grimaldi et al., 2009) around the aprons verified the application of bed sills to
be employed around the aprons as a scour countermeasure. In this regard, multiple experimental
runs were conducted to measure the shape and geometry of the scour holes. The parameters
comprising the distance and height of placing the bed sill above or on the stream bed level and
their effects were examined. The study was conducted in the central laboratory of water
researches at the University of Tehran, Iran. An open rectangular channel having a length of 9m,
width of 0.5m and depth of 0.6m was used. The side walls were transparent made from Plexiglas
to help observe the entire phenomenon directly. A wall jet of 2 cm opening was installed near the
sluice gate at the upstream side of the channel to allow the local scouring to occur only limiting
the zero or negligible sand transport. Apron was simulated adjacent to sluice gate using a
platform made from solid Perspex having 1 m length approximately. The apron length was kept
constant in all experimental runs keeping in mind the sole purpose of the study was to investigate
the bed sills and its effects of the length of scour hole. At the end of the apron, a sediment recess
box of 0.2 m depth and 1.65m length was placed. It was flushed level with the apron and filled
with bed material of mean grain diameter d50=1.85 mm and the geometric standard deviation g =
p (d84/d16) = 1.1 that was kept less than the threshold value of g = 1.35 maintaining the criteria of
non-uniform grading (Rubaltelli et al., 2011). The relative submerged density of the sediments
was taken D = 1.63.
A trap was provided in the flume at the downstream end to limit the bed material entering the
mainstream flow. A point gauge with ±0.1 mm accuracy was employed to measure the flow
depth and scour whole profiles. The point gauge was placed above the flume in a traverse
arrangement allowing itself to move along the length and across longitudinally and transversely.
The scour hole profiles were quantified after draining off the flume at three different sections i.e.
along the centerline, along the front Plexiglas wall, and near the far wall. 8mm thick Plexiglas
plates were modeled and fitted as bed sills across the width of the flume. These sills were the
sills were located at multiple bed elevations and distances L at the downstream of the end of the
apron. A rectangular sharp crested weir with accuracy of 0.1 l/s placed at the upstream of the
sluice gate was used to measure the discharge. The discharge was measured after regular
intervals to maintain a constant rate. Water depth was regulated using a tail gate at the of the
flume. As the prime focus of the study was to check upon the possibility and efficiency of bed
sills to counter scouring around the apron, the parameters i.e. flow depth (T w), and discharge (Q)
were kept constant as 0.20 m and 17.72 l/s, respectively. Due to oscillations in the water surface
at the downstream and in order to curtail the reading error, the values for flow depth were taken
downstream of the scour hole at several meters. In the initial stages, significant decrease in
scouring was observed after the installation of bed sills achieving the asymptotic equilibrium
condition in 12 hours after which the scour depth didn’t change at the flume centerline
considerably. Before application of bed sills, a reference run with unprotected apron was carried
out to record the necessity measurements i.e. maximum scour depth (ds0) and the longitudinal
length of the scour hole (LS0) under normal conditions.
After the test runs and measurement of necessary data, the introduction of bed sills as a scouring
countermeasure was found to change the geometry of the scour pattern and depth completely. It
was observed that scouring was reduced after placing bed sills at the downstream of the apron.
Two scour holes of distinct geometry were observed at the front and back side of the sill. Among
all the runs, the maximum scour depth between the end of the apron and bed sill was observed
larger than that without bed sills. However, the scour depth was reduced outstandingly in front of
the sill i.e. 95%. Completely suppressed sills proved to be of no use at all controlling
insignificant or zero scouring at all either front or behind the sill, concluded by the author.
Different scour hole patterns and profiles were observed by placing sills at different elevations.
Lastly, by designing proper aprons this countermeasure enlightens a great potential in controlling
the scour depth and it should be explored further. However, Bed sills do have a negative role on
the stability of channel controlling the scouring of river bed on another hand (V. Kumar, Kumar,
& Persaud, 1999).
Carrying the importance of protection of bridge piers against local scouring, (Hamidifar, Omid,
& Nasrabadi, 2011) dig the effect of piles with holes inside it placing at three different
orientation i.e. 0°, 90° and 45° in the flow direction under clear-water conditions (Fig 2.4).His
research further aimed at investigating such perforated piles with sacrificial piles placed
upstream. Results deduced to a significant amount of reduction in local scouring i.e. up to 80%
for h =45° by using perforated piles. At an orientation of 0°, least amount of reduction in the
scour hole depth had been observed with respect to the piles at h =90°, and h =45° and even
lesser than piles without any holes in it. About 47% reduction was achieved with a perforated
pile at h =90°. It was also deduced that the protective imperforated sacrificial piles at the
upstream of bridge helped at controlling the scour depth up to 76% with respect to an
unprotected bridge pile at h = 45°. The net reduction hence quantified by using perforated
sacrificial pile was recorded about 89%.
Another flow altering measure was experimented by (Mousavi, Soltani-Gerdefaramarzi, &

Mostafazadeh-Fard, 2010) using water jet injection. The aim of this research was reducing local
scouring around the pier by injecting a constant water jet through the pier surface weakening the
horseshoe vortex and down flow. As a scour reduction countermeasure, injection of jets is
considered as one of the key techniques that control boundary layer generating kinetic energy
enough to displace separation points delaying the flow separations along the rear part of the
cylinder, and hence weakening the strength of down flow and horseshoe vortex. In another
outlook, injecting jets resembles with collars placed around the pier in order to counter scouring.
Just like a collar when placed at different bed elevations divided the flow in two different
regions, above and under the collar. Similarly, the jets have same effect. The resulting stream
flow acts as an obstruction to down flow from impinging the bed at the region above the jet.
Similarly, the region below the jet tends to decrease the strength of horseshoe vortex and down
flow. Moreover, the position and magnitude of jet with respect to bed elevation plays a primary
role in decreasing the scour depth. In this study, the scour reducing experiments were carried out
using variable parameters i.e. flow rate of jets, the number of jets, adjustable heights, and
different angles between these jets under two different flow depths. Further, the role of kinetic
energy in contributing the turbulence and Reynolds number was also analyzed when the jet being
inject through the pier.
It was explored that injection of jets gave better and effective results near the bed as a greater
number of jets are added with higher flow rate. The experiment yielded the maximum scour
reduction up to 37.5% with flow depth h = 10.5cm and 31.5% with flow depth h = 28cm with
jet arrangement under clear water condition, respectively. Moreover, the research proved out that
3 jet outlets didn’t yielded any prominent advantage over single or 1 jet outlet in terms of
lowering scour depth, area and volume at (h = 10.5 cm). However, 3 jet outlet produced
prominent results with the flow depth of 28 cm. Lastly, it was revealed that injecting the jets
reduces the scouring ability of the flowing water. When a jet is injected through the pier, kinetic
energy was increased as an outcome of turbulence near the separation point, eventually causing
delay in the flow separation which is the sole cause of the formation of horseshoe vortex that
leads to local scouring. This idea injecting jets through the pier as a scour countermeasure
ascends from the aeronautical engineering where jets were injected to control the boundary layer
in air. Prior to this countermeasure, a very reliable pumping system with uninterrupted power
needed to be installed permanently in order to operate during high flood risk seasons. Likewise,
this countermeasure needs more deliberation and comprehensive evaluation both in laboratories
and in fields for future. Considering it an advantage, the structural devise that needs to induce the
jet needs to be placed inside water around the pier. It seems difficult to operate and maintain
such a technique, but such difficulties could be overcome by the provision of permanent control
towers near the bridge. However, the above discussed measures are needed to be implemented
either while designing the structure or in the execution phase costing heavy amount of
expenditure.
In a recent year (Mousavi et al., 2010) experimentally examined an innovative flow altering
technique to conquer local scouring around bridge piers with application of roughed height by
using uniform sediment sizes attached around the surface of the pier with glue. The concept
ascended from results obtained from former research on roughened horizontal aprons behind the
hydraulic structures that dissipate energy enough to reduce the scouring downstream of the pier.
The down flow at the front, horseshoe at the base, and wake vortex created inside the scour depth
are the three main contributors of scouring phenomenon (Abdelhaleem, 2019). Applying
roughness to the newly constructed pier or already existed pier creates turbulence that leads to
strengthening kinetic energy at the upstream of the pier. This kinetic energy delays the flow to
separate moving the stagnation point away to downstream of the pier. Eventually, weakening the
strength of the horseshoe vortex and down flow diverting them away from the bed of the canal.
However, his findings proved that roughening the pier surface reduced the impingements on the
bed elevation. Subsequently proving out to be an effective measure to minimize the scour depth,
area and its volume.
Significant reduction was observed with roughened piers at the upstream of the scour pit.
Practically, this mode of countermeasure is quite preferable because of its simplicity, cost,
installation and maintenance as compare to earlier countermeasures. Especially this
countermeasure could be readily installed to already build pier structures. The experiment started
with a test run on smooth pier to record as a reference test for comparison. HEC -18 equations
was employed to formulate local scouring around the bridge piers. The result of this research
conclusively revealed the reduction in local scouring up to 29.63% using roughened piers with
13.07% and 42.52% decrease in scour area and volume, respectively. In contrary to this,
roughened piers increased the scour length up to 10.04% at upstream. The scour estimation was
done using an empirical formula developed earlier.
On the other hand, technological advancements have led to the construction of modern bridges
with different pier shapes and geometries (GHODSIAN & VAGHEFI, 2009). In spite of wide
research on local scouring around circular and cylindrical bridge piers, rare research has been
conducted to physically understand turbulence and scour characteristics around bridge pier with
different shapes (Karimi, Heidarnejad, & Masjedi, 2017). In particular, the effects of the shape of
the pier foundation on the scouring process have been paid the least attention in former
investigations (Parola & Member, 1994). Considering the different types of geometries, bridge
piers can be designed non-uniformly along their cross-sections (Vijayasree, Eldho, Mazumder, &
Ahmad, 2019). Such type of piers is recognized as non-uniform or compound piers. A circular
compound bridge pier is technically defined as a circular bridge pier placed on a larger diameter
circular foundation or caisson. However, the foundation structure is monolithic with the pier, it is
considered a part of pier making it a compound pier altogether. These types of circular
compound piers can be seen under the bridges mostly in the Asian subcontinent.
Recognizable scholars (Ataie‐Ashtiani, Baratian‐Ghorghi, & Beheshti, 2009) have proved that
the foundation geometry of the pier or any other hydraulic structure prominently effects the
scour phenomenon. For instance, the geometry of the compound pier is non-uniform along its
height with respect to uniform pier creating the flow structure more complicated around them as
compared to that around uniform piers having circular geometries. Numerous empirical relations
are available in the literature for the evaluation of development of the scour depth around
uniform and non-uniform bridge piers. But somehow these empirical and semi empirical
relations didn’t produce practical results in many cases. Factually, due to the insufficient study
and lack of knowledge to understand the flow patterns that contributes to scouring, this problem
still needs a greater insight even after the decades. At the start of this decade, (Ataie‐Ashtiani et
al., 2009) and (Vinoth Kumar et al., 2012) went up to study the circular compound piers
experimentally. However, (Vinoth Kumar et al., 2012) studied the flow structure for the first
time around the circular compound bridge piers. Experiments were conducted to observe the
scour hole patterns and turbulence characteristics, round uniform and compound piers. ADV was
used to measure these characteristics. A rectangular channel with 30 m length and 1m depth
were used for experimentation having a depth of 0.3m.
The channel bed was filled with the sediment of desired size and level. The experiment was
carried out under clear water conditions because V=Vc values in the approach flow were very
small than unit where u is the shear velocity and V c is the critical shear velocity of the flow
which was measured using Shields method (Keshavarzi et al., 2018). Galvanized iron pipes were
used to model both uniform and compound piers used in the experiment. Two set of experiments
were performed; the first set of experiments helped in quantifying the variation in development
of scour pit around uniform and compound pier temporally. The other set of experiments was
used to measure the characteristic parameters of scour hole i.e. size of the scour pit, area, wake
and horseshoe vortex, and bed shear stress at the upstream side of the pier right after the start of
scouring process. After that, four set of experimental runs were conducted allowing the scour
process to start and develop before making the observations regarding flow field conditions
under clear water flow.
Compiling the results, it was observed that the scour depth was greater around the compound
pier in comparison with circular uniform pier when the top surface of the forting was placed
above the bed level of the water channel. The extent to contrary results was referred due to larger
exposure to the footing of compound pier to the water. Besides, after placing the footing of the
compound pier below the general bed level in another run, a significant amount of reduction was
observed around the pier in comparison with the circular uniform pier having same diameter.
This reduction in scouring depth was attributed to the vortex supporting ability of the footing
surface of the compound pier which acted as a rigid catch collar weakening the principle
horseshoe vortex (Bozkus & Çeşme, 2010) .
An earliest study on circular compound piers were initiated by (Gregory & Brookes, 1983) .
They explained how important the top surface of footing is in the formation of scour depth. As
per results, they claimed that a pier footing/caisson with 2b diameter placed above the bed level
with its top at b/4 below the general bed level produced significant reduction in scouring up to
52%. Similarly, the same pier of 2b diameter with its footing/caisson top at the general bed level
having a collar of 4b size attached around it placed at b/2 below the bed level reduces the rate of
scouring up to 48%. This clearly explained how the location of the placement of top footing
height was important in order to reduce the rate of scouring. (Umbrell, Young, Stein, & Jones,
1998) led a similar experimental study the circular piers that were mounted on a larger circular
footing/caisson in order find the most precise size of top footing/caisson diameter. They
concluded the best ratio for pier to caisson diameter was 1 is to 3 times enabling the best results
in reducing scouring. However, they recommended its top to be placed below at about 0.4b
below the general bed level. Their observations reveled to have reduced scouring depth up to
three times as compared to the circular pier. Exploring the confusion further, (Yanmaz & Köse,
2007) experimented the compound pier of 26.7mm diameter with a caisson diameter of 1.78
times bigger than pier diameter, with multiple runs varying the caisson 0.2 to 1.0 times on and
above the general bed level. A framed vortex was observed at the front of the pier using the color
infusion method. We saw that only the current below the highest point of the drawer came from
the vortex data in front of the base drawer. The uniform degree of the horseshoe vortex, L 0, was
estimated.
(Mohammadpour, Ghani, Vakili, & Sabzevari, 2016) conducted valuable experiments of this
decade regarding the geometry of pier by inclining their placement under the bridge. Two piers
of 5cm and 7cm diameter were employed at variable floe rates, flow depths and angles i.e. 15,
10, 5, and 0 degrees under clear water conditions. The sediment bed was made up of 1.4mm sand
having a standard deviation of 3. Measuring and analyzing the experimental runs, the researchers
proved to reduced scouring rate with increase in pier angle. Since after (Shamshirband, Mosavi,
& Rabczuk, 2020) , no deliberate study was conducted on inclination of the piers until (Bozkus
& Çeşme, 2010)decide to dig into this phenomenon covering bigger aspects (Fig 2.8). Four
different angles i.e. 0, 5, 10, and 15 degrees and flow rates i.e. 12, 14, 16, and 18 lit/s were
considered in order to test the piers with. Results were presented in terms of longitudinal profiles
with piers at 4 different angles (10, 5, 0, and 15 degrees) and flow rates (12, 14, 16, and 18 lit/s).
Their results revealed an inverse behavior with respect to the scour depth, as with the increase in
inclination angle of the pier, the decrease in maximum scour depth was observed. It was also
concluded that the most effective reduction was measured at an inclination angle of 15 degrees.
Their study verified the prior results by (Debnath & Chaudhuri, 2010). The reason behind the
phenomenon was attributed to the impact angle, when the water it’s the inclined pier at the
upstream side, the horseshoe vortex gets reduced slowing down the down flow and hence,
leading to a reduced scour depth.
The results obtained from the above literature prove that piers with inclined angles reduce the
scour depths more effectively as compare to those standing vertically under the bridges. The
results showed that the most efficient reduction in the maximum scour depth was found out at 15
degrees with a sandy bed under clear water condition. Similarly, this inclination angel gave the
most effective results when tested at different flow field conditions i.e. flow rates, and flow
depths. The flow rate recorded to give least scour depth was 12 lit/s. From this onwards, increase
in the flow rate resulted in increased scouring. While comparing the results, the Froude number
was found in proportion with inclination angles. Increasing the Froude number decreases the
scour depth.
(Brice and Blodgett, 1978) studied 383 river bridge failures and scour around pier, it was
concluded that the primary reason of the 50% of these failures were due to scouring. Based on
above research.
(Millard et al 1998) described that the bridge failures at New York and Tennessee became the
cause of the death of 18 peoples in 1987 and 1989 respectively and 2 persons have fell to them
breathes because of the failure of a bridge span at Miami River in 1989. (Richardson et al., 1993)
noted that due to the storm of Alberto in Georgia gave rise to a cost of $130 million to rebuild
over 100 bridges. It was noted that many of the river bridges failed or damaged because of the
flood events in Turkey.
Besides to the loss of property and life, failed bridges lose their functions. As a result, lead to
increase additional costs in interrupted traffic. Nowadays, river bridge failure has come
important matter in turkey after the occurrence of too many floods as stated by (Yanmaz & Kose,
2007). USA and New Zealand show countrywide importance to this matter and upkeep the
research assignments regarding this matter. In the USA, the situation of the river bridge piers has
been noticed since 1991. It is examined that 66,000 are critical and 17,000 are under observation
to the scour problem. (Murtaza et al 2018) The exploration depth around the quay was tentatively
concentrated using four separate dock states, including octagonal, square, round and oval
scaffolding springs and the exploration depth of the base was found to be for the octagonal quay
extension and the maximum for the extension of the square shoulder while if there was a
roundabout and an oval at the front, the depth patrol was in the center of the carriageway in
contrast to the square and octagonal extension. (Ghani & Mohammadpour, 2016) numerical
model study was presented by using FLUENT and GAMBIT to investigate the flow variable
around bridge pier including streamwise velocities, boundary shear stress it was observed that
with increase in discharge the turbulence at downstream side of pier was also increased. (Amir et
al 2016) In another studied that vegetation was proved best tool for reduction of scouring
characteristics, there was 39% reduction in scour depth in case of vegetated banks as compared
to unvegetated banks at flow rate 0.04 m3/sec.
This review work focuses on studying the current change strategy by providing spring
arrangements independently and in blends under similar current conditions. Large-scale testing
was conducted at the Fluid Mechanics Research Center to analyze dock math on global advances
in scattering and sieving design. The greatest equilibrium erosion resolved for all cases under
similar current conditions.
(Bozkus & Çeşme, 2010) investigated local scouring around single circular bridge pier in which
the inclined and vertical bridge pier was used. It was concluded that the scour depth can be
minimized by increment in inclination of bridge pier. (Heidarnejad et al, 2010) stated that slots
can be used to minimize scouring around pier. In this research it was investigated that by using
the slots scour depth reduces by increasing the average flow. (Vinoth Kumar et al., 2012) found
variation in local scour area and depth and change in its geometry with the passage of time
depends upon geometry and shape of pier. Compound piers was used and concluded that the
local scouring is changed when the elevation of top surface foundation was varied. (Debnath &
Chaudhuri, 2010) Stated the scour depth in clay was related the scour depth in sand bed, when
proportion of clay is increased for mixed beds it would decrease scour depth. (Guan, Chiew,
Wei, & Hsieh, 2018) studied that time is also main factor for scouring, with the passage of time
the scour depth is also increased up to equilibrium state is obtained while the time factor does
not affect the shape of longitudinal profile.
(Yagc et al, 2017) stated that the scour depth can be minimized by providing the inclination to
piers. By applying inclination, the local scouring is reduced 50% and volume of scour hole is
reduced 73% at inclination 42⁰ is provided to pile. (Guo et al., 2010) stated that scouring
phenomena was studied by experimental and numerical by using the submerged vertical circular
cylinders. Scour depth is minimized when the height of submerged cylinders is reduced. it was
concluded experimentally that there is direct relation between the height of cylinder and scour
depth while there was difference of 10-20% in result of numerical as compared to experimental.
(GHODSIAN & VAGHEFI, 2009) studied inclined bridge pier and used inclination with vertical
and concluded that with increase in inclination angle the local scouring around the pier is
decreased. (Zarrati et al., 2006) Stated that mostly bridge failure in multi vent bridges also
occurred due to scouring, to control the scouring many methods were used and it was described
that by using collar, the local scour is reduced up to 90% with current deflector and sacrificial
pile upstream piers.
Several laboratory and numerical investigations have been carried out to analyze the equilibrium
scour depth at bridge piers. Most of the studies, focused on equilibrium scour depth in alluvial
sand beds as explained by (Bozkus & Çeşme, 2010) . Similarly, estimation of time-dependent
scour depth has been carried out by many researchers. (Eck, 2000) presented different techniques
to measure the scour depth at different pier shapes. Different pier shape factors were
recommended, established on few laboratory studies by (Eck, 2000) .They used to multiply the
correction factors in most of the prediction methods. Furthermore, there is only single design
curve to consider the effect of angle of attack. This design curve is appropriate for the
rectangular piers having pier length to width ratio between 2 and 16.
(Yanmaz & Köse, 2007) presented sketches of scour-hole topography for the maximum scour
holes according to few available references. The understanding of geometric features of the
scour-hole provides suitable information for the bridge foundation design size and to select the
appropriate scour remedies.
Over the last ten decades, the statistical studies indicate that the main causes of the destruction
for the maximum affected bridges are due to hydraulic dynamics. (Shirole & Holt, 1991)
identified that since 1950 in U.S.A, 60% bridges collapsed out of 823 dues to the channel bed
scour and instability of the channel. This research stated that according to U.S. Federal Highway
Association, annually 50 bridges collapse approximately.
Hence, it has been proved evident from the above research that geometry and shape of the bridge
piers have variation effects of scour characteristics, and few recent researches i.e. inclined piers
came out to be a significant approach. However, after (Kothyari & Kumar, 2012), research work
on the effects of compounds piers on scouring is found scarce. This paper aims at experimentally
testing the circular compound pier with the introduction of particle roughness by using uniform
sediment sizes attached around the surface of the pier with a synthetic adhesive i.e. glue. Since
there is no study so far conducted on such type of piers with the usage of roughness height
around the surface of piers simultaneously, the authors decided to study this phenomenon in the
laboratory.
2.1 Aims and Objectives
The main objectives of this investigation are:

 Evaluation of local scour around bridge piers for various geometrical Shapes.
 Effect of angle of inclination of bridge pier on local scouring.
 Examine the effect of inclination of dual bridge piers on scour depth under clear-
water conditions for uniform flow depths.
 Comparison of scour depth occurred in different bridge pier shapes.
CHAPTER 3
3 Methodology
3.1 Laboratory flume:
All the experimental trials were conducted in laboratory channel in Hydraulic Laboratory, Civil
Engineering Department, University of Engineering & Technology Taxila, and Pakistan. The
Laboratory flume has following main parts.
1. Inflow pipe
2. Main channel
3. Settling basin
4. Outflow Pipe
5. Weir
The top view of the Laboratory flume is shown in the Fig. 3.1 and 3.2, respectively.
Fig 3.: Top view of experimental channel

3.1.1 Inflow Pipe
Water is delivered to the rectangular channel with the help of 15cm diameter circular pipe, from
sump situated below the lab floor. A control valve with same diameter controls the flow rate as
shown in Fig 3.1. The inflow has been organized with the help of the valve which is fixed near
the first silting basin of river model. The gentle rotation of the valve helps to change the flow
rate in the channel. The experimental runs have been performed by applying three inflows, i.e.,
0.022m3/s, 0.027 m3/s and 0.033 m3/s, 0.038m3/s & 0.043 m3/s. The velocity of water at the
different segments has been determined by using velocity sensor.
3.1.2 Main channel
All the experimental runs were carried out on rectangular channel made of concrete having
dimensions 20.0 m long, with depth of 0.75 m and 1.0 m wide, situated in the hydraulic
laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology Taxila,
Pakistan. A river model is built in the center of the rectangular channel by utilizing 4.8 mm thick
plastic sheet. The main channel was filled with the fine sand. Bed was levelled after each trial
and length of sand bed was kept 8m and depth was kept 15cm. This segment is used to perform
for all scour experiments. The bridge pier positioned in center of channel width at 4m from start
of sand bed. During each trial, the flow was kept constant. Bed level in the main channel and
water surface height dimensions are maintained with the assistance of the mobile point gauge.
Fig. 3.1 shows the channel arrangement before the experiment.
Due to this point gauge with wooden frame, it can be moved in different directions, so, erosion
depth can be taken at different points. Keeping in mind the velocity limitations sand having
specific weight of 2300 KN/m3 and mean diameter of 0.57 mm was used as sediment. The
discharge for the experiments was maintained by the regulation of the valve fitted just before the
initial silting basin. Similarly, a notch was assembled in the downstream of the silting basin to
avoid the back-water effect.
3.1.3 Silting basin
In order to avoid the condition where the sediments get mixed in the storage tank, a small silting
basin is provided at the end of the channel. During the experimental runs, the sediments get
eroded around the pier in the main channel. These sediments are blocked to mix into water
storage by providing a silting basin at the end of the channel, where all the eroded particles are
blocked.
3.1.4 Outflow pipe
At the end of flume Outflow pipe is located just after the silting basin, totally open valve is
placed on the pipe to keep flow uniform. The flow moving through the main channel is reached
there. The diameter of the inflow pipe and the outflow pipe are same.
3.1.5 Bed material
The utilized bed material was tested and characterized in the same laboratory of University as
mentioned earlier. The length of sand bed was 8 m and 15cm deep layer in which wooden pier is
installed. The fine sand with grain size, i.e., D50 = 0.57 mm is used which was determined by
sieve analysis test in which 1000 g sample was taken after sieving it from 4.75, 2,425 micron and
75 microns. The weight retained and weight passing from each sieve was calculated. After
calculation, the diameter of sand was calculated. The standard deviation of grain sizes was σ g =
1.21 < 1.30. when σg = 1.21 <1.30 the bed particle is regarded as uniform. Otherwise i.e. σg =
1.21 > 1.30, sediment is assumed to be non-uniform. A grading curve is a useful aid to soil
description. The geometric properties of a grading curve are called grading characteristics. As
shown in Fig below.
Fig. 3.2: Soil grading curve

To obtain the grading characteristics, three points are located first on the grading curve.
D60 = size at 60% finer by weight

The grading characteristics are then determined as follows:
 Effective size = D10
 Uniformity coefficient,
 Curvature coefficient,
Both Cu and Cc will be 1 for a single-sized soil.

 Cu> 5 indicates a well-graded soil, i.e. a soil which has a distribution of particles over a
wide size range.
 Cc between 1 and 3 also indicates a well-graded soil.
 Cu< 3 indicates a uniform soil, i.e. a soil which has a very narrow particle size range.
3.1.6 Pier shape & Dimension
Combination of double wooden made bridge piers of three different geometrical shapes (circular,
diamond and rectangular) and five different inclinations (0 0, 50, 100, 150 & 200) were used along
the perpendicular to the flow direction. Both the piers have same size as given below:
Diameter of circular shaped bridge pier = 6cm
Width of diamond shaped bridge pier = 6cm
Length of rectangular shaped bridge pier = 6cm
Width of rectangular shaped bridge pier = 6cm
The wooden pier embeds in the bed material and attaches the pier on the flume bottom in such a
way to support the measuring system.
For all the cases, the pier was installed in the centerline of the experimental channel and at 4m as
shown in fig. 3.3 to 3.17.
Fig 3.3 Circular bridge pier with 00 inclination.
Fig 3.4: Circular bridge pier with 50 inclination.

Fig 3.6: Circular shaped bridge pier with 150 inclination.
Fig 3.8: Diamond shaped bridge pier with 150 inclination.


Fig 3.13: Rectangular shaped bridge pier with 00 inclination.


3.2 Experimental procedure
Water is supplied to the flume through pipe having diameter 15cm by a pump which provides
water from an underground storage to overhead tank. A control valve is installed ahead of flume
which control the inflow. In the start of channel, a pool is provided to accommodate water in
order to minimize the turbulence in flow, which otherwise can be great due to direct pumping of
water. Channels have length of (L=20m), width (B=1m) and depth (D=0.75m). Except the walls
which are made by glass, the channel is made of concrete. The channel is at a height of 0.75m
from ground level. Flow is measured by a Compound rectangular-trapezoidal sharp-crested weir
at the downstream side of experimental area. At the end of the channel, scoured bed sediments
settle in the settling pool and clean water enters the underground water tank which is then
circulates into the channel. Arrangement of pair of piers having rectangular shape were installed
in center of flume as shown in the above figs 3.3-3.17. The local scouring were measured form
eight sides including u/s side of pier A, u/s left diagonal of pier B, left side of pier C, d/s left
diagonal of pier D, d/s side of pier E, d/s right diagonal of pier F , right side of pier G and u/s
diagonal of pier H around each pier respectively as shown in fig. 3.18, 3.19 & 3.20.
Fig 3.18: Measurement of scour depth around circular shaped bridge piers
Fig 3.19: Measurement of scour depth around diamond shaped bridge piers
Fig 3.20: Measurement of scour depth around rectangular shaped bridge piers
Maximum time for each trial was kept approximately 2 hours. Compound rectangular trapezoidal
sharp-crested weir was used to measure the discharge as shown in Fig. 3.21. Flow rate of 0.022
b2were provided in all trials.
m3/s, 0.027m3/s, 0.033m3/s, 0.039m3/s, 0.044m3/s,
h1 b1 θ/2
h2 .
1

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Experimental Investigation on Inclined Bridge Pier Scouring

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MSc Civil Engineering

Dr. Usman Ghani

Professor Civil Engineering Department

External Examiner Signature:____________________________________________

Thesis Supervisor Signature:_____________________________________________

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1.2 Problem Statement..........................................................................................................4

1.3 Utilization and Scope......................................................................................................4

1.4.1 Types of scour...........................................................................................................5

1.5 Scour Regimes................................................................................................................7

1.5.1 Clear water scour......................................................................................................8

1.5.2 Live-bed scour...........................................................................................................9

1.6 Local scour depth..........................................................................................................10

1.6.1 Equilibrium scour depth..........................................................................................10

1.6.2 Temporal variation of scour....................................................................................10

1.6.3 Equations for Temporal Variation of Scour............................................................11

1.6.4 Estimation of Equilibrium Scour Depth..................................................................13

1.7 Scour countermeasure techniques:................................................................................14

1.7.1 Bed armoring technique..........................................................................................14

1.7.2 River Training Technique.......................................................................................15

1.7.4 Articulated concrete blocks.....................................................................................16

1.7.5 Rock Riprap Technique..........................................................................................17

1.7.6 Flow Alteration Technique.....................................................................................17

1.7.7 Structural Countermeasure Technique....................................................................18

1.8 Factors Affecting Local Scour Depth:..........................................................................18

1.8.1 Effect of downward flow........................................................................................18

1.8.2 Effect of approaching flow depth............................................................................22

1.8.3 Effect of sediment grading......................................................................................22

1.9 Bridge Piers...................................................................................................................23

1.9.1 Types of Pier...........................................................................................................23

1.9.2 Solid piers:..............................................................................................................23

1.9.3 Open piers...............................................................................................................24

1.9.4 Typical Framed Piers..............................................................................................25

CHAPTER II: Literature Review..............................................................................................27

2.1 Aims and Objectives.....................................................................................................41

CHAPTER III: Methodology....................................................................................................43

3.1 Laboratory flume:.........................................................................................................43

3.1.1 Inflow Pipe..............................................................................................................43

3.1.2 Main channel...........................................................................................................44

3.1.3 Silting basin.............................................................................................................44

3.1.4 Outflow pipe...........................................................................................................45

3.1.5 Bed material............................................................................................................45

3.1.6 Pier shape & Dimension.........................................................................................46

3.2 Experimental procedure................................................................................................52

3.3 Flow measurement:.......................................................................................................55

CHAPTER IV: Results and Disussion......................................................................................56

4.1 Effect of the inclination angle (θ) of different geometrical shapes...............................56

4.2 Effect of the different flow intensities (V/Vc)...............................................................58

4.3 Effect of the Froude number (Fr)..................................................................................59

4.4 Effect of inclination angle (θ) on different shapes........................................................61

4.5 Effect of intensities (V/Vc) on different shapes.............................................................62

4.6 Comparison of longitudinal and lateral profiles of different shapes.............................63

4.7 Effect of inclination of piers on the topography of the bed..........................................78

CHAPTER V: Conclusions and Recommendations.................................................................89

Fig 1.2: Types of the scour in the vicinity of bridge........................................................................5

Fig 1.3: General contraction scours a) Plan view b) Profile............................................................7

Fig 1.4: Local scour profile..............................................................................................................7

Fig 1.6: Variation of scour depth with approach flow velocity.......................................................9

Fig 1.7: Riverbed armoring technique...........................................................................................15

Fig 1.8: River Training Technique.................................................................................................16

Fig 1.9: Rock Riprap Technique....................................................................................................17