332 Theory Material Revised

INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY
AND
ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF INSECT PESTS
We live in a world teeming with insects. The number of individual species of insects so far
known is over a million and each of these species numbers into millions even billions of
individuals. Doubtless, insects are harmful to us in one way or another but the benefits they offer
in so many visible and invisible ways are also great that they cannot be assessed in terms of
money. One radical quote on insects reads “If all mankind were to disappear, the world would
regenerate back to rich state of equilibrium that existed ten thousand years ago; if insects were
to vanish, the environment would collapse into chaos” – Edward O. Wilson. Man’s future on this
earth may very well depend on how well we understand the insect world – how well we fight our
insect enemies and protect ourselves against them- how well we protect our insect friends.
A study of the insects which are variously related to the welfare of mankind is referred to as
economic entomology. Such studies are usually made with reference to the habits and habitats of
the insect species. Insects are generally classified into three convenient groups from the point of
view of the economic nature, namely harmless, harmful and beneficial insects. This
classification, however, is not a rigid one and is often subject to alterations depending on
conditions. Certain insects which are considered not harmful may under some other favourable
conditions become serious pests and vice versa.
The scope of the present course is not the study on how many ways insects are beneficial to us
but on how many ways they are harmful to us particularly as pests of crops and stored grain. In
this section, different ways in which insect pests are harmful to us are classified.
1. Destroying crops and valuable plants:
Insects destroy all kinds of growing crops and other valuable plants by feeding on leaves, stem,
bark, roots, buds, flowers and fruits. They also bore or tunnel into shoots, stems, roots and fruits
feeding on internal contents. Insects are known to cause cancerous growth/ galls within which
they live and feed. They cut and carry parts of plants fo r construction of nests or shelters. Many
species of insects are reported as vectors disseminating microorganisms of plant diseases,
namely, viruses, bacteria, fungi etc.
2. Annoying and injuring man and animals:
There are several ways in which insects annoy and injure man and animals, both domesticated
and wild. Droning, humming and buzzing they produce is annoying to everyone. The foul odour
they emit, offensive taste of their secretions/excretions they leave on fruits, food and dishes cause
suffering.
Pinching and causing painful disfiguring blisters on any part of the body, they may come in
contact with. Accidental entry into the eyes, ears, nostrils or alimentary canal causes myiasis, a
painful muscle damage.
3. Injecting venoms:
Many insects are venomous injecting venoms into our body by stinging (bees), piercing their
mouth parts (mosquitoes, bed bugs) and nettling hairs (larvae of some moths) and leaving caustic
and corrosive fluids on our body.
4. Making home in and on our body:
Some insects make their home on our body or on the bodies of some animals as external parasites
(lice, bird lice). Larvae of some flies tunnel into muscles of any organ system – nose, ear,
urinogenital passages and alimentary canal as internal parasites causing mechanical injury and
infection leads to starvation and death (horse bot fly).
5. Disseminating diseases in man and animals:

Many insects transmit disease causing pathogens like viruses ,bacteria, spirochaetes, rickettsias,
protozoa, nematodes and fungi to man and animals. The blood sucking insects acquire the
pathogens when biting the diseased persons or animals /wild animals which are reservoirs of
some pathogens and transmit them when they bite the healthy ones.
6. Destroying useful articles:
Insects destroy almost everything that man uses; stored food, clothing, woollens, rugs, drugs,
furniture, bridges, telephone poles, animal and plant collections in museums, papers, books and
so on. They can destroy anything or depreciate the value by feeding, contaminating with their
own secretions, excretions, eggs, their own dead bodies or exuviae or simply by inhabiting them.
In the sections that follow, pests including insects and non insects that damage field crops,
horticultural crops and the stored products are discussed in detail.
References
Atwal, A.S. 1976. Agricultural Pests of India and South East Asia. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana. Butani, D.K.
and Jotwani, M.G. 1984. Insects in Vegetables. Periodical Export Book Agency,
New Delhi.
Butani, D. K. 1984. Insects and Fruits. Periodical Export Book Agency, New Delhi.
Dennis S Hill 1987 Agricultural Insect Pests of tropics and their control, Cambridge Universtiy Press
, New York
Khare, S.P. 1993. Stored Grain Pests and Their Management. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
Nair MRGK. 1986. Insects and Mites of crops in India. Indian Council of Agricultural Research New
Delhi.
Ramakrishna Ayyar, T.V. 1963. Handbook of Economic Entomology for South India.
Government Press, Madras.
Upadhyaya K.P. and Kusum Dwivedi. 1996. A Text Book of Plant Nematology. Aman Publishing
House, Meerut.
Vasantharaj David, B. 2003. Elements of Economic Entomology. Popular Book Depot, Coimbatore.
Vasantharaj David, B and Aanathakrishnan, T.N.. 2006. General and Applied Entomology. Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing House, New Delhi.
PESTS OF BRINJAL
EPILACHNA BEETLE /SPOTTED LEAF BEETLE
Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata
Epilachna dodecastigma
Coccinellidae: Coleoptera
This is one of the important pests of brinjal. Its incidence starts in July-August . It also infests
tomato, bittergourd, Datura , Physalis .
Beetle is small round to slightly oblong in shape measuring about 5
mm in length and 3.5 mm in width. The underside of the beetle is flat while the upper side is
convex. It is light brick red or pinkish in colour bearing 12 -28 small black dots on the pro
notum and e lytra. These black dots are symmetrically placed in a crescent manner. Adult
lives for one month to more than two months.
The yellow elliptical eggs are laid generally on the undersurface of leaves in batches of
hundreds, glued to the leaf sur face in a vertical position. They hatch in 3-4 days.
The minute grubs on hatching start damaging the plant by feeding on the fresh matter of the
leaf surface leaving veins and veinlets. The freshly hatched grub is yellowish and turns to
cream yellow white , when full grown. The grub is broad in front and narrows posteriorly and
is covered with spiny structures all over. The grown up grubs become voracious feeders,
found in batches. Both the grubs and adults confine their feeding activities generally to the
undersurface of leaves. The activity of the pest is more on the lower leaves resulting in
 Damaged leaves presenting a lace like appearance as the green matter in between the veins
is eaten away (skeletonisation of leaves).
 Affected leaves, depending upon the area damaged, drying up and in severe infestation,
presenting sickly appearance .
Larval period lasts for 10-35 days.
Pupation takes place on the leaf surface. The full grown grub attaches the last segment of its
abdomen to the leaf surface by means of a sticky secretion and the pupa is formed within the
last larval skin which splits on the dorsal side. The pupal period varies from 3-6 days after
which the adults emerge. Total life cycle takes 17 to 50 days.
MANAGEMENT :
· Hand picking will prove effective as the beetles are sluggish during the morning hours
· If the area is small, collection and destroying the egg masses which can be spotted easily.
· Egg parasitoid Tetrastichus ovularum, larval parasitoid Uga menoni suppress the population
during March – July
· Organic compounds of plant origin are effective .
 Foliar spray with DDVP 1 ml/l i n nursery as well as planted crop or carbaryl 3 g/l or
profenofos 2ml/l or quinalphos 2 ml/l.
BRINJAL SHOOT AND FRUIT BORER
Leucinodes orbonalis
Pyralidae: Lepidoptera
It is one of the serious pests of brinjal throughout the country. It also infests potato, Solanum
nigria, S . xanthocarpum, bittergourd .
Moths are medium in size with white wings having large brown patches and red markings.
Wing span measures about ¾ of an inch. The head and thorax are blackish brown.
The female moth lays about 80-120 eggs singly on tender shoots and developing fruits of
brinjal. Incubation period is 3-5 days
If infestation occurs during vegetative phase, caterpillars enter into the petiole, midribs and
young shoots. During fruiting stage caterpillars enter into fruits make holes and feed inside.
Initially, the entry hole is so small that it is not visible. Later, fruits bear large circular holes
plugged with excreta . The infested fruits are unfit for consumption and marketing. The
infestation may go as high as 70 per cent on brinjal. The pest is active throughout the year
except winter. In Nursery no damage is observed. Transplanted seedlings are attacked. The
damage results in
v Drooping of tender shoots and wilting in vegetative stage
v Holes on the infested fruits filled with excreta
The full grown caterpillar is pinkish with sparingly distributed hairs on warts on the body
witha brownish head. It measures 16 -20 mm long. Larval period lasts 15 days.The full
grown caterpillar generally pupates outside the bore holes on the stem, fruit stalks e t c .in a
dark buff coloured cocoon in dirty brown silk. Moth emerges in about 6 - 8 days.
MANAGEMENT
· The damaged portions of the plants should be removed and destroyed .

· Continuous cropping of brinjal and potato in the same area encourages the pest activity and
hence proper rotation should be followed.
· Variety Bhag yamathi is tolerant to the pest damage and suitable for coastal Andhra .
· Erecting pheromone traps @4/acre
· Larval parasitoids, Pristomerus testaceus, Trathala flavoorbitalis, Microbracon greeni,
Pseudoperichaeta sp suppress the population.
· Three spraying with carbaryl 3 g/l or profenofos 2ml/l or cypermethrin 1 ml/lor Emamectin
benzoate 5% SG, 0.4g, Flubendamide 20 WDG 0.75 g, Thiodicarb 75% WP 1g, Spinosad
45sc 0.3 to 0.5 ml / litre of water.
· Note: Acaricidal spray should be given after two rounds of spray with carbaryl as mites may
flare up.
BRINJAL STEM BORER

Euzophera perticella
Pyralidae : Lepidoptera
Its damage is entirely different from that of L. orbonalis. It does not attack fruits and leaves.
It attacks only stem of more than pencil thickness. The entry of the caterpillar is near the
ground level of the stem at leaf or branch axil and covers the hole with excreta and frass. Its
attack is found in older brinjal plants and not on younger plants. Branches start wilting after
the attack. Plants become stunted in growth. Entire plant wilts and dries. Other hosts include
chillies, p otato, tomato .
Avoiding ratoon of the brinjal crop, uprooting and burning the infested plants before planting
the new crop to avoid carryover of the pest to the next crop are recommended. Foliar spray
with carbaryl 3 g/l or Profenophos 2 ml/l is effective .
BRINJAL MEALY BUGS

Centrococcus insolitus
Pesudococcidae: Hemiptera
Adults are brown or pinkish and are oval in shape . Body is covered with white waxy
material. They are generally present on the lower surfaces of the leaves, tender shoots and
stem. Colonies of nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves and shoots and stem. The affected
shoots and leaves show discolouration. The damage results in stunted growth of plant.
Affected branch dries up.
Removal of affected parts, foliar spray with DDVP 1 ml/l or malathion 2 ml/l are effective
against mealybugs.
APHIDS
Aphis gossypii, Myzus persicae
Aphididae: Hemiptera
They are found in colonies on underside of tender leaves causing leaves crinkle and curled.
They reproduce parthenogenetically.
Coccinellids, Coccinella septumpunctata and Menochilus sexmaculata are predaceous on

aphids. M. persicae is parasitized by Aphidius colemani.Insecticidal sprays with dimethoate 2
ml/l or methyl demeton 2 ml/l are effective.
LEAFHOPPER
Amrasca biguttula biguttula
Cidadellidae: Hemiptera
Both nymphs and adults suck sap from underside of leaves, resulting in characteristic
hopperburn symptom. Leaves curl downwards, crinkled and the plant is stunted .
Remova l of affected parts and foliar spray with dimethoate 2ml/l or methyl demeton 2 ml/l
or fipronil 2 ml/l are effective measures.
Brinjal brown leafhopper

Cestius phycitis
Cicadellidae; Hemiptera
This insect acts as a vector for little leaf of brinjal
BRIJAL LACE WING BUG

Urentius hystricellus, U. sentis
Tingidae: Hemiptera
These bugs can be identified by their lace like network of veins on the forewings and lace
like embossed pattern on head and prothorax.
Both species are specific pests of brinjal. Nymphs and adults suck sap mostly from upper
surface of leaves and cause ye llowing of leaves in patches. Such leaves are found covered
with excreta. The infested leaves shrivel, dry and drop down. Heavy infested plants dry up
completely.
Foliar spray with methyl demeton 2 ml/l or dimethoate 2 ml/l or dichlorvos 1 ml/l is effecti v
e.
BRINJAL LEAF WEBER

Psara bipunctalis
Moth is straw coloured with black dot and lines on wings. The greenish caterpillar measuring
about 25 mm when grown up, webs together the leaves and feeds gregariously on them. It
pupates among the webbings.
The larva is parasitized by Microbracon psarae. The effective insecticides are malathion 2
ml/l or quinalphos 2 ml/l .
RED SPIDER MITE

Tetranychus telarius
Tetranychidae: Arachnida
Red spider mites are found in large colonies on underside of leaves protected by the silk
webbing constructed by the female. They are polyphagous infesting brinjal, bhendi and bean .
Leaves present a characteristic blotches which become whitish then brown patches appear.
Later the entire affected leaf become discoloured and dried up. More infestation occurs.
Warm and dry months are congenial.
Spraying with wettable sulphur 3 -5 gm/l or dicofol 2.7 ml/l or spiromesifen 3 ml/l or
propargite 3 ml/l twice at 10 day interval are effective.
PESTS OF BHENDI
BHENDI SHOOT AND FRUIT BORER / SPOTTED FRUIT BORER

Earias vitella, E. insulana
Noctuidae: Lepidoptera
It is one of the important pests of bhendi throughout the country . It also infests cotton, mesta,
Abutilon e t c. ,
Adult of E. vitella has pale whitish forewings with a broad greenish band in the middle while
E. insulana has completely green forewings. The adult body length is about one cm while the
wing span is about 2.5 cm.
The female moth lays spherical, sculptured bluish eggs singly or in groups on tender leaves,
fresh squares (flower buds) and flowers. On an average each female lays 60-80 eggs. Egg
period is about 2-10 days.
In the early stage of the crop, the caterpilla rs bore into growing shoots of plants. When the
fruits appear they also bore into the fruits which show holes plugged with excreta. The
infested fruits are mostly shed in early stage of fruiting .
v Drooping of tender shoots
v Holes on the infested fruit and filled with excreta
v Fruits distorted and rendered unfit for human consumption.
The caterpillars of both the species have a number of black and brown spots on the
body and hence the name spotted fruit borer. Full grown larva measures 14 mm in length. The
larval stage lasts for about 9 -25 days.
Pupation takes place generally in fallen material, outside the boll, on plant surfaces and in
cracks and crevices of the soil. Before pupation however, the larva spins a dirty, white boat
shaped silken cocoon. Pupal period is about 6-25 days. Total life cycle takes 20 -22 days .
MANAGEMENT
· Avoiding bhendi or cotton during off season which will serve as alternate hosts.
· Removal and destruction of affected shoots, fruits in early season help in keeping the pest
under check.
· Natural enemies (enumerated under the same species in cotton) suppress the pest
population.
· Foliar spray with thiodicarb 1 g/l during vegetative and at fruiting stages or carbaryl 3g/l or
quinalphos 2 ml/l or profenophos 2 ml/l or 2 ml/l twice at 10 day interval after harvest of
fruits.
LEAF HOPPERS
Amrasca biguttula biguttula
Cidadellidae: Hemiptera
It is distributed throughout the country.

Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from underside of leaves injecting toxic saliva . The
damage results in
v Characteristic hopperburn symptom.
v Infested leaves crinkle and show characteristic browning
v Attacked plants stunted, fail to bear fruits .
MANAGEMENT
· Removal of affected parts.
· A spider Distina albina and a chrysopid, Chrysopa cymbela are predaceous on leafhoppers.
Lymaenon empoascae parasitizes the eggs.
· Foliar sprays with dimethoate 2ml/l or methyl demeton 2 ml/l or fipronil 2 ml/l are
effective.
WHITEFLY
Bemesia tabaci
Aleurodidae: Hemiptera
Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from underside of leaves. As a result, the plant loses its
luster. The adult acts as a vector for yellow vein mosaic virus disease .
Removal of affected plants, erecting yellow sticky traps, spraying with acetamiprid 0.4 g/l or
thiamethoxam 0.4g/l or profenophos 2ml/l were found effective
Acts as vector for YVMV
RED SPIDER MITE

Tetranychus telarius
Refer under pests of brinjal
PESTS OF TOMATO
SERPENTINE LEAF MINER

Liriomyza trifolii
Agromyzidae: Diptera
It has been introduced into India through chrysanthemum cuttings from USA. It is a pale
yellowish fly, measuring 1.5 mm in length. The female fly punctures upper surface of leaf to
lay eggs singly. The egg hatches in 4 days.
Minute orange yellow, apodous maggot feeds on chlorophyll mining in between epidermal
layers. The symptoms that follow are
v Leaves with serpentine mines

v Drying dropping of leaves in severe cases
Full grown maggot measures 3 mm. Larval duration is about 7 days. Pupation is in soil. Some
pupae are found in leaves. Total life cycle takes 3 weeks. Generally it does not cause
economic damage.
MANAGEMENT
v Neem oil 5 ml/l o r 2 ml/l or carbaryl 3 g/l as foliar sprays are recommended, if situation
warrants.
South American Pin worm
Tuta absoluta
Gelechiidae; Lepidoptera
Tuta absoluta is an oligophagous pest feeding on various solanaceous crops such as potato,
tomato, datura, pepper etc., This pest was originally observed on tomato plants in Pune during
October 2014 and later identified near Bangalore in 2015 and presently spread over all tomato
growing regions of India.
One of the possible ways for long distance dissimination of this pest is mainly correlated with
fruit import particularly through packaging material from infested area.
This insect causes 70 to 90 % damage in green house and open fields.
Nature of damage
Young larvae mine into tomato leaves, apical buds, stalks and fruits. Feeding results in
conspicuous mines o blotches and galleries on leaves and pin holes on fruits. Unlike
Liriomyza trifolii where feeding galleries are observed from both upper and lower surface of
the leaves, the damage of this insect is observed only from upper surface. In case of severe
infestation mined leaf area becomes brown and dry up.
Biology
Egg: Oval-cylindrical , usually single on under surface of leaves, buds, calyx of fruits. The
eggs are creamy white in color.
Larvae: Early instars are white or cream colored witha black head. As the larvae grow older
the color turns to greenish to pink with brown head.
Pupa is light to dark brown in color and formed within leaves and shoots
Adult: Moths are small brown of silver with black spots on the narrow wings. Antennae are
filiform, labial palpi prominent, projected forward, up-cured and with long and acute apical
segment
Management
1. Careful monitoring of the nurseries as they are sources of inoculums
2. remove and destroy alternate hosts, affected plant parts etc.,
3. If pheromone (4-5 traps/acre) catches are less than 10 moths per trap per week, spraying
with biorationals such as Bt, neem products etc., and use of egg parasitoid such as
Trichogramma spp.
4. Predatory mired bug Nesidiocoris tenulis (Reuter), Miridae, hemiptera found feeding on
eggs and early larval instars.
5. If pheromone catches are more than 10/trap/week spraying with Chlorantriliniprole 18.5
SC 0.3 ml or Flubendamide 20 WDG 0.75 g or Indoxacarb 14.5 EC 1 ml/l of water.
TOMATO FRUIT BORERS
Helicoverpa armigera
Spodoptera litura
The larvae bore into the fruits and make them unfit for consumption and marketing.
v Bored fruits with round (H. armigera) /irregular holes (S . litura)can be readily identified.
Life histories were detailed under the pests of cotton . Spray application of 2 ml/l affords
protection .
WHITEFLY
Bemesia tabaci
Boths nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves causing chlorotic spots on leaves, yellowing
and drying of leaves. It has been reported as a vector of tomato leaf curl disease.
Plucking and burning leaf curl virus affected plants and spraying with systemic insecticides
like dimethoate 2 ml/l or methyl demeton 2 ml/l are effective measures.
PESTS OF CUCURBITACEOUS VEGETABLES

CUCURBIT FRUITFLY
Bactrocera cucurbitae (Big size)
B. dorsalis (Medium size)
B. ciliatus (Cosmopolitan)
Tephritidae: Diptera
It is one of the important pests on gourds like bittergourd, snakegourd, me lons, coccinia etc.,
throughout the country
Fly is reddish brown with lemon yellow markings on thorax with spotted wings. It is active
throughout year. Adults hibernate during winter and they become active in hot weather. Adult
flies emerge from pupae during morning hours and mate at dusk. Longevity is 14 days
The female fly oviposits on soft fruits. Cavity is made by sharp ovipositor and 12 cylindrical
eggs are laid in the evening time and exuding gummy substance covers, cements and makes it
water proof. Female lays 58-95 eggs in 14-54 days. Egg period is 1-9 days.
Only maggots cause damage by feeding near ripe fruits, riddling them and polluting pulp.
Maggots bore in to the fruit and feed on pulp forming lesions. Fruits decay due to secondary
bacterial infection. Damage is more serious in melons . Fruits at early stage also are attacked .
Such fruits do not develop. Infestation results in
vPremature drop of fruits .

vDecay of fruits due to secondary bacterial infection
The da mage is more in monsoon season. The maggots are apodus, acephalous, dirty white,
wriggling creatures, thicker at posterior end and tapering at the other to a point. Larval period
is 13 days in summer and about three weeks in winter.
Mature maggots come out and jump to ground and select suitable place, enter soil and pupate.
Pupa is barrel shaped. Pupal period lasts 6-9 days .
MANAGEMENT
· Early maturing varieties are less affected than later ones.
· Changing of sowing dates.
· “Arka Tinda” among round gourd and “Arka Suryamukhi” among pumpkin are resistant
· to B . cucurbitae .
· Affected fruits collected and destroyed .
· Harvesting of fruits before ripening.
· Slight ploughing and raking of soil after the harvest to expose pupae from the soil.
· “CUE LURE” is an effective attractant being used to trap cucurbit fruit fly.
· Poison baiting with malathion 100 ml + sugar/jaggery 100 g as saturated solution + water 1
litre distributed in earthen lids.
· Foliar sprays with 2ml/l or malathion 2ml/l or carbaryl 3g/l, 3 -5 r ounds at fortnightly
intervals.
· Foliar sprays with carbaryl 3g/l for flies resting on undersurface of leaves.
· Before each spraying the fruits should be harvested .
PUMPKIN BEETLES
Raphidopalpa foveicollis
Aulacophora cincta
Aulacophora intermedia
Galerucidae: Coleoptera
They infest bittergourd, snakegourd, melons, pumpkin, coccinia etc . R. foveicollis has
reddish brown elytra, A . intermedia blue black elytra and A. cincta grey with black border
elytra.
Beetles are more destructive. They bite hole s on leaves and also feed on flowers. Beetles
injure the foliage, flowers and cotyledons by biting holes into them. Early sown cucurbits are
severely damaged necessitating re sowing . Beetle damage results in
vNumerous of holes on leaves .
Brownish elongate eggs are laid in the soil and each female may lay about 150 to 300 eggs
singly or in groups of 8 -9 near the base of plants. Egg period is 5-8 days.
Grubs after hatching, feed on roots of plants below soil surface. Grubs bore into vines, feed
on fruits tha t come in contact with the soil. Grubs are creamy white with darker oval shield at
back. Grub period is 13-25 days.
Pupation takes place in an earthen cocoon. Pupal period is 7-17 days. Total life cycle takes 26
-27 days. There are 5 to 8 generations in a year.
MANAGEMENT
· Deep summer ploughing exposes the grubs and pupae .
· Collection and destruction of adults
 Dusting the plants with ash temporarily repel the beetle s .
· Dusting the soil and foliage with carbaryl 10D / 4D
· Foliar spray with carbaryl 3g/l/ or methyl parathion 2 ml/l or dimethoate at 2 ml/l or
malathion 2 ml/l and drenching the soil at root zone so as to kill the grubs .
· Synthetic pyrethroids show phytotoxic symptoms resulting in whitening of foliage
SNAKEGOURD SEMILOOPER
Anadevidia peponis
It is a specific pest of snakegourd found throughout South India causing appreciable damage
to snakegourd.
Moth is dark with a body length of 12 -16 mm and wing expanse of 32 mm. Forewings have
irregular light markings. Hind - wing is of lighter colour and is darker towards the edges then
towards base. A sprinkling of golden sheen is discernible in close examination .
Eggs are pale green, globular, sculptured and laid singly usually on the underside of leaves.
Egg period is 4 -5 days .
Caterpillar is about 1.5 mm, when freshly hatched and grows to 30-35 mm. They feed on
leaves causing
vDefoliation.
The semilooper is green with tubercles on the body from which arise thin hairs and its anal
segment is humped. Only three pairs of prolegs are present. The caterpillar is often found on
underside of the leaf which may also be lightly folded. Larval period is 15 -20 days .
Pupation takes place in a tough, white silken cocoon in a folded leaf . Pupal period is 7 - 10
days.
MANAGEMENT
· Hand picking and destruction of grown up larvae and pupae .

· Larva is parasitized by Apanteles plusiae
· Foliar spray with quinalphos 2 ml/l or malathion 2 ml/l or 2ml/l.
SERPENTINE LEAFMINER
Liriomyza trifolii
Agromyzidae: Diptera
Serpentine leaf miner is polyphagous pest, native of Florida and believed to be accidentally
introduced into India. It is widely distributed in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil nadu, Karnataka,
Maharastra causing damage to fibre crops, pulses, ornamentals, vegetables, fodder etc . It is a
serious pest on tomato, cotton, ridge gourd, brinjal, cucumber, potato.
The maggot punctures the epidermal layers and scraps the chlorophyll content between the
layers. In se vere cases the photosynthetic activity reduced and leads to death of the plant.
Removal of affected plants, growing tomato as a trap crop and foliar spray with neem oil
5ml/l can minimizes the incidence.
PUMPKIN LEAF CATERPILLAR

Diaphania indica
Moth is medium with whitish wings, transparent with brown marginal patches. Elongate
bright green caterpillar is seen with two narrow longitudinal white stripes dorsally. It folds the
leaves and scrapes the green matter. As a result the lea ves get dried up. It can also feed on
ovaries of flower , sometimes bore into young developing fruits .
Hand picking grown up larvae and killing, foliar sprays with quinalphos 2 ml/l or 2 ml/l are
effective .
COCCINIA GALL FLY

Lasiptera falcata
Neolasioptera cephalandrae
Cecidomyiidae: Diptera
It infests bittergourd and coccinia etc .The maggot bore into distal shoots forming galls along
distal shoots. These galls appear like elongated shoots with thickenings with more than 100
maggots inside.
Removal of affected shoots, foliar spray with neem oil 5ml/l or carbaryl 3g/l or dichorvos
1ml/l minimises the incidence .
APHIDS
Aphis gossypii
Aphis malvae
A. gossypii infests different cucurbits while A . malvae infests bittergourd in south India. Both
nymphs and adults suck sap from tender leaves and shoots causing the leaves to curl and
growth to be stunted. Flowers and pods are also affected. Excretion of honey dew leads to
sooty mould which interferes with photosynthetic activity of plants.
Spraying with tobacco decoction (1 kg tobacco boiled in 10 lit of water of 30 minutes and
making up to 30 lit + 100 g soap), or systemic insecticides like dimethoate 2 ml/l or methyl
demeton 2ml/l have been promising.
PESTS OF CRUCIFEROUS VEGETABLES
DIAMONDBACK MOTH
Plutella xylostella
Plutellidae: Lepidoptera
It is distributed worldwide infesting cruciferous plants of Brassica sp. cauliflower, Brassica

oleracea var. capitata , turnip Brassica rapa etc .
The moth is greyish brown with narrow wings having pale white triangular markings on inner
margin of each forewing which form three diamond shaped white patches dorsally when
wings are folded over back at rest. Hence the name, diamond back moth. The pes t is active
throughout the year
Each female lays 50 -60 small whitish eggs singly along the veins on underside of leaves at
night times. Egg hatches in about 7 days.
Caterpillars feed on undersurface of leaves and bite holes in leaves and cause serious damage
causing
vHoles on leaves.
vWithered appearance of affected leaves.
v Skeletonised leaves.
Larva is greenish with short thin hairs on the body.Full grown caterpillar measures 1-
1.5 cm and its body tapers towards both ends. Larval period is 14 days . Pupation takes
place inside a thin loose mesh of silken cocoon. Pupal period is about 7 days .
MANAGEMENT (IPM)
· Removal and destruction of plant remnants, stubbles, debris after harvest and ploughing the
field .
· Transplanting 2 rows of mustard as a trap crop for every 25 rows of cabbage to attract moths
to mustard .
· Larval parasites Apanteles ruficrus, A. plutellae and pupal parasite Brachymeria excarinata
suppress population .
· Foliar spray with 5% NSKE for killing the eggs. To obtain 5% neem seed extract, take
extract from 5 Kg kernel powder in 100 litres of water. About 12.5 Kg kernel powder is
needed to cover 1 ha with 250 litres in high volume sprays for crops like chickpea.
· Foliar sprays on 30, 45 DAT with B . t . formulations 1g/l .
· Foliar spray with 2 ml or spinosad 0.3 ml/l. (Last spray should be 15 days before
harvesting).
· Under severe infestation, fenvalerate 1ml/l o r cypermethrin 1ml/l or deltamethrin 1ml/l is
recommended .
CABBAGE BORER
Hellula undalis
It infests cabbage, cauliflower, knolkhol and beetroot .

Adult is pale yellowish-brown moth having grey wavy lines on the forewing. Female moth
lays yellowish shiny eg gs on leaves. Eggs hatch in about 4 days.
Caterpillars web the leaves and bore into stem, stalk or leaf veins. They bore into the cabbage
head also making it unfit for consumption. The damage results in
vWebbed leaves
v Holes in cabbage head with faecal matter .
The caterpillar becomes full grown in about 9 days. Full grown caterpillar is 12-15 mm,
greyish yellow with seven purplish brown longitudinal stripes on the body
Full grown larva pupates in the larval burrow itself or in the soil.
Pupal period is about 6 days .
Management is similar to that of DBM
CABBAGE LEAF WEBBER

Crocidolomia pavonana
It infests cabbage, radish, mustard and other cruciferous plants. Adult is small with light
brownish forewings. Female moth lays eggs in masses of 40 -100 on underside of leaves.
They hatch in 5 - 15 days .
Caterpillar webs together the foliage and feeds on leaves. It also feeds on flowers and pods in
the case of mustard and flower heads in cabbage and cauliflower. Caterpillar bears red head
with brown longitudinal stripes and rows of tubercles on the body. Larval period is 24-27
days. The damage results in
vWebbed leaves with faecal matter

vSkeletonised leaves
Pupation takes place in a cocoon within the webbed leaves. Pupal period is 14- 40 days .
Management is similar to that of DBM
CABBAGE APHIDS
Brevicoryne brassicae
Lipaphis erysimi
Aphididae: Homptera
The aphids are yellowish green (B . brassicae)) and multiply parthenogenetically. This pest
infests crucifers in cold season. Both the nymphs and adults suck sap from plant causing
vLoss of vigour
vSooty mould due to excretion of honeydew reducing the photosynthesis.
Foliar spray with malathion or dimethoate or methyl demeton each at 2.0 ml/l is effective.
PAINTED BUG
Bagrada cruciferarum
Pentatomidae: Hemiptera
Adult is yellow with black markings. Nymphs are reddish in colour. It is a serious pest of
cruciferous crops and widely distributed. Both nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves,
shoots and pods resulting in wilting and loss of vigour of the plant. It feeds on cabbage,
caluliflower, radish etc .
Foliar spray with malathion or dimethoate or methyl demeton each at 2 . 0 ml/l is effective
TOBACCO CATERPILLAR
Spodoptera litura
It is highly polyphagous pest infesting tobacco, castor, groundnut, tomato, cabbage and
various other cruciferous crops.Caterpillars feed on leaves and fresh growth, active at night
and cause extensive damage. The young caterpillars are gregarious in nature and skeletonise
the tender leaves. Later on the broad leaves are completely eaten.
Management is detailed under cotton pests.
CABBAGE BUTTERFLY
Pieris brassicae, Pieris rapae
Pieridae: Lepidoptera
Adult is a butterfly with its forewings snow white having black distal margins. Hindwings
pure white with black apical spots.The caterpillar is velvety green and measures about 4.2 cm
in length. The caterpillars are gregarious initially but disperse as they grow. They skeletonise
leaves and bore into heads of cabbage and cauliflower. Pupation is in damaged leaves.
Two sprays at fortnightly interval with carbaryl 3g/l are effective.
IPM IN CRUCIFEROUS VEGETABLES
Cole crops are invariably infested with diamond back moth, leaf webber, cabbage borer and
cabbage butterfly; Spodoptera litura and Helicoverpa armigera also appear as head borers at
times. IIHR has developed the effective IPM package mainly using mustard as a trap crop.
The IPM practices are:
· Removal and distruction of crop residues to break the cycles of painted bugs as well as leaf
webbers in specific localities,
· Selecting the derivatives of PI 234599 in cabbage having shiny leaves with moderate
resistance to diamond back moth.
· Growing mustard as trap crop in cabbage or cauliflower fields. Mustard should be sown in
paired rows (one row 15 days after planting and another 30 days after planting cabbage or
cauliflower) for every 25 rows of cauliflower/cabbage.
· Application of neem seed kernal extract (5%) in synchrony with the incidence of diamond
back moth/leaf webber on cabbage, which is found safer to parasitoids like Cotesia plutellae
· Resorting to cartap hydrochloride /B.t formulation applications, if head borers (Hellula /
Spodoptera / Helicoverpa) appear.
· Opting for insecticide like dichlorvos only when situation warrants and sufficient time gap
is available between spraying and harvesting.
PESTS OF TUBER CROPS

POTATO TUBER MOTH
Phthorimaea operculella
Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera
It is one of the introduced pests into our country from Italy through Bombay port and is also
found feeding on brinjal, tomato and tobacco leaves.
The adult is a delicate moth with 7 mm body length and wing expanse is 20 mm. Forewings
are greyish brown in colour and tapering. The hind wings are whitish in colour. Both wings
are fringed with long hairs along the apical and the basal margins. Moth has conspicuously
long antennae .
On emergence, the moths mate and the female begins to lay eggs within 24 hours. Each
female lays 100- 150 eggs in 4-5 days. Eggs are laid around the eyes or cracks of the skin of
the exposed tubers. Eggs hatch in about 3 -6 days .
The caterpillar acts as a leaf miner in field, boring into peti ole and main shoots and at later
stages attacks underground tubers. In storage, the damage ranges from 30- 70% under
improper storage. The damage results in
vLoss of leaf tissue, death of growing points, weake ning or breaking of stems (field)
vIrregular shaped galleries with excrement near tuber eyes.
Caterpillar is white in colour with dark brown head and prothoracic shield with a few
scattered short hairs on the body. Larval period is 5-16 days and the larva grows to a size of
10mm .
Pest is found active thro ughout the year in plains both in field and in store from April to
November.
Full grown caterpillar comes out of the gallery and pupates on the outside of tubers or any
other convenient place, constructing a cocoon of silk and frass material. Pupa is pale brown
and pupal period is about a week. 8 -9 generations are completed in one storage season .
MANAGEMENT
In field
· Frequent earthing up to cover the exposed tubers
· Collection and destruction of affected tubers
· Spraying of carbaryl 3 g/l(600g in 200l of spray fluid)
In the stores
· Storing the tubers under 3 cm thick layer of sand
· Storage bags in the godowns sprayed with malathion 3ml/l
· Fumigating the stores with carbon disulphide or carbon tetrachloride or methyl bromide
SWEET POTATO WEEVIL

Cylas formicarius
Apionidae: Coleoptera
It is a major pest of sweet potato both in field and storage .

It is a wingless, ant–like steel black weevil with a brown elongated snout and thorax.
The female bites small cavities on veins and tubers and lays abo ut 200 eggs singly. The eggs
hatch in 3-5 days .
The grub is pale yellow in colour and legless. The grubs bore into the stems of vines and also
into the tubers in the field as well as in storage, feeding on the inner contents and spoiling
them. The tubers become unfit for consumption. The adult weevil also feeds on leaves, vines
and tubers.
v Their presence inside the tubers can be detected by the development of dark black patches
on outside of the tuber .
The grub pupates inside larval burrow in vine or tuber. Weevil emerges after 7 -10 days.
Total life history takes about 4 -6 weeks.
MANAGEMENT
In field
· Infested portions should be destroyed. Healthy vines should be used for planting purposes.
· Treating planting material by immersing in a solution of chlorpyriphos 2 .5ml+ carbendazim
3g per litre of water .
· The cracks in the field closed by hoeing to minimize damage.
· Earthing up at 60 DAP
· Use of pheromone traps @ 1/100 sq.m.for mass trapping and destruction of males even up
to 15 days after harvest .
· Crop rotation
In the stores: Management in stores is same as under potato tuber moth .
HAIRY CATERPILLAR
Euchromia polymena
Amatidae : Lepidoptera
In India it is common species infesting sweet potato. Caterpillars grow feeding on foliage.
Foliar spray with chlorpyriphos 2.5 ml/l is effective.
TORTOISE BEETLES
Aspidomorpha miliaris, Chirida bipunctata, Cassida circumdata
Cassididae: Coleoptera
The beetle has its thorax and wing cases (elytra) flattened and widened to cover the head and
greater part of legs like the carapace of tortoise, hence the name tortoise beetle.
The female lays eggs singly on lower side of leaves. The grubs feed by scraping the surface
tissue of the leaves. They have characterstic habit of carrying on their backs, the exuviae and
excrements. The damage is caused by both adults and grubs feeding on plant parts. Pupation
takes place on the leaves. Total life cycle takes about 2 -4 weeks.
Foliar spray with carbaryl 3 g or fenitrothion 2ml/l is effective.
PESTS OF MORINGA
MORINGA HAIRY CATERPILLAR
Eupterote mollifera
Eupterotidae: Lepidoptera
It is a specific and a common pest on drumstick .

It is a large moth with light yellowish brown wings, having faint lines. Female moth lays eggs
in clusters on tender parts. Egg period is 5-7 days .
Caterpillars gather in a cluster on the stem of the plants during hot hours of day. They are
active at night, defoliate the tree quickly and collect on the trunk. The larva feeds on leaves
causing
vDefoliation
Caterpillar is dirty brown in colour with whitish hairs arising in tufts on small warts. Hairs are
poisonous and irritating. Head capsule and thoracic legs are coral red in colour. Larval period
lasts 20- 25 days.The larva pupates in soil in earthen cocoon . Pupal period is 8 -10 days.
MANAGEMENT
· The larvae in groups on tree trunks killed by a burning torch.
· Foliar spray with 2 ml/l or quinalphos 2 ml/l against young caterpillars .
MORINGA BUDWORM
Noorda moringae
Eggs are laid in groups on flower buds. Larvae bore into flower buds feeding on the inner
contents and cause shedding up to 78 per cent during summer. Only one caterpillar is se en in
a bud. The infested buds seldom blossom and fall to ground . Pupation takes place in soil .
Foliar spray with phosalone 2 ml/l during flower bud initiation and at fruiting, dichlorvos
1ml/l, two sprays at fortnightly interval.
PESTS OF CHILLIES
CHILLI THRIPS
Scirtothrips dorsalis
Caliothrips indicus
Frankliniella sulphurea
Thripidae: Thysanoptera
S. dorsalis is found in almost all chilly growing areas. It is a polyphagus pest. Besides chilli,
it also infests brinjal, cotton, groundnut, castor, bottlegourd, guava, tea and grapevine. It is
more common on un-irrigated chilli crop than irrigated one .
They are s lender, tiny, straw coloured insects with fringed wings.
A female adult inserts 40-48 white, minute eggs into veins.
Both nymphs and adults lacerate the leaf tissues and suck the oozing sap, sometimes even the
buds and flowers are attacked. Generally they attack tender leaves and growing shoots. Rarely
the older leaves are attacked. Their damage results in
v The infested leaves curling upward, crumb ling and shedding
v Infested buds turning brittle with petiole becoming brown and dropping down.
v Affected fruits showing light brown scars .
Pest infestation is severe in dry weather. The damage ranges between 30 -50%.
One life cycle is completed on an average in 2- 2.5 weeks. There are about 25 generations in
a year. Reproduction in thrips is generally se xual, parthenogenesis is also present .
MANAGEMENT
· Seed treatment with imidacloprid @ 3 -5 g/kg of seed .
· Foliar spraying with carbaryl 3g/l or phosalone 3ml/l or acephate 1 g/l
or fipronil 2 ml/l or s pinosad 0 . 3 ml/l or diafenthiuron 1.2 g/l so as to wet t he under surface
of the leaves.
· Application of fipronil 0.3G 8 kg/acre at 15 and 45 days after transplanting .
CHLLI POD BORERS

Spodoptera litura,S. exigua
Helicoverpa armigera; Noctuidae
Utetheisa pulchella; Arctiidae
Lepidoptera
Feeding by S. litura, S. exigua leads to irregular holes on the leaves and fruits. Affected pods
turn whitish and dry up. In fruits, seeds are also eaten. Attack of H.armigera leads to round
hole on fruits. In addition to these borers, sometimes U. pulchella also feeds on the pericarp
leaving
the seed intact. Ladder like marks are seen on chilli pod due to U . pulchella . Their detailed
history can be is given under pests of cotton and millets (S . exigua ).
MANAGEMENT
1. Deep summer ploughing .
2. Monitoring with pheromone traps @ 4/acre
3. Raising trap crops like castor (S. litura ), marigold (H . armigera) .
4. Spraying with SNPV/HaNPV at 250LE/acre in the evening .
5. Spraying novuluron 1.0 ml/l or diflubenzuron 1.0 g/l controls just hatched larvae.
6. Foliar spraying of thiodicarb 1 . 0 g/l or acephate 1 .5 g /l or chlorpyriphos
2.5 ml/l or spinosad 0.3ml/l or quinalphos 2 ml/l .
7. Poison baiting with rice bran 5 kg + chlorpyriphos 500 ml or carbaryl 500g + jaggery 500 g
with water in the form of small balls in the evening hours.
CHILLI APHIDS
Aphis gossypii, Myzus persicae
They are polyphagous pests. Cloudy weather is very favorable for multiplication of aphids.
Heavy rains cause reduction in their population. Adults are found in large numbers on the
undersurface of leave s and growing shoots of plants.
Both nymphs and adults suck sap and also excrete honeydew on which black sooty mould
develops affecting photosynthetic activity thus it causing
vRetardation in growth and fruiting capacity of the plant .
vSooty mould
Foliar spray with methyl demeton 1 ml/l or acephate 1.5 g/l is effective.
CHILLI MITES
Polyphagotarsonemus latus
Tarsonemus translucens
Tarsonemidae
Tetranychus cinnabarinus
A minor pest emerged as a major pest in recent past. The infe station starts in the nursery after
40 days of germination. Severe infestation is seen in transplanted crop of 2-3 months old. The
tiny white transparent mites are found in large numbers on the undersurface of leaves under
fine webs. Both nymphs and adults suck sap and devitalize the plant causing ‘Murda’ disease
of chillies. Infestation results in
v Downward curling of leaves,
v The affected leaves becoming inverted boat shaped,
v The leaves rolling down along the margin with elongation of petioles .
v Affected leaves turning dark green in certain cases .
v Younger leaves at the tip of branch clustering .
MANAGEMENT
· Foliar spraying of dicofol 5ml/l or wettable sulphur 3g/l .
· Synthetic pyrethroids not to be used.
· If both thrips and mites are noticed, spraying phosalone 3ml/l or diafenthiuron 1.5 g /l or
chlorfenapyr 2 ml/ l .
CHILLI BLOSSOM MIDGE

Asphondylia capsici
Fly is dark reddish brown mosquito like midge that lays eggs in flower buds. Maggot is tiny
pale orange colored and feeds on the floral parts leading to poor development of fruits. The
ovary is distorted into gall like structure of varied shape.
Foliar spray with triazophos 2 ml/l or carbosulfan 2 ml/l followed by chl orpyriphos 2.0 ml/l
one week later is found effective.
PESTS OF AMARANTHUS
AMARANTHUS LEAF EATING CATERPILLAR

Hymenia recurvalis
It is widely distributed and is found throughout year also infesting beans, coleus, melon,
spinach, beetroot, soybean
The moth is small having dark brown wings with broad white band in the middle. Outer
margin are fringed with short hairs.
Female lays spherical snow white eggs singly in between leaf veins. Caterpillar is greenish
with white lines and black crescents on thorax. The larvae initially feed on leaf epidermis,
later web the leaves and feed on the green matter causing
vWebbed leaves
v Complete skeletonisation of leaves which dry up in severe infestation . Foliar spray with
malathion 2 ml/l giving 10 days waiting period before harvest
AMARANTHUS STEM WEEVIL

Hypolixus truncatulus
Curculionidae: Coleoptera
The adult is 10 – 15mm long, ashy dark grey weevil with a conspicuous snout. White, stout,
apodous and curved grubs bore into the stem and cause gall like swelling. Affected stem gets
weak, may split longitudinally. Removal of wild Amaranthus prevents simultaneous and
offseason buildup of pest. Removal and destruction of affected plants with grubs and foliar
spray with malathion 2 ml/l or dichlorvos 1 ml/l or phosalone 2 ml/l with a waiting period
before harvest are recommended .
PESTS OF MANGO
MANGO HOPPERS
Amritodus atkinsoni ( largest)
Idioscopus clypealis (smallest)
I. niveosparsus (medium)
Cicadellidae: Hemiptera
These insects are monophagous on mango and occur as regular pests.
They are wedge shaped measuring 3 to 7 mm in length and move diagonally. Among these
A. atkinsoni is the largest and light brown having two black spots on scutellum, the anterior
margin of pronotum and vertex.
I. clypealis is the smallest and lighter in colour with two spots on the scutellum dark spots on
the vertex. Clypeus is entirely black.
I. niveosparsus is slightly smaller with three spots on the scutellum and prominent white bar
crossing its dusky wings. It is the most injurious species in South India.
The June-August generation hoppers are seen on mango tree trunks while February-April
generation is confined to the foliage and causes severe loss. Adult hoppers spend winter in the
cracks in the barks of the tree. Hoppers prefer shady and damp places
After spending winter in the adult stage, the female lays eggs about 100-200, singly within
the tissues of flower buds, tender leaves during February – March. The eggs hatch in 7-10
days. The nymphs soon after hatching begin to suck the plant sap.Nymphs are smaller than
the adults. The nymphal period lasts for 2-4 weeks. There are two peak generations of this
insect during a year i.e. during February – April and June-August periods.
During flowering, the hoppers develop enormously in number, suck juice from the
inflorescence and other tender plant parts reducing the vigour of the plant leading to reduction
in fruit set and even premature fruit fall. The infestation also leads to development of sooty
mould on the honeydew excreted by the insects. Egg laying also inflicts injury to the
inflorescence. The infestation ranges from 25 to 50 per cent and in severe case it may lead to
total loss of crop. During the remaining part of the year (off season), these hoppers occur in
small numbers inside barks or on leaves of mango. High humidity in the air during flowering
time encourages insect multiplication. The damage results in the following
v Affected flowers wither and drop down.

v Presence of black sooty mould on floral and other tender plant parts.
v High humidity in orchards due to waterlogging, shading and overcrowding of trees favour
the buildup of the pest.
MANAGEMENT
· Keeping orchard clean
· Avoiding overcrowding and water logging
· Proper pruning of the tree after harvesting to facilitate proper sunlight and air that minimises
hopper population
· Spray schedule is recommended as follows
· At flower bud initiation, 3 ml/l or carbaryl 3 g/l
At emergence of inflorescence stalks and before flower opening (anthesis),
dimethoate 2 ml/l or thiamethoxam 0.3 g/l or imidacloprid 0.3 ml/l
During anthesis and pollination, insecticides should not be sprayed. In case of very high
population of hoppers at this stage, 2ml/l is recommended
When fruits are of pea size, phosphamidon 1ml/l or dimethoate 2ml/l or acephate 1g/l
Adding sulphur 3.5g/l to the insecticide based on need to check mites and sooty mould,
Capnodium mangiferum
Directing the spray first to stem/ trunk, then branches, twigs, leaves and finally inforescence
is a recommended method.
MANGO STEM BORER

Batocera rufomaculata
Cerambycidae: Coleoptera
Mango stem borer is common pest in India. It is a polyphagous pest, infesting besides mango,
apple, fig, mulberry, Eucalyptus, jack fruit, papaya etc.
Adult is a well built, conspicuously long, brownish grey beetle measure ring about 4.5 to 5.5
cm. It has two pink dots and lateral spines on thorax and has hard elytra and is long horned.
Female deposits eggs singly under the loose bark or in wounds of the mango tree trunk. Egg
hatches in 1-2 weeks.
The grub bores and tunnels through the bark of branches and stem feeding on the inner
contents. As a result of feeding, the affected branches start drying up. In severe cases of
attack the whole tree dies. The symptoms of damage are
v Masses of frass and sap exuding from the bore holes.
v Leaves of damaged branches dry and fall
v Branches collapse, tree succumbs in severe cases
Full grown grub is yellowish white, fleshy and about 10 cm long with dark brown
head having strong jaws. It pupates inside the larval tunnel in the stem itself. Pupal period
lasts for 4 -6 months. Adult emerges out during May-June.
MANAGEMENT
· The affected portions with grubs and pupae removed and destroyed, if branches are affected
· The bore holes traced and opened. A swab of cotton wool soaked in chloroform or petrol
5ml or carbon disulphide or kerosene oil or dichlorvos 10ml/l inserted in to the hole and
sealed with mud.
· Methyl parathion 1 ml/l poured in to the hole or tablet of aluminium phosphide inserted into
the hole to kill the grub.
· When burrows are superficial, extract the grubs with stiff hooked wire and paint bordeaux
paste.
MANGO NUT WEEVIL OR STONE WEEVIL
Sternochetus mangiferae Curculionidae: Coleoptera
It is a major pest in South India. It is widely distributed in tropics. Sweet variety fruits are
more liked by stone weevil. It is monophagous and is considered most serious pest of mango.
Adult weevil is about 6-8 mm in length, greyish brown in colour and stoutly built. Antennae
are 10 segmented and elytra are convex. In non-fruiting season, beetles remain hidden under
the bark. The mother weevil selects a place on the developing fruit, makes a boat or crescent
shaped shallow depression by scooping and then lays a single egg and covers it with a
transparent liquid secretion. Single female lays about 15 eggs. The egg hatches within a week.
Grub is white, thick, fleshy and legless. The newly hatched grub immediately tunnels in a zig-
zag manner through pulp, endocarp and seed coat until it reaches cotyledons and the seed coat
hardens afterwards. Inside the stone it feeds on the cotyledon, moults 5 times in about 5
weeks and pupates inside the stone. As a fruit develops, the tunnel gets healed up. The
damage results in
vOvipositional injuries and eggs on marble sized fruits
vTunneled cotyledons
vFruit dropp at marble stage
The adult emerges in about 7 days within the stone also feeds on developing seed. This
hastens the maturity of infested fruit. During the life cycle of the weevil, if the infested fruit
falls and decays, then adult comes out by cutting the stone. If not, adult makes its way out
through pulp. Life cycle is completed in 40-50 days and only one generation is completed in a
year. The infestation sometimes goes up to 100 per cent.
The pest is sensitive to temperature and low humidity and is more confined to humid areas.
Due to this pest, Maryland of the USA does not allow mango imports from India.
MANAGEMENT
· Collection and destruction of infested fruits

· Ploughing orchard after fruit harvest to expose hibernating adults
· Killing adults before fruiting season by treating bark with spray of monocrotophos 1.6 ml or
carbaryl 3 g or fenitrothion 1.0 ml/l at fruit set and one month after fruit set.
· Hot water treatment of fruit for specified period at 60°C kills the weevil inside the stone, but
not fruit fly maggot which is within the pulp.
MANGO FRUIT FLY

Bactrocera dorsalis
Tephritidae : Diptera
It is one of the major pests of mango in India. It also infests guava, peach, citrus, ber, banana,
papaya etc.
Adult fly is a brown or dark brown with hyaline wings and yellow legs.
Eggs are laid in small clusters of 2-15 just beneath the skin of the fruit. About 200 eggs are
laid by a single female during a period of 1 month. Egg period is 2-3 days in March and April
and prolonged up to 10 days in winter.
Damage to semi ripe fruits is caused by both maggot and the adult. The oviposition punctures
made by the female serves as entry for fermenting organisms. Maggots feed on the pulp and
convert the pulp into bad smelling discolored semi liquid mass, unfit for use. The fruits
develop brown rotten patches on them and fall to the ground eventually. The symptoms of
attack are
vSemiripe fruits with decayed spots
vDropping of fruits
Maggots become full grown in 6-29 days depending on the season. Maggots come out of the
fruits and pupate in the soil. Entire life cycle takes about 25 days in the tropics.
MANAGEMENT
· Collection and destruction of fallen, rotten fruits
· Raking under the trees to expose the pupae
· Mixing of carbaryl 10D in soil @ 50-100 g/tree
· Hanging from tree branches plastic containers with bait made of methyl eugenol 2 ml +
carbofuran 3G 3 g + water one litre (200ml of bait/plastic container) to attract and kill flies
· Foliar spray with malathion 2 ml/l or acephate 1.5 g/l
Post-Harvest Control (Heat treatment techniques):
o
· Hot water treatment: Submerging fruits in hot water at 43 to 46.7 C for 35- 90 min.
o
· Double dip method: Immersion of mango fruits in water at 40 C for 20 minutes, followed
o
by 10 minutes at 46 C to get 100 per cent mortality of Bactrocera dorsalis eggs.
MANGO SHOOT BORER

Chlumetia transversa
This pest is active from August to October. Eggs are laid on tender leaves. Freshly hatched
caterpillars bore into midribs of tender leaves and come out after a couple of days to bore into
tender shoots near the growing point tunnelling downwards, throwing out the excreta out of
the entry hole. Damage results in withering and drying of new terminal shoots. When the
caterpillar is full grown, it come out of the shoot and pupates on dried leaves, bark, soil etc.
Clipping off and destruction of affected shoots, foliar spray with carbaryl 3 g/l or quinalphos
2 ml/l at the time new flush.
MANGO FRUIT BORER

Deanolis albizonalis
Adults are brownish. Pest is active from February – May and during off season, larvae
hibernate in dried twigs. The female lays eggs on the apex of the fruits. Egg period is 3-4
days. Caterpillar is brick red with white intersegmental streaks. Caterpillar bores into fruits at
beak region, feeds inside reaching kernel causing secondary infection, which renders the fruit
unsuitable for market or consumption. Bore holes are seen plugged with excreta. Larval
period is 14-20 days. A single caterpillar can damage many fruits. Pupal period is 9-11 days
and adult lives for 8-9 days. There are 2-3 overlapping generations in a year.
Castor shoot and capsule borer Conogethes punctiferalis is also known to bore into fruits
when two fruits are seen attached together.
After fruit harvest, removal of dead wood and bark and burning, collection of
damaged fruits on the tree and the ground and burning, erecting light traps,fires, spraying with
NSKE 5 % at 10 days interval from fruit setting (marble size) until 15 days before harvest are
recommended. Foliar sprays in the evening with dichlorvos 1.5ml/l or chlorpyriphos 1ml/l or
carbaryl 3g/l or neem oil 3ml/l + chlorpyriphos 1ml/l.
Avoid growing of castor in mango orchards to eliminate C. punctiferalis which comes as a

fruit borer is recommended.
MANGO MEALYBUG
Drosicha mangiferae
Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera
This giant mealybug is a serious problem in North and Central India.
Female lays eggs in clusters within ovisacs in soil under the trees 5-15 cm deep during April
and May. The adult female crawls down the tree in April-May and enter the soil for laying
eggs which hibernates till November. The eggs hatch during November-December. The
nymphs ascend the trees and settle on inflorescence. Nymphs and adults suck sap from
inflorescence, fruit stalks, fruits etc. leading to flower drop, pre mature fruit drop etc. They
also excrete honey dew on which sooty mould develops and the fruit development is
hampered. Both nymph and adults suck sap from other tender plant parts thus reducing the
plant vigour.
Deep summer ploughing up to base of the tree trunks, after harvesting to expose eggs of
mealy bugs.
Dusting methyl parathion 2D or 4D around tree and incorporating in to the soil.
Spraying with dichlorvos 1 ml or imidachloprid 0.3 ml/l or phosphamidon 1ml/l when severe
mealybug infestation noticed on the twigs.
Wrapping 25 cm wide, 400 guage polythene sheet on the tree trunk 30 cm above ground level
and pasting greeze over it to prevent migration of freshly hatched first instar nymphs during
winter (Nov-Dec) from soil to trees, one week before their emergence. Crawlers collecting
beneath the polythene sheet may be scraped with a knife.
APHID
Toxoptera odinae
It is a brownish species infesting tender shoots and leaves by sucking sap in South India.
Systemic insecticide like dimethoate 2 ml/l is effective.
MANGO LEAF WEBBER

Orthaga exvinacea
Caterpillar webs terminal leaves and feeds by scraping green portion. Leaves are
skeletonized, wither and drop away. Dry top shoots are conspicuous and flower stalk
formation is affected.
Spraying of quinalphos 2m/l or carbaryl 3 g/l or monocrotophos 1.5 ml/l during July -August
is effective .
TERMITES
Odontotermes obesus
Termitidae: Isoptera
Colonies of workers feed on bark by constructing galleries and eventually tree may collapse
and die.
Applying in the pit at planting time neem cake or methyl parathion 2D 100g/pit, digging
termite mounds and destroying queen, drenching chlorpyriphos 10ml/l on dug termite
mounds, spraying chlorpyriphos 4ml/l on tree after clearing mud galleries, applying Bordeaux
paste up to 2-3 feet from base after rains cease, are some of the measures recommended.
THRIPS
Thrips hawaiiensis
Thrips mainly infest flowers and tender fruits. They lacerate the tissues of tender fruits and
suck oozing out sap. Damage causes scab on fruits which lose their marketability.
Foliar sprays with acephate 1.5g/l or fipronil 2ml/l. when thrips are found along with mango
hoppers, thiamethoxam 0.3g/l are recommended.
MANGO RED TREE ANT

Oecophylla smaragdina
Formicidae: Hymenoptera
Ants construct the nest by webbing the leaves together. Though they do not cause any direct
damage, they act as carriers for scale insects, mealy bugs and also cause nuisance to the
workers in the orchards. They are ferocious and workers are badly bitten.
Removal and destruction of nests mechanically and spraying chlorpyriphos 2ml/l or methyl
parathion 2ml/l after disturbing the nests have been found effective.
LEAF GALL MIDGES

Amradiplosis echinogalliperda
Procontarinia matteiana
Flies are mosquito like; maggots are small, yellow and apodous. Areas of ovipositional
punctures on leaf develop into galls. Maggots feed within the galls.
Spraying NSKE 5% or 2 ml/l at new flush is effective.
RED SPIDER MITE

Oligonychus mangiferus
Tiny mites suck sap from older leaves, turning them brittle. They live under silken webs on
undersurface of leaves which turn yellow. In severe infestation, leaves are shed. Foliar spray
with diafenthiuran 1 g/l is recommended.
PESTS OF CITRUS
CITRUS BUTTERFLY
Papilio demoleus
Papilio polytes
Papilio helenus
Papilionidae: Lepidoptera
These are most destructive pests of citrus seedlings. This pest is widely distributed in Burma,
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, India and Pakistan. It infests almost all citrus varieties though Malta
(Citrus sinensis) is its preferred host. It can feed and breed on all varieties of cultivated or
wild citrus and various other species of family Rutaceae. Besides citrus, it also attacks ber,
wood apple, curry leaf.
P.demoleus is a big beautiful butterfly with yellow and black markings on all the four wings,
having wing expanse of about 50-60 mm. Its hind wings have a brick red oval patch near the
anal margin and there is no tail like extension behind though common in Papilionidae. P.
polytesmales are black and females vary in form. P. helenushas black wings with three white
distal spots.
Yellowish white, round, smooth eggs are laid singly on tender leaves and shoots by P.
demoleus. Egg hatches in about 3 – 8 days.
Freshly hatched caterpillars are dark brown and soon develop irregular white markings on
their body resembling bird’s drop. The caterpillars feed voraciously on tender leaves right up
to the mid ribs and defoliate the entire seedlings or the tree leaving behind the only midribs.
Thus the symptom of damage is
vLeaves fed up to midribs

The full grown caterpillar is deep green and cylindrical in form and measures about 40-50
mm in length with a hump in front and has a horn like structure on the dorsal side of the last
body segment. When the caterpillar is disturbed, it pushes out from the top of its prothorax a
bifid, purple structure called osmeterium which emits a distinct smell. The larval duration
varies between 11 – 40 days.
Pupation takes place on plant parts. Pupa which is a chrysalis is seen girdled by a fine silken
thread on a twig of the plant. Adult emerges in a week in summer and in 12 – 20 weeks in
winter.
Hibernation is in pupal stage and there are 2-4 overlapping generations per year.
MANAGEMENT
· In small orchards and nurseries with mild infestation, hand picking and destruction of
various stages of the pest.
· Natural enemies enumerated below suppress the pest population
Egg parasitoids: Trichogramma evanescens; Telenomus sp.
Larval parasitoid: Distatrixpapilionis; Brachymeria sp.
Pupal parasitoid: Pterolus sp.
· Spraying of monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or dichlorvos 1 m/l or methyl parathion 2 ml/l when the
caterpillars are small. B. t. formulation HALT at 9 g/l is also recommended.
CITRUS FRUIT SUCKING MOTHS

Eudocima materna, Eudocima fullonica, Eudocima ancilla
This pest is distributed in Australia, China, Japan, Korea, Philippines, Hawai, Thailand etc.
Besides citrus, it also attacks grapes, apple, castor, ber, pomegranate, guava etc.
E. materna: The moth has brownish black forewings with a white stripe and yellowish hind
wings with a circular black spot in the middle.
E. fullonica : The moth has brownish forewings and yellowish black hind wings with a half
moon or kidney shaped black spot.
E. ancilla : The forewings of this moth are dark brown with a green band in the middle; hind
wings are yellowish with a kidney shaped black spot.
This is the only group where the adult moths are harmful and damage the citrus fruits. Moth
pierces the ripe fruit with its strong proboscis and sucks the sweet juice. The feeding injury
opens way for invasion of bacteria, which makes the fruit rot around the punctures and drop
prematurely
Achaea janata moth also sucks the juice from the unripe fruits.The damage results in
v Premature dropping of fruits.
v Rotting at the site of feeding injury.
Eggsare lay singly on tender parts of wild foliage. Egg period is about 3-4 days.
Caterpillar is a semilooper. Larvae of Eudacima sp feed on foliage of other weed hosts of the
family Menispermaceae. Larval period is 13-17 days. Pupation is inside the leaf fold and
pupal period is 12-18 days.
MANAGEMENT
· Destruction of weeds found around orchards.
· Collection and destruction of rotten and dropped fruits.
· Adults are highly phototropic. One fluorescent light/ha one month before fruit maturation
between 7.00 PM to 6.00 AM below which poison baits with sugar solution1% + fruit pulp +
Malathion1 ml should be placed.
· Bagging of fruits with polythene or paper covers, though effective is rather expensive and
not practicable on large scale.
· Creating smokes in the orchards after sunset to keep the pest away which is also rather
laborious.
· Arranging poison baits during Sep – Nov and Mar – May at fruiting under lights with a
solution of malathion 1ml + fruit juice with 1% sugar to attract and kill adult moths.
CITRUS LEAF MINER

Phyllocnistis citrella
Gracillariidae: Lepidoptera
It is widely distributed from Australia to Africa. It attacks all species of citrus but prefers
sweet oranges. It also infests Ponagamia, jasmine etc. The pest is active all-round the year,
except during severe winter (December – February). Maximum damage is caused during
May-June and also during August-October, if the temperature is high enough.
Adult is a silvery white small moth with brown striped forewings having a prominent black
spot near the tip and white hindwings. Both pairs of wings are fringed with hairs. The adult
moth measures 6 mmin wing span.
Minute, flat and greenish yellow eggs are laid singly on tender leaves and young shoots. Egg
period is 2-10 days.
The tiny red, apodous larva mines in between the epidermal layers of the leaf in a zigzag
manner and feeds on chlorophyll which results in distortion of the leaf lamina.The tunnel
appears silvery white. New and tender leaves are preferred. Sometimes, the larva mines the
outer layer of young green twigs. Serious infestation causes retardation in growth. The
infestation predisposes the leaves to canker growth. Symptom of damage is
v Characteristicsilvery white zigzag galleries below the epidermis of tender leaves. The full
grown caterpillar is slender, yellowish green with brownish mandibles. Itis found inside the
gallery formed in leaf tissue. Larval period is 15-30 days.
Pupation takes place inside the leaf mine. Pupal period is 5-25 days. Total life cycle takes on
an average 20-60 days depending on the climate. There are 9-13 overlapping generations in a
year
MANAGEMENT
· Pruning of affected parts during winter and burning

· Spraying of Neem cake solution 5% or neem oil 5% or monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or
dimethoate 2 ml/l or imidachloprid 0.5 ml/l twice at 10 days interval at every new flush time
i.e. during June – July, Sep – Oct, Dec – Jan
CITRUS PSYLLA
Diaphorina citri
Psyllidae: Hemiptera
This is widely distributed in India and is considered as a major pest in Punjab. In these
regions the pest is active from February to November and has 16 generations per year.
Adults are reddish with jumping legs. Eggs are laid in tender shoots and anchored in the
tissues by means of short stalks and the egg period is 8-35 days depending on the season. A
single female lays 180 to 860 eggs.
The damage is caused by the nymphs which crowd on the terminal shoots and buds and suck
up the juice which results in
v Curling and cupping of leaves,
v Defoliation and death of young shoot in severe infestation and
v the fruits turning undersized and juice content reduced.
There are five nymphal instars and the nymphal period is 9-38 days. Adult life span is 135
days for males and 145 days for females.
MANAGEMENT
· Spraying of methyl demeton 2 ml/l or dimethoate 2 ml/l or imidacloprid 0.5 ml/l at seedling
stage on fresh foliage twice at 10 days interval.
CITRUS RUST MITE

Phyllocoptruta oleivora
Eriophyidae: Arachnida
Citrus rust mite damage epidermal cells of plant leaves, fruit, and green twigs of all citrus
varieties and can be found any time during the year with peak populations usually occurring
during June and July in south India.
Minute worm like mites are found on the under surface of leaves and fruits. The infestation
may cause
v Browning of leaves
v Pale brown and sickly fruits
v The affected fruit becomes pinkish, brown red and brittle and is locally called as “mangu”
disease.
v Rust mite is known to avoid most sun exposed portion of the fruit.
MANAGEMENT:
· Foliar sprays with wettable sulphur 3g/l or dicofol 2.7ml/l or propargite 1ml/l once in a
month in Sep, Oct and Nov.
BARK EATING CATERPILLARS

Indarbela tetraonis, I. quadrinotata
Metarbelidae: Lepidoptera
Occasionally these pests in large numbers cause severe damage especially to old trees.The
freshly hatched larvae feed on the surface of tree trunks. When strong enough, they bore
inside the trunks and move about inside the concealed silken gallery and feed on the bark by
scraping which interrupts the translocation of cell sap adversely affecting growth and fruit
setting capacity of the tree. Ribbon like or pipe like webbings on the stem near forks or angles
of branches and the tree trunk is the clear indication of its damage. Only one caterpillar is
seen in a gallery.
Cleaning the tree trunks by removing all the webs and placing cotton wool soaked in
chloroform, kerosene, petrol and, carbon disulphide and sealing the same with mud or
Injecting into the hole with monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or of dichlorvos 2 ml/l are effective.
CITRUS BLACKFLY
Aleurocanthus wogluni
Aleurodidae:Hemiptera
It is found mainly in North India. It infests during post rainy season and disappears in
summer. It also infests coffee. Adults are tiny, moth like slaty black with white markings at
the edge of wings. Both the nymphs and adults suck sap resulting in loss of plant vigour and
formation of sooty mould due to excretion of honey dew.
Predators like Brumus sp., Scymnus sp. And Chrysoperla sp suppress the pest population.
Spraying profenophos 2.0 ml /l or chlorpyriphos 2 ml/l or imidacloprid 0.5 ml/l or acephate
1.5 g/l are effective.
CITRUS RED MITE / LEAF MITE
Panonychus citri
Citrus red mites feed on leaves, green twigs, and fruit. Visible injury is characterized by light
colored, scratched areas which give the upper leaf surface a silvery appearance.
Avoiding water stress and spraying of wettable sulphur 3 g/l or dicofol 2.7 ml/l or propargite
1ml/litre of water during Sept-Nov months are effective measures.
PESTS OF GRAPEVINE
GRAPEVINE FLEA BEETLE
Scelodonta strigicollis
Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera
It is the most destructive pest of grapevine all over India .
Adult is a shiny flea beetle with a metallic bronze colour and six black patches on the elytra
and is 4.5 mm long. The adults are very destructive during Sep - Nov particularly when the
vines put forth new flush after pruning. The beetles feed on the sprouting buds and eat them
completely without allowing them to develop. They feed on mature leaves cutting elongated
holes on the leaf laminalike shot holes. The damage results in
v Complete fed sprouting buds.

v Shot holes (rectangular cuttings) on mature leaves .
Adult beetles hibernate during winter under tree bark and become active from March till
November. Adults have characteristic habit of falling down and feigning death when
disturbed.
The females lay eggs about one month after emergence and continue from middle of March to
middle of October. Eggs are laid beneath the bark in groups of 20 -40. A female lays about
220-569 eggs in 10 -14 installments during its life of 8 -12 months . Egg period is 4 days .
On hatching small, dirty white grubs drop down to the wa ter basin and burrow into the soil
and feed on the cortical layer of roots not causing any appreciable damage.Larval period is 6 -
7 weeks.
Pupation takes place in an earthen cell and the pupal period is 7-11 days.Total life history
takes 52 -54 days .
MANAGEMENT
· Adult beetles may be collected and killed .
· Removal of loose bark in rainy season after pruning to expose and eliminate eggs and adults
found underneath
· First spraying when buds swell in early morning or evening hours to kill beetles and second
spra y after 10 days with monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or carbaryl 3.0 g/l or imidachloprid 0.3 ml/l
or quinalphos 2ml/l.
GRAPEVINE THRIPS
Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus
Most destructive pest of grapevine India. It also feeds on rose, jasmine, cashew and other fruit
trees .
Adults are minute, pale, blackish brown, found on the underside of leaves.Reproduction is
either with or without fertilization. Fertilized eggs give rise to female and unfertilized ones to
male.
Adults appear in March and lay eggs on the underside of leaves by making slits in leaf tissue,
placing one egg in each slit. About 50 eggs are laid by each female. The egg is dirty white
and bean shaped. Eggs hatch in 3 - 8 days,
Young nymphs on hatching feed on the undersurface of leaves. Both the nymphs and adults
lacerate tender foliage and suck the oozing sap. The attacked leaves appear silvery initially
and later turn brown and give withered appearance, curl up and drop off the plants. Severely
affec ted vines do not bear fruits. If fruits are attacked, they develop corky layer on the fruits
and turn brown. Infestation results in
v Silvery patches on the affected leaves.
v Brown corky patches on fruits (scab) Nymphal period is 9 - 20 days
Pupation on leaves and pupae possess locomotion and crawls when disturbed. Pupal period is
2 -5 days .
MANAGEMENT
· Removal of weeds in and around garden .
· Cutting of infested branches and burning .
· Spraying dimethoate2ml/l or methyl demeton 2.0 ml/l or thiamethoxam 0.25 g/l.
GRAPEVINE MEALY BUG

Maconellicoccus hirsutus
It is a serious pest on grapevine varieties having compact fruit bunches like Thompson
seedless. Anab – e – shahi with loose bunches is less infested .
Clusters of mealy bugs with white mealy mass suck the sap from fruits making berries or
fruits unfit for consumption. They also feed on stems and foliage resulting
v Sooty mould development that affects photosynthesis and final yield.
v Malformation of growi ng shoots and leaves and sooty mould are the common.
MANAGEMENT
· Clearing mealy bug clusters on stem using gunny cloth
· Releasing 8-10 Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (Australian lady bird beetle)/each tree .
· Removal of loose bark and paste mixture of carbaryl 6 g + Copper o xy c hloride 10 g +
neem oil 1ml+ gum 1ml on the stem and branches .
· Spraying of dichlorvos 2.0 ml/l or methomyl 1.0 g/l have been found effective.
· Applying sticky bands like greeze or sticky tapes around stem, stalks of branches to prevent
crawlers from reaching young shoots .
· Dipping grape bunches in a solution of DDVP 1.5ml + soap 2.5g + water 1 litre for 30
seconds is also suggested.
GRAPEVINE STEM GIRDLER

Sthenias grisator
Besides grapevine, this insect also infests apple, citrus, mango. It is a medium sized, stout
beetle which girdles (ringing) the vine as a pre – ovipositional operation resulting in drying
up of regions beyond the cut.Eggs are inserted under the bark in cuts made by the beetle on
the girdled vines. 1-4 eggs are laid at one place. Egg period is 8 days. The grub tunnels in to
the wood and completes its life cycle within the stem. Pupation takes place within the tunnel.
Cutting attached branches below girdling point and burning, applying dichlorvos in the holes
or placing half a tablet of aluminium phosphide in to the hole and closing it with mud are
recommended .
GRAPEVINE STEM BORER
Coelosterna scabrator
The insect is a borer, the grub of which bores in to stem and branches and causes drying and
withering of affected branches. Initially reddish sap oozes from wounds, chewed particles of
wood are seen on the ground just below the site of damage
Removal of loose bark in pre monsoon period, later painting bark with lindane suspension is
recommended . Applying dichlorvos in the holes and closing it with mud or placing half
tablet of alumunium phosphide in to the hole and closing it .
LEAF EATING CATERPILLARS

Spodoptera litura
Spodoptea exigua
Helicoverpa armigera
Noctuidae
Euproctis s p .
Lymantriidae: Lepidoptera
Their incidence is sporadic. Caterpillars feed on grapevine leaves voraciously . Foliar sprays
with carbaryl 3g/l are recommended .
WHITE GRUB OR ROOT GRUB

Holotrichia consanguinea, H. serrata
Scarabaeidae: Coleoptera
The pest identification, detailed biology, nature and symptoms o f damage and management
are detailed under pests of groundnut .
PESTS OF CASHEW
CASHEW TREE BORER
Plocaederus ferrugineus
It is one of the major pests and normally found in old plantations of more than 7 years age
where sanitation is poor. It is a serious pest of cashew tree in Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu a nd Maharashtra.
Adult is a medium sized, dark brown longicorn beetle .

Eggs are laid under loose bark of the stem and roots. Grub is creamy white, robust and fleshy.
Grubs bore into the bark in their early stage and into the wood in their late stages maki ng
extensive tunnels within. Both young and old plants are affected. The young plants are killed
immediately whereas the older plants gradually become weak and succumb. Infestation
results in
v Yellowing and shedding of leaves and drying of twigs .
v Chewed up fibre, excreta and gummy secretions seen protruding from the bore holes.
Larval period is 6-7 months and full grown larva measures up to 7.6 cm . It tunnels
downwards and reaches the roots where it pupates in a calcareous pupal chamber. The pupal
period is 2 months. Only one life cycle is completed in a year .
MANAGEMENT
· For trees over seven years age , spraying or swabbing on tree trunks up
to 3 feet from ground and exposed roots with 5%neem oil once in 4 months i.e. 3 times a year
as a prophylacti c measure .
· Removal of dried branches, dead trees and burn them.
· Removal of grubs, pupae and adults from damaged portion by physically chisteling and
destroying them.
· Chistled trunks and roots treated with carbaryl 4 g/l.
· Removing the soil around the base of tree up to 1 foot depth and applying 300 -500 g of
carbaryl dust per tree and covering it with fresh soil.
· Cleaning the bore holes to insert 1-2 table ts of aluminium phosphide in each hole and
plugging the holes.
CASHEW SHOOT AND BLOSSOM WEBBER

Lamida moncusalis
Pyralidae: Lepidoptera.
It is a major and regular pest and occurs all through the year.
Adult is a dark brown moth with a wing expanse of 24-26 mm .
The moth lays eggs on the leaves , twigs and inflorescence stalks.
Egg period is 4 - 7 days.
Newly hatched caterpillar is pale white and feeds on the leaves by webbing. Larva webs
inflorescence at the time of flowering and feeds on the floral parts. Apples and nuts are also
covered with we bs with the caterpillar scraping the upper green layer of tender apples and
nuts. It results in cracking of tissue and retardation in nut development. The pest incidence is
severe at the time of new flush. The symptoms of damage are
v Webbed leaves, i nflore scence, apples and nuts
Full grown larva is reddish brown with yellow lateral longitudinal bands
and pinkish dorsal lines and measures up to 26 mm in length. Larval period is 16- 22 days .
Pupation takes place within the webbed leaves in a silken cocoon. Pupa is dark reddish
brown. Pupal period is 9- 14 days.Total life history takes 29 -43 days .
MANAGEMENT
· Three species of Apanteles (Braconidae) were observed during January and February
parasitizing the larval population heavily in Guntur district of A . P .
· Spraying of carbaryl 3g/l or monocrotophos 1.6 m/l or 1.4 ml/l after disturbing the webs.
TEA MOSQUITO BUG

Helopeltis antonii
Miridae: Hemiptera
Major pest of cashew in Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Besides
cashew, it infests grapevine, guava, neem etc .
Adult is a reddish brown bug with black head, red thorax and black and white abdomen; a
knobbed process arises mid -dorsally o n the thorax.
Eggs are inserted into epidermis of tender shoots, axis of inflorescence and nuts. The egg is
elongated and slightly curved with a pair of filaments on the operculum projecting out . Egg
period is 7 days .
Nymphs and adults feed on petiole, tender shoots and leaf veins causing symptoms like
v Brownish black necrotic patches on foliage and elongate streaks and patches on shoots
v Resins exuding from the feeding punctures.
v Blossom blight and die back symptoms .
There are five nymphal instars with duration of 14.9 days. Life cycle is completed in 22.2
days on an average . Peak infestation occurs during summer months and disappears at the
onset of monsoon .
MANAGEMENT
 First spray coinciding with new flush in Oct – No v with 2ml/l
· Second spray during emergence of inflorescence in Dec – Jan with monocrotophos 1.6ml/l
or dimethoate 2 ml/l
· If damage still persists another spray at the time of fruit set in Feb with 2ml/l
CASHEW THRIPS
Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus- Leaf thrips,
Rhynchothrips raoensis: Flower thrips
Incidence is severe in March- May.
Leaf thrips: Both nymphs and adults appear in colonies on the lower side of the leaf. They
scrape the leaf surface and suck sap. Affected leaves turn pale green, later to pale brown with
dark brown spots. Ultimately the affected leaves shrivel and drop off.
Flower thrips: Incidence is severe during December and January. Both nymphs and adults
suck sap from flowers, flower stalks, app les and green nuts. This results in flower and fruit
drop and development of scab on apple and green nut.
MANAGEMENT:
· Spraying chlorpyriphos 2 .5 ml/l or profenophos 1ml/l .
CASHEW LEAF MINER

Acrocercops syngramma
Gracillaridae: Lepidoptera
This pest regularly occurs at the time of new flush generally during June -July and Jan-
Feb.The caterpillar mines into the leaves, as a result the thin epidermal layers of the leaf
swells up in the mined area and appears as whitish patches on the leaf surfa ce of tender
leaves. In older leaves big holes are formed due to the drying and crumbling of the mined
areas. Generally young plants are more affected by this pest.
Spraying of carbaryl 2 g/l or monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or 1.4 ml/l is effective .

PESTS OF POMEGRANATE
POMEGRANATE BUTTERFLY / ANAR BUTTERFLY
Deudorix isocrates
Lycaenidae: Lepidoptera
It is the most important and destructive pest of pomegranate and distributed throughout the
country, also infesting guava, annona, apple, ber, citrus, litchi, tamarind, wood apple, soap
nut, etc.
Butterfly is bluish brown with an orange spot on each of the forewings and black spots on the
hindwings with a tail like extension at the lower margin of hindwings. It is active in bright
sun.
Eggs are laid singly on calyx of flowers or tender fruits. Egg period is 7-10 days. Caterpillar
is stoutly built dirty brown in colour, with light patches, a few short hairs and measures about
16-20 mm long. Larva after hatching bores into the fruit and feeds on the seeds. Entry hole
heals up. The fruit appears healthy but the caterpillar inside feeds on pulp and seeds just
below the rind. It is only when the grown up caterpillar comes out, a round hole is seen
through which juices come out. A single fruit may harbor half a dozen caterpillars. Feeding
injury also cause rotting of the fruits. Up to 50% fruit damage is observed. Larval period is
18-47 days. The conspicuous symptoms are
v Offensive smell and excreta of caterpillar at the entry hole.
v The affected fruits ultimately falling down.
The full grown larva comes out, secures the stalk of the fruit to the stem with a silky
secretion, returns to inside of fruits and pupates on fruit stalk. Pupal period 7-34 days. Total
life cycle takes about 1-2 months. There may be 4 overlapping generations in a year.
MANAGEMENT:
· Destruction of fallen infested fruits checks the spread.
 Removal of flowering weeds especially of Compositae family.
· Though expensive, bagging of fruits with polythene or paper bags or cloth bags soon after
the fruit set prevents the pest attack.
· During flowering and flower bud stage, 2ml/l is recommended. After 15 – 20 days, spray
application of dichlorvos @ 1 ml. /L or carbaryl 3g /l.
THRIPS
Anaphothrips oligochaetus (Flower and fruit thrips)
Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Leaf thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis
These are found through out country. A. oligochaetus infests flower stalks, sepals, petals and
fruits with their rasping sucking type of feeding. As a result, flowers are shed and fruits show
scab like rough surface.
R. cruentatus and S. dorsalis lacerate the leaves and suck oozing out sap causing curling of
leaves.
At flower bud initiation, foliar spray with dimethoate 2ml/l or fipronil 2ml/l is effective.
FRUIT SUCKING MOTHS

Eudocima fullonica
E. materna
Moths pierce the fruits with their proboscis for feeding thus causing injury. The detailed
biology and their management have been furnished under pests of citrus. Fruits show tiny
holes from which juices oozes out when pressed. Later fungi and bacteria accelerate rotting.
PESTS OF GUAVA
TEA MOSQUITO BUG
Helopeltis antonii
Miridae: Hemiptera
It is a major insect pest distributed in AP, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharastra and TN. This
pest causes damage to tea, coffee, guava, cashew, avocado, neem, cacao, cinchona, pepper,
tamarind, cinnamon, apple and mahogany. Its identification and life history have been
detailed under pests of cashew.
Nymphs and adults pierce the guava fruits of all sizes, tender twigs and leaves for sucking
sap. Each tab (probe) on the fruit results in a brownish spot which develops into a raised
pustule known as scab (gajji). A bug may tab in about 50 places on a single fruit. On tender
fruits, the spots may coalesce and fina lly crack. Such tender fruits drop down.If the bug
pierces into the twig, black, linear scars will form. If tender leaves are pierced there may be
small reddish streaks and will curl up. Thus symptoms on various plant parts vary
v Scab on fruit surface
v Black linear scars on twigs
v Reddish streaks on leaves
· Nymphs are parasitized by the mermithid, Agamermis paradecaudata
· Application of recommended dose of fertilizers.
· Spray application of 2ml/l or monocrotophos 1.6ml/l or dimethoate 2ml/l at fortnightly
interval during the fruit development will manage the pest.
GUAVA MEALY BUG

Ferrisia virgata
It is otherwise called white tailed mealy bug /striped mealy bug . It is a widely distributed
species in tropical and subtropical countries. It also infests bhendi, amaranthus, coccinia,
colocasia, lab lab, tomato, brinjal, cashew, anona, guava, amla, grape, tobacco, pepper,
cotton, betelvine
Female bug is apterous with two long prominent waxy filaments at the posterior end and a
number of waxy hairs over the body covered with waxy powder. In the posterior end of the
body, the dorsum has a prominent blackish patch.It has the habit of encircling itself by
secreting thin glassy threads of wax specially when its population is less.Reproduction takes
place both sexually and parthenogenitically, the latter being more common. Mating takes
place only once and lasts for about 12-23 minutes.
The female lays the eggs in groups which lie under its body. Fecundity ranges from 109 to
185 during aoviposition period of 20-29 days. Incubation period is about 3-4 hours
Nymphs and adults remain clustering upon the terminal shoots, leaves and fruits and suck the
sap which results in
v Yellowing, withering and drying of plants or shedding of fruits etc.

v Formation of sooty mould due to honey dew excretion.
In dry weather they may move down below ground and inhabit the roots.
Male and female nymphs moult 3 - 4 times respectively and their development period varies
from 26 to 47 and 31 to 57 days. Longevity of female is 36-53 days and that of male is only
1-3 days.
MANAGEMENT:
· Pruning and destruction of the infested twigs.
· The branches that are touching the ground to be cut and destroyed
· Periodical raking of basins and application of balanced dose of fertilizers especially N.
· Arranging the polythene sheet around the stem.
· Predators Chrysoperla carnea, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, Pullus sp. suppress the natural
population.
· Spray dichlorvos1.0 ml/l or acephate 1.5 g/l.
FRUIT FLY
Bactrocera dorsalis, B. diversus, B. zonatus, B. cucurbitae
Pest is seen all over the country. It is a pest of several fruits such as mango, guava, brinjal,
chillies, loquat, apricot, plum, peach, cherry, chiku, ber, citrus etc. Of many species
Bactrocera, B. dorsalis is the most common causes considerable loss to fruit yield. Fly lays
the eggs on developing fruits. Maggots enter into the fruit and feed on the pulp. The damage
leads to the formation of soft patches on the fruit and premature drop of fruits. The mature
maggots come out of the fruit and fall to the ground and pupate in soil. Premature fruit drop,
fruits with exit holes and soft patches are the symptoms of damage.
Collection and destruction of fruits, periodical raking of the plant basins, Incorporation of
carbaryl 10D @ 50-100 g / tree manages the pupa. Poison baiting with a mixture of
molasses / sugar @ 200 g and malathion 50 ml in 2litres of water kept in small earthen pots in
the field attracts and kills the adults.
SPIRALLING WHITE FLY

Aleurodicus dispersus
The pest is a native of America and distributed all over the world. In India this pest is mostly
distributed in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. It has many cultivated and
wild hosts. The host plants include trees
Guava, papaya, banana, flower plants, forest trees and weeds. The pest mostly attacks old
leaves during November and during April attacks tender leaves. Peak activity of pest is seen
during the month of February. Adult spiralling whitefly is bigger than the other aleurodids.
Eggs are laid in groups of 15-25 on the undersurface of the leaf in circular fashion, hence
spiralling whitefly. Fecundity is 200 eggs. Nymphs are covered with white cottony mass and
suck sap from leaves. The leaves crinkle and turn to red colour. The honeydew excretion
leads to formation of sooty mould that hinders the photosynthetic activity. The vigour of the
plant and fruit yields are reduced.
· Timely pruning of plants and balanced nutrition.
· Aphelinid, Encarsia sp. Are the most important in reducing the population. Cryptolaemus
montrouzieri and Mallada sp. are the other natural enemies associated with this pest.
· Arranging yellow sticky traps in the gardens especially during night times for the flying
adults
· Spray application of neem oil 0.5 ml /l or neem based product also reduce the damage.
PESTS OF SAPOTA
SAPOTA LEAF WEBBER
Nephopteryx eugraphella
Phycitidae (Pyralidae): Lepidoptera
This is a major pest of Sapota occurring throughout India. It also infests sapota, cured
tobacco and Mimusops elengi. This pest is serious from July to November.
Moth is grey in colour. Female lays pale yellowish oval eggs singly or in groups of 2-3 on
leaves. The number of eggs laid by a female varies considerably, the maximum being 226 in
seven days. Eggs hatch in 2-5 days.
Pinkish caterpillar is with closely set longitudinal lines on dorsum. The larva constructs a
tunnel of webs and frass and feed on the green matter of the tender
leaves. They also feed on buds, young shoot and tender fruits. Larval period lasts 17-32 days
v The infested trees show numerous webbed shoots, dry leaf clusters and dark brown
patches on the leaves. Pupation takes place in the leaf web itself and the pupal period is 7-11
days. The total life cycle may take about 32-45 days.
MANAGEMENT
· Collection and destruction of leaf webs with caterpillars

· Clean cultivation
· Spray application of chlorpyriphos 2 ml/l or 2 ml/l or monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or carbaryl 3
g/l is effective.
PARIJATHA HAIRY CATERPILLAR
Metanastria hyrtaca
Lasiocampidae: Lepidoptera
Stout greyish brown female moth is bigger than the males. Males have a white spot in the
centre of a black patch on forewing. Eggs are laid in rows or group. Egg period is 9-12 days.
Caterpillar is 6.5 cm long, stout with greyish hairs on the body, black head and median dorsal
brownish band extending to second abdominal segment. Larval period is 45-60 days. It
pupates on tree trunks in a cocoon made up of silk and body hairs. The caterpillar feeds
voraciously on leaves.
Hand picking and destruction of larvae, burning the larvae with torches when they are found
in groups on tree trunks and spray application of carbaryl 3 g /l or dichlorvos 1ml/l are
effective during early stages.
MEALY BUG
Planococcus lilacinus and P. citri
Different mealy bugs cause damage to sapota. The pink coloured adults and nymphs are
covered by white waxy outgrowth. Both nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves, twigs,
flower buds. Flower curling and twisting of leaves is observed. Growth of the plant is
affected when the shoot terminals are infested. They excrete honey dew that leads to the
formation of sooty mould which affects market value. The following measures are
recommended for its management.
· Pruning and destroying the affected twigs
· Maintenance of sanitation in the orchard.
· Frequent raking of plant basins and incorporation of dust formulation of or methyl
parathion in to soil.
· Releasing predators like Chrysoperla carnea and Cryptolaemus montrouzieri
· Arranging the polythene sheet around the stem
· Spraying with systemic insecticides, dichlorvos 1 ml/l or acephate 1.5 g/l
PESTS OF BER
BER FRUIT FLY
Carpomyia vesuviana
It is the most important pest of ber and has countrywide distribution. Up to 77% damage to
fruits is reported from A.P.
Adult is a small black spotted fly with banded wings. Two to three generations are completed
from November to April.
Eggs are laid in cavities made on the fruit with the ovipositor. Oviposition punctures made by
the flies on the fruits give them rough appearance. The punctures appear as black spots in
depression later on. Up to 22 eggs are laid by a female either singly or in groups of 2-4.
Incubation period is 2-3 days. As many as 18 maggots may infest a single fruit.
Maggots are white tapering anteriorly. Larval period is 7-10 days. Maggots bore into the pulp
forming reddish brown galleries. The damage results in
vThe attacked fruits rotting and turning dark brown and smelling offensively.
The full grown maggot falls to ground to pupate in soil 5 to 7.5 cm deep for periods varying
from 14 to 300 days depending upon the climate.
· Removal and destruction of infested fruits.
· Ploughing and continual raking of soil under the trees during summer months.
· Spray contact insecticides like carbaryl 3g/l or 2ml/l at triweekly intervals.
· Soil application of 4D kills maggots and pupae
BER FRUIT BORER

Meridarchis scyrodes
Carposinidae: Lepidoptera
It is distributed all over the country. Adult is a small dark brown moth. Eggs are laid on
young fruits. Larvae are reddish. The larva bores into the fruit feeding on the pulp and
accumulating faecal frass within. Up to 40% of the fruits are damaged during July and
August. Pupation takes place in the soil.
MANAGEMENT:
· Collection and destruction of affected fruits
· Raking up of soil in tree basins in summer
· Spraying 2 – 3 times at 10 day interval from pea sized fruit stage with 2ml/l or
monocrotophos 1.6ml/l or polytrin 1ml/l
BER FRUIT WEEVIL

Aubeus himalayanus
Grub feeds on the seed and adult feeds on the fruit. The fruit loses its shape. Fruits become
round and fruit stalk bulges. The adult also sometimes feed on the seed and comes out of the
fruit.
MANAGEMENT:
Spray application of monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or fenvalerate 1ml/l or deltamethrin 2 ml/l at

10-15 day interval from maturity of fruit till harvest.
PESTS OF BANANA
BANANA RHIZOME WEEVIL

Cosmopolites sordidus
It is distributed throughout India and is a serious pest of banana. This pest is also recorded on
cacao. Adult is medium sized, 10-13 mm long, stout, brown initially but turns almost black
after a few days. Longitudinal ridges are seen on elytra and abdomen is not covered fully.
The adults also tunnel within the stem feeding on internal tissues during night.
White elongated oval eggs are laid singly in small pits made in the pseudo stem near ground
level. They are elongate, oval, white and measure about 2-3 mm long. Eggs hatches in 5 -8
days.
Grub is dwarf, stumpy, legless creamy white with a red head and wrinkled body. The grubs
tunnel the rhizome, which is roughly circular and increases in size with the growth of the
grubs. The rhizome becomes riddled with tunnels. The leaves turn yellow and dry. The tissue
at the edge of the tunnel turns brown and rots. The grub also bores into the pseudo stem even
up to 2-3’ up. Due to the damage, the banana plants may break down when there is strong
wind.
v Blackened mass of rotten tissue in which case the grub deserts the rhizome.
v The plants may show premature withering, the leaves become scarce, and the fruits become
under sized.
v Very few suckers emerge from the affected plant.
Larval period 14-21 days.Pupation takes place in an oval chamber prepared just beneath the
surface of the sucker. The pupal period is 5-6 days.
· Obtaining suckers from healthy fields for planting.
· Clean cultivation and sanitation in the orchard.
· Dipping the suckers in methyl demeton 0.1% solution before planting
· Avoiding ratooning and changing the field every year.
· Dusting the pits with carbaryl 10D 50g/ pit or 250 g neem cake/ pit before planting.
· Uprooting and destroying the affected pseudo stem and rhizome in which grubs are present.
· Applying contact insecticide during July - September at fortnightly intervals to prevent
attack.
· Give temporary support to the plant.
· Application of phorate 10 G 10 g/ plant
· Spraying the pseudostem and drenching around the base of the tree with chlorpyriphos
2ml /l and after a week spraying and drenching with malathion 2 ml/ l
BANANA SKIPPER
Erionata thrax,
Hesperidae: Lepidoptera.
Larva rolls the leaves from the edges by cutting the leaf lamina. The plant vigour is reduced
as the photosynthetic area decreases.
Cutting and destroying the rolled leaves along with the larva, foliar spray with 2 ml/l or
carbaryl 3 g/l are effective measures.
BANANA APHID
Pentalonia nigronervosa
Aphididae: Hemiptera.
Adult aphid is brownish with black veins on the wings. It lives in colonies within the leaf
axils or tender leaves or at the base of the culm. A single female produces 35-50 nymphs
during its life span of 27-37 days. There are four instars and each instar is completed in 2-3
days. 30-40 overlapping generations are seen in a year. High humidity and moderate
temperature are conducive for the population increase.
The nymphs and adults suck sap from the plant parts and in case of severe infestation
progressive leaf dwarfing, leaf curling is seen. Fruit bunches become small and the fruits are
distorted. These aphids also act as persistent vectors of Bunchy top of banana.
Musa AAB variety of banana is resistant to aphids and thus resistant to Bunchy top. Spray
application of methyl demeton 2 ml/ l or dimethoate 2 ml/l or monocrotophos 1.6 ml/ l is
effective.
BANANA PSEUDO STEM WEEVIL

Odoiporus longicollis
It is a serious pest of banana in North East India. Weevil is a robust reddish brown and black
weevil. Adult feeds on tissues of leaf sheath from its inner surface and also on decaying
tissues. Eggs are thrust singly in to the leaf sheath through oviposition slits made by rostrum.
Egg period is 3-5 days in summer and 5-8 days in winter. The larva bores into the
pseudostem making tunnels within and cutting holes on the outer surface. The tunnelled part
decomposes and pseudostem becomes weak and easily breaks in wind. Grub is apodous, has
five larval instars. Larval period is 26 to 68 days in summer and winter, respectively.
Pupation occurs in stem tunnel and pupal period is 20-29 days in summer and 37-44 days in
winter.
Field sanitation, uprooting and burning infested plants, foliar spray with chlorpyriphos 2.5
ml/l two to three times at three weekly intervals, injection of dichlorvos 1ml/l into the bore
hole are effective measures.
PESTS OF APPLE
WOOLLY APPLE APHID
Eriosoma lanigerum
It has worldwide distribution, originally a native of America. First it was detected in India in
1909 at Simla. Apple trees in all the hilly tracts of India are attacked. It can also cause
damage to pear and other plants. It is a serious pest throughout the year except December-
January.
Aphids are purplish, minute 1.0 mm long and are covered by white cottony mass, hence the
name woolly aphids. The cottony mass covering females is rounded and that covering males
is elongated. Winged and wingless forms are seen in the life cycle. The winged forms are
common in Kumaon hills during July-October.
The insect reproduces both sexually and asexually. Parthenogenetic reproduction is more
common. A single female can give birth to 300-400 nymphs. The crawlers fix themselves on
host plant and suck plant sap. They secrete waxy covering over the body. Nymphal period is
30-40 days. There are 6-7 overlapping generations in a year. The insects overwinter as
nymphs.
The nymphs and adults suck sap from bark of the trunk and the roots. It also infests fruit
stalks and calyx. The colonies are more to the base of the trunks just below the soil in winter.
v The twigs shrivel and die. Young orchard and the nursery suffer the most.
v Gall like swellings are seen at the feeding site on roots and tree trunks during winter.
v The vigour of the trees is reduced.
· Resistant root stocks such as merton type Nos. 778, 779 and malling type XIII are used.
· A parasite Aphelinus mali and a predator Coccinella septumpunctata suppress the pest.
· Aerial infestation can be managed by spray application of systemic insecticides.
· Soil fumigation with PDCB up to 15 cm deep soil 2 metres away around the base of the tree
is recommended.
CODLING MOTH
Cydia pomonella
Tortricidae: Lepidoptera
The pest is distributed all over the world. Native of America and was introduced to India. It
causes damages pear, peach, walnut and quince.
Adult is a small moth, greyish with chocolate brown patches near the tip of the forewings. Up
to 100 eggs are laid on foliage and fruits. Eggs hatch in 4 -12 days.
Caterpillar is pinkish, feeds on the leaves and then bores into fruits. Tunnels are filled with
excreta. The holes are conspicuous. The infested fruits mature earlier and can be identified by
their brighter colour and entry holes. The larva becomes full grown in 4-5 weeks.
The full grown larva comes out of the fruit and pupates under loose bark or on dried leaves.
Pupal period lasts for 8-15 days. The third brood larva overwinters under loose bark of the
host plant.
MANAGEMENT:
· Periodical removal of weeds and the debris.
· The loose bark from old trees promptly removed to prevent the hibernation of the larva.
· Collecting and destroying the fallen fruits along with the larva
· The hibernating larva collected twice or thrice and destroyed.
· Enforcing strict quarantine rules to prevent the spread of this pest.
· Indian house sparrow, Passer domesticus indicus is predaceous on the overwintering larva.
· Paralitomastix varicornis parasitizes the larva.
· Spray application of good contact insecticides up to fruit maturity.
PESTS OF CUSTARD APPLE

MEALYBUG
Ferrisia virgata
Mealy bugs are a major pest on custard apple. The life history, damage and management of
Ferrisia virgata have been detailed under pests of guava.
PESTS OF COCONUT
COCONUT BLACK HEADED CATERPILLAR

Opisina arenosella
Cryptophasidae: Lepidoptera
It is the most important lepidopterous pests of coconut in India and Sri Lanka. It occurs more
commonly along the west and east coast regions. It has been observed infesting coconut in
some inland regions of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu also.
Adult is a greyish white moth measuring 10-15 mm long and 20-25 mm in wing span across
outstretched wings.
The moth is straw to ash grey in colour, medium sized with uniform pale whitish upper
wings. The female moth lays about 130 creamy white scale like eggs in batches along the
underside of the leaflet generally near the old larval galleries. Eggs hatch in about 4-5 days.
Caterpillar is light green with red brown stripes and black head, feed gregariously on the
surface tissues of the leaflets scraped out from their lower surface. The leaflets are reduced to
papery tissues. The larva constructs a gallery of silk and frass and lives and feeds under it.
The attacked leaflets turn brown in colour and dry up. The production of nuts gets adversely
affected as photosynthetic activity of the palm is much reduced. The fronds become
unsuitable for thatching and other purposes. The damage is more during hot months (April-
June) and less during rainy season. The
v Folded leaflets with silken galleries and frass

v Large scale drying of leaflets
v In case of severe attack the whole plantation presenting a burnt up appearance from a
distance.
The grown up larva is about 15 mm long. Larval period lasts for about 40 days. The larva
pupates inside the gallery. Adult emerges after 12-14 days.Total life history occupies about
45-60 days.
MANAGEMENT:
Due to hidden nature of the caterpillars and height of the plants chemical control measures
are often inadequate.
· Clipping and destroying the infested portions.
· A host of parasites attack different stages of the pest. For obtaining effective control,
schedule release of a combination of these parasites should be adopted four times depending
on the stage of the pest.
st
à 1 release immediately when the infestation is observed.
nd
à2 – a fortnight after the first
rd
à 3 – a month after the second
th
à 4 – a fortnight after the third
These parasites are mass multiplied on suitable alternate hosts at four parasite breeding
stations located in the important coconut growing areas of A.P.viz., Sompeta
(Srikakaulam), Rajole and Ambajipet (EastGodavari) and Narsapur (West Godavari) . The
parasites and their hosts are listed below
Egg parasite Trichogramma chilonis

Early larval Cotesia taragamae
Mid larval Bracon brevicornis
Late larval Goniozus nephantidis
Pre pupal Elamus nephantidis
Pupal Stomatoceros sulcatiscutellum
Trichospilus pupivora
Brachymeria nephantidis
Tetrastichus israeli
· Bacteria like Serratia marcescens and Bacillus thuringiensis cause disease in larvae.
· Predatory carabid beetle Parena laticincta
·Root feeding technique: A dark brown coloured root is selected for root administration of
monocrotophos to the trees. The root is given a slant cut.The cut end of the root is kept in
polythene bag containing 10 ml of monocrotophos mixed in 10 ml of water for plants having
15 feet height. Allow the root to absorb the chemical for 24-48 hours. If the root does not
absorb the chemical change the root.
Note: Before administering the chemical the mature nuts should be harvested. After root
administration there should be a gap of at least 45 days for harvest of nuts.
RHINOCEROS BEETLE
Oryctes rhinoceros
Scarabaeidae: Coleoptera
It has a wide distribution in Asia, Australia and Pacific Islands and is reported from all
regions where coconut is grown. It also attacks coconut, oil palm, date palm, sugarcane,
banana, sisal, pineapple, papaya etc.
Adult is a stout beetle measuring 35-50 mm in length, shiny and black above and reddish
brown and hairy ventrally. On the face, beetle has a pointed horn and hence the name,
rhinoceros beetle. The cephalic horn is longer in males than in females. Adult lives for more
than 200 days under favourable conditions. Beetles are attracted to light.
The beetle injures the trees by boring into the central shoots, spathes and petioles. The boring
beetle chews the internal tissues and after ingesting the juicy part throws out the fibrous part
which is indicative of the presence of the beetle in the crowns. The injury by the beetle is
clearly.
vA series of holes on the fronds when leaf opens out and fan like cutting
v Typical ‘V’ shaped clipping/ cuts on mature leaves, in partly damaged crowns
v Death of the central growing primordium of both young and old plants in severe attack
v Damaged palms often becoming infected by fungal rots.
The damage caused by the beetle is more serious in young trees. The beetle breeds in
decaying organic substances. White oval eggs are laid singly in rotting plant material,
especially dead palm trunks, compost heaps and rubbish dumps. A single female lays up to
140-150 eggs which hatch in 8-18 days.
Grub feeds on decaying organic matter. Full grown grub is 9-10 cm long, stout, fleshy, dirty
white, curved (C- shaped) with brownish head. Tail end dark, body segments wrinkled.
Larval period lasts for 99-182 days.
The mature larva first turns into a prepupa, before becoming a pupa proper. The pupation
takes place in a pupal chamber in the soil or rotting plant material. Pupal period is about 10-
25 days, but the adult beetle may not emerge from the cocoon immediately and the
maturation period is spent within the pupal cocoon. Egg laying starts 10-60 days after
emergence. Total life cycle takes about 6-12 months.
MANAGEMENT
· Periodical examination of the breeding places and destruction of eggs, grubs and pupae by
raking and turning up of the manure pits.
· Treating breeding places with carbaryl 50 WP 3g/l or carbaryl c10D atleast once in three
months i.e. January, April, July, August.
· Crownless trees and dead trees should be cut and dried to avoid breeding of the pest.
· Extraction of the beetle with a barbed iron hook or wire and filling up the holes with sand +
lindane dust in equal proportions to prevent further attack or filling up holes with sevidol 8G
25g.
· Providing poisoned breeding traps made out of rotting mustard or castor cake or dung
mixed with lindane to attract and kill beetles.
· The histerid beetle, Santalus parallelus is predaceous on the eggs and all stages of the grub
while its grub is predaceous on the egg and first instar grub Agrypnus sp. predates on the
grubs.
· The green muscardine fungus Metarrhizium anisopliae infects all stages except eggs.
· The bacteria Serratia marcescens, and Pseudomonas sp. attack the third instar grubs.
· Nematode, DD 136 or Neoaplectana carpocapsae and the associated bacterium
Achromobacter nematophilus parasitize the g rub.
· Release of Baculovirus infected adults.
RED PALM WEEVIL
Rhynchophorus ferrugineus
It is distributed in Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, S.E. Asia to China, Taiwan and the Solomon
islands. In India it occurs in all coconut growing tracts. It also infests oil palm, date, sago and
other species of Palmae
Adult is a brown weevil about 35 mm long. It has six dark spots on thorax and in the males
the long snout has a tuft of hairs. The female weevil commences oviposition
1-7 days after pairing and continues it for 25-63 days. Fecundity is 276 eggs. Eggs are laid in
small holes scooped out by the weevil on the soft regions of young palms of up to 7 years
age, in the grown up trees the eggs are laid only in the cuts or wounds which may be present
on the stem or leaf stalk. The plant sap oozing out of the wounds and cuts attract the weevil
for oviposition. It prefers to oviposit in the exposed plant tissues. The infestation by
rhinoceros beetle or crown rot or leaf rot diseases also attracts the weevil for egg laying and
for crown infestation. The creamy white egg hatches in 2-5 days.
Grub tunnels inside and lives in any part of young palms but prefers to concentrate at or near
the growing points in trees older than 5 years. A trunk may harbour 40-45 grubs.The grub
feeds within the stem tissues in large numbers making tunnels. The grubs hatched from the
eggs laid in crown enter in to the growing point of the crown and cause damage.
The symptoms of damage become clear at an advanced stage of infestation as follows
vYellowing and wilting leaves of inner and middle whorls.
vPresence of circular holes on the stem with brownish black viscous fluid oozing out from
the holes
vLongitudinal splitting of leaf bases and presence of cocoons or adult weevil or chewed up
fibres in leaf axis or at the base of the palm.
v The sound of feeding by the grub can be heard by keeping the ear on the trunk of
the tree.
Larval period ranges from 36-78 days. The full grown grub is stout, fleshy,
apodous, constructs an oval cocoon with the fibres of the internal tissues and pupates within it
for a period of 12-33 days. The adult female lives for 76 days and the male for 133 days.
The weevil multiplies enormously in young coconut plantations, especially in those close to
the forest areas and the damage is to the extent of 5-10 % in young plantations of 5-20 years
age.
MANAGEMENT:
· Disposal of felled trunks, tree stumps, dying and dead palms, dead plants due to lightening
or bud rot
· Avoiding wounds, mechanical injuries and stripping of leaves
· Avoiding damage to roots and stem during cultural operation.
· Removal of rhinoceros beetle from the hole using an arrow headed rod and filling the hole
with neem cake 100 g + 150 g sand to prevent weevil attack on young plants.
· Arranging bucket traps (Pheromone traps) at 1-1.5 m height on tree trunk to attract the pest
and the weevils collected in the buckets destroyed or killed using poison baiting.
· The affected plant puts scraped off and swabbed with coal tar or Japan black.
· Release of sterile males to compete with the normal males to reduce the progeny.
· Chistling out the affected portions and filling with concrete mixture so that the plant can
withstand strong winds.
· Earwig, Cheliosoches moris feeds on eggs and grubs
· Root feeding with monocrotophos 10 ml mixed with water 10 ml. (Do not harvest the nuts
for the next 45 days).
SLUG CATERPILLARS
Contheyla rotunda
Macroplectra nararia
Latoia lepida
Limacodidae: Lepidoptera
It is a sporadic pest. C. rotunda is common in west coast, while M. nararia is common in

Godavari district. Mango, castor, cashew, pomegranate are other hosts. The caterpillar feeds
on leaves, buds, flower shoots and developing fruits.
Caterpillar is fleshy, slug like with series of tufts of spines highly irritating to touch, hence
called “nettle grub”. Pupation takes place in hard shell like grayish cocoon
MANAGEMENT:
· Clipping the affected leaves along with the larvae.

· Natural parasitisation occurs with larval and pupal parasites.
· Bacterial and fungal infections on larvae and pupae are common in rainy season.
· Spray application of carbaryl 3 g/l or root feeding with monocrotophos is effective.
TERMITE
Odontotermes obesus
Termitidae: Isoptera
Termites damage the seedlings in the nursery and transplanted seedlings. Wilting of central
shoot is a symptom of the attack. Up to 20% of the seedlings are destroyed by the termites in
the laterite soils. Base of trunk is seen plastered with runways made of soil and fibre.
Locating termite mounds in or near the coconut nursery or garden, digging out the
termitarium and destroying the queen, drenching the soil with chlorpyriphos 10 ml/l of water
are effective measures.
COCONUT SCALE
Aspidiotus destructor
Diaspididae: Hemiptera
Large number of scales sucks sap from undersurface of leaflets which turn yellowish, finally
wither and dry up, thus reducing vitality of plant
Root feeding with monocrotophos after harvest of nuts, spraying with carbaryl 3g/l or
dimethoate 2ml/l are effective.
COCONUT ERIOPHYID MITE
Eriophyes guerreronis
It became a threat to coconut in south India causiong economic losses. The microscopic
wormlike eriophyid mites are seen in thousands under inner bracts of the perianth. They also
feed in colonies on lower leaf surface causing yellow speckling and chlorosis.
v Triangular pale or yellow patches close to perianth initially at the level of perianth which
turn into brown patches with longitudinal fissures and splits on the husk (warting)
v Shedding of buttons
v Oozing of the gummy exudation from the affected surface.
v Reduced nut size and copra content.
v Malformed nuts with cracks and hardened husk.
· Application of urea 1.3 kg., super phosphate 2.0 kg and murate of potash 3.5 kg./ palm /
year.
· Application of neem cake 5 kg and organic manure 50 kg / palm / year.
· Grow intercrops, banana, cacao, turmeric, vegetables in rich soils and shelter belt with
causuarina all around the coconut garden tominimize the pest.
· Spraying twice at weekly interval on buttons and developing nuts on bunches with wettable
sulphur 6g/l or prophano[phos 5ml/l or methyl demeton 6ml/l or triazophos 5ml/l
· Spraying azadirachtin 10000 ppm 5ml/l on fruit bunchus or root feeding thrice a year with
azadiractin 10000ppm 10ml + 10 ml of water /tree.
PESTS OF TOBACCO
TOBACCO CATERPILLAR
Spodoptera litura
It is found through out the tropical and sub tropical parts of the world, widespread in India.
Besides tobacco, it infests cotton, castor, groundnut, tomato, cabbage and various other
cruciferous crops.
Moth is medium sized and stout bodied with forewings pale grey to dark brown in colour
having wavy white crisscross markings. Hindwings are whitish with brown patches along the
margin of wing. Pest breeds throughout the year. Moths are active at night. Female lays about
300 eggs in clusters, covered over b y brown hairs. They hatch in about 3 -5 days.
In early stages, the caterpillars are gregarious and scrape the chlorophyll content of leaf
lamina giving it a papery white appearance. Later they become voracious feeders making
irregular holes on the leaves and finally leaving only veins and petioles.
v Irregular holes on leaves initially and later skeletonisation of leaves

v Heavy defoliation, leaving veins and petioles
Caterpillar measures 35-40 mm in length, when full grown. It is velvety black with
yellowish – green dorsal stripes and lateral white bands with incomplete ring – like dark band
on anterior and posterior end of the body. It passes through 6 instars. Larval stage lasts 15-30
days
Pupation takes place inside the soil, pupal stage lasts 7-15 days.
Adults live for 7-10 days. Total life cycle takes 32-60 days. There are eight generations in a
year.
MANAGEMENT
· Collection and destruction of the infested material from the field.

· Plucking of leaves harbouring egg masses / gregarious larvae and destroying.
· Setting up light traps.
· Setting up of pheromone traps @ 12/ha for monitoring the pest.
· Spraying NPV @ 250LE/ha.
· Release of egg parasitoid Trichogramma @ 50,000/ha/week four times
· ETL: one egg mass / 10 plants.
· Foliar spraying with 2ml/l or thiodicarb 2ml/l or quinalphos 2.5ml/l or acephate 1.5g/l.
· Baiting with rice bran 12kg + jaggery 2.5kg+carbaryl 50WP1kg in 7.5lt water/ha during
evening hours to bait and kill the caterpillars
TOBACCO APHIDS
Myzus persicae
It is highly polyphagous infesting tobacco, cabbage, chilli, brinjal, radish, potato, tomato,
tobacco, mustard, sweet potato, Hibiscus, sunnhemp etc.
Adult aphid is small to medium sized about 1.25 to 2.5 mm long, usually green with a darker
thorax. Antennae 2/3 as long as body. Siphunculi clavate, fairly long. They reproduce both
sexually and parthenogenetically, the latter is more common.
Nymph undergoes 4-5 instars taking 4-7 days for apterous and 5-8 days for alate forms.
Apterous adults produce 5 to 92 young ones / female while the alate forms produce 8 to 49
nymphs. More young ones are produced during mid winter (Jan-Feb). Longevity of adults is
15 to 27 days for alate and 10 to 25 days for apterous forms. Survival is least during late
winter.
Aphids infest the crop late in the season. Both nymphs and adults feed on leaves and shoots in
large numbers suck sap and devitalizing the plant which results in
vSickly appearance of plants

vLeaves curling up and fading and unfit for curing
vSooty mould develops on honeydew excreted.
vTobacco ring spot virus and Rosette virus disease are transmitted by this vector
species
· Natural enemy, Praon myzophagum parasitizes the aphid.
· Spraying neem oil 2% or NSKE 5%
· Spray phosphamidon 2 ml/l, methyl demeton 2ml/l, Malathion 2 ml/l, Dimethoate 2ml/l,
acephate 1.5g/l
WHITEFLY
Bemisia tabaci
The pest is generally seen as white minute specks of flies on the underside of the leaf. It
attacks both nursery and main field.
Breedings take place often parthenogenetically. The female lays up to 120 eggs. Egg period
lasts for 3-5 days. Nymphal duration is 9-14 days. About 10-12 generations are completed in
a year.
Nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves and devitalise the plant. It transmits the leaf curl
virus disease.
v The leaves are twisted, puckered and thickened with prominent veins.
v Stunted growth and reduced yield considerably
v Sooty mould on the leaves due to honeydew excretion.
MANAGEMENT
· Removal and destruction of alternate hosts.

· Avoiding leaf curl infected tobacco seedlings for transplantations.
· Removal of leaf curl infested plants.
· Avoiding growing brinjal and sunflower in the vicinity.
· Setting up of yellow sticky traps coated with castor oil @ 12 traps / ha.
· Spray application of NSKE 5%
· Foliar spray with acephate 1.5 g and other systemic insecticides
TOBACCO STEM BORER

Scrobipalpa heliopa
Gelechidae: Lepidoptera
Caterpillar mines into the leaf axil and then into stem.Bored stem becomes hollow, swollen
and forms a gall. Destroying crop residues and monitoring the pest in nurseries are
recommended.
PESTS OF COFFEE
COFFEE WHITE BORER
Xylotrechus quadripes
It is the most important pest of coffee in India. Pest activity is seen from April to May. Adult
is dark brown longicorn beetle having several white markings on the elytra and thorax. It
measures about 8 mm. in length. They are active in bright weather and heavy rains are not
suitable for egg laying.
Eggs are laid during October and November in small groups in cracks on the stem, crevices of
the bark. Egg period is 8-10 days.
. The grub bores into the bark and tunnels in all directions within the stem feeding on the
internal tissues. The stems and branches are killed. Young bushes are more affected and older
plants lose their vigour and yielding capacity. In neglected gardens, the impact is more.
Damage leads to
v Presence of ridges on the stem

v Yellowing of leaves and wilting of branches
Full grown grub is 1.8 cm. in length, pale yellow in colour, stout and swollen towards the
head. Larval period is 8-9 months
The larva pupates within the stem tunnel after making an e xit hole. Pupal period is 25-30
days. There is one generation per year.
· Hand collection and destruction of the adults.
· Arranging the shade mainly April-May and October-December.
· Removing the loose bark once in every two years during April-May to reduce the egg
laying.
· The wilting branches and bushes removed and destroyed.
· The grubs are parasitized by Metapelma sp. and Campyloneurus sp.
· The stems swabbed with lindane 7 ml/l at monthly interval during April-May and Oct - Dec.
· Find out the holes on the stem and plug them with cotton dipped in lindane solution.
COFFEE RED BORER

Zeuzera coffeae
Zeuzeridae: Lepidoptera
The orange red smooth caterpillar with black head, prothorax and anal shield bores into the
main stem and tender branches causing wilting of branches or plants. Bore holes plugged with
excreta are seen at the base of infested plant
Removal and destruction of affected branches and plants are recommended.
COFFEE GREEN SCALE

Coccus viridis
Coccidae: Hemiptera.
Green colored flat soft scale is an important pest of coffee in all the coffee growing regions. It
infests the leaves and tender shoots. On leaves they are present on the undersurface. Tender
branches and developing berries are also attacked. The infested plants are seen covered with
sooty mould. Berries and leaves are discoloured and malformed and drop. Whole plant
becomes weak.
For the destruction of hills dust formulations of quinalphos 1.5D / methyl parathion 2D /
malathion 5D should be incorporated in the basins. This will encourage natural enemies of
scales.
Spray application of quinalphos 120 ml or malathion 200 ml or fenitrothion 100ml in 200
litres of water on coffee and on fence against scales.
PESTS OF TEA
TEA MOSQUITO BUG
Helopeltis theivora
Miridae: Hemiptera
It is distributed in India, Sri Lanka, Vietnam and Indonesia. H. antonii is predominant in

South India whereas H. theivora is common in Eastern India. It also infests guava, grapevine,
cashew, mahagony, neem, cacao, cinchona, pepper, tamarind, cinnamom, apple etc.
The female bug is orange across shoulders and the male is almost black. Soon after
emergence, the adults mate and the female lays 500 elongated sausage – shaped eggs within
two days inserting in the tender shoots in groups of two or more and hairs from each egg
project outside. The incubation period is 5-27 days.
The nymphs and adults suck sap from tender buds, leaves and stem. While feeding, the toxic
salvia is injected causing
vBrownish patches and curling of leaves.
vUltimate drying of shoots
Nymphs complete their development in about two weeks after passing through five moults.
The life -cycle is completed in about a month and in a single year there may be several
generations. Adults pass the winter under hibernation
· Collection of nymphs and adults with hand nets early in the morning or in the evening and
destroying them.
· Spraying the bushes with malathion 200 ml or 400 ml in 200 litres of water per acre.
THRIPS
Taeniothrips setiventris
Scirtothrips dorsalis
This is a major pest in the Assam Hills. The adult is a yellowish-brown in colour with dark-
brown abdomen.
Nymphs and adults live and feed inside the buds and the young leaves. The infested leaves
become deformed and curled up and the shoots stunted. Pruned tea is the worst affected.
Scirtothrips dorsalis, commonly occurs in the plains of North-East India. The damage is
similar to that caused by T. setiventris. The life-cycle takes 13-18 days to complete during
various months of the year; the peak period of incidence is in May.
Spraying the bushes with malathion 200 ml or 400 ml in 200 litres of water per acre is
recommended.
TEA MITES
Red spider mite: Oligonychus coffeae, Tetranychidae
Purple mite: Calacarus carinatus, Eriophyidae
Pink mite: Acaphylla theae, Eriophyidae
Scarlet mite: Brevipalpus australis, Tenuipalpidae
Arachnida
O. coffeae is brick red in colour and roundish. The mite lives in colonies in a thin web on the
upper surface of mature leaf and the damaged portion turns brown. The leaf becomes bronze,
dry and crumpled in case of severe attack even young leaves may be affected. Apart from tea,
it also infests coffee.
C. carinatus is widespread and severely infested fields present a bronze or coppery brown or
smokey discoloration of leaves. The mite is dark purple to pink in colour with characteristic
white ridges running along back. It infests mostly the undersurface of mature leaves
especially along the leaf margins and occasionally the upper surface and young leaves.
A. theae is the mot serious pest of tea on the Anamalasis as it attacks the flush. The mite is
minute, not visible to naked eye, buff coloured and carrot shaped or top shaped. In the initial
stages of attacks the leaf blade curls upwards and this is followed by crinkling of the leaf. The
attacked leaf surface is thick and leathery whereas the under surface of leaf is glossy buff or
brown in colour. It also infests coffee.
B. australis is orange red flattened obovate mite infests undersurface of mature leaves near
petiole and along the margin. Infested leaves turn brownish. It also infests tea besides many
other plants.
Sulphur is not recommended as it taints tea.
· Chemicals like ethion 1 ml/l, dicofol 5 ml/l, phosalone 2ml/l are effective against tea mites.
· The EPA tolerance level is 8 PPM in or on dried tea for p hosalone.
PESTS OF TURMERIC AND GINGER

RHIZOME FLY
Mimegralla coeruleifrons
Micropezidae: Diptera
It is reported from Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Maharashtra. It also infests ginger. Flies are
noticed in the field during August - September. Adult flies are dark blackish. Wings are
transparent with three light ashy bands. Tarsi of forelegs are white in colour
The whitish eggs are laid on the lower surface of leaves or in soil in the vicinity of plants or
on exposed rhizomes. Egg period is 4 days.
Maggot is creamy white, apodous and 9 mm long. In the beginning the maggots bore into the
shoot causing dead hearts.Finally they reach rhizomes and feed on them. In association with
Pythium they cause rotting of the rhizomes. The symptoms include
vDead hearts due to primary injury
vWilting and drying of aerial plants
vRotting of rhizomes due to invasion of fungus, Pythium sp. through feeding injuries
caused by the maggot.
The larval period is completed in 17 days and pupation tajes place in tunneled rhizomes or
soil. Adult fly emerges in 14 days. The adult has a longevity of 18 days. The fly completes its
life cycle in 38-62 days
· Removal of dead hearts and rotting rhizomes along with maggots after harvest.
· Treating seed material in dimethoate 2ml/l solution before planting.
· Spraying monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or fenitrothion 2 ml/l two sprays.
· Avoiding waterlogging in the field.
· The puparia are parasitized by Trichopria sp.
· As soon as rotting of rhizome is noticed, application of neem cake 100 Kg/ac or carbofuran
3G 10 Kg/ac + equal quantity of sand
TURMERIC LACEWING BUG
Stephanitis typicus
Tingidae: Hemiptera.
It also infests banana, coconut, turmeric, cardamom. Bugs measure about 4 mm long with
transparent, shiny reticulated wings and black body. Nymphs and adults suck sap from leaf
surface causing yellowing of leaves in patches which dry and drop off. Black resinous
excretion in tiny spots are seen between the damaged areas
Foliar spray with malathion 2ml/l or methyl demeton 2ml/l, or dimethoate 2 ml/l is effective.
PESTS OF BETELVINE
SHOOT BUG
Disphinctus politus
Disphinctus measarum
Miridae: Hemiptera
D. politus is the most important pest of betelvine in South India, while

D. measarum occurs in Maharashtra.The peak activity is from June to October and the least
activity in December and January.
Adult is a reddish brown bug about 1.3 cm in length. Head and antennae are dark. Adult are
seen taking shelter under drooping bent leaves. Eggs are laid singly within the tender plant
parts with their filaments projecting out. Egg period is 8-16 days. Fecundity is 18-72 eggs.
The nymphs and adults feed on the leaves puncturing the tissues in between veins. The
attacked leaves show dry spots and in severe cases the whole leaves shrivel, fade and dry up.
Nymphal period is 12 – 18 days depending on season. Infestation results in
v Dry spots which later turn into shot holes in mature leaves
v Puckered appearance of leaves with leaves curling and shrivelling
· Foliar sprays with 2ml/l or carbaryl 2g/l after leaf harvest are recommended at fortnightly
interval.
TOBACCO CATERPILLAR
Spodoptera litura
Its detailed life history is given under pests of Tobacco. The main damage on Betelvine is
defoliation. Foliar sprays with neem oil sml/l (1 litre/ac) during Oct – Nov. after leaf harvest
is recommended for its management in betelvine gardens.
PESTS OF ONION
ONION THRIPS
Thrips tabaci
It infests cotton, crucifers, tobacco, tomato besides onion and garlic. They are minute
delicate, less than 1 mm long with fringed wings.
Female lays fertilized or unfertilized eggs in leaf epidermis on undersurface of leaves. Egg
hatches in 2 – 5 days.
Nymphs are slender and yellowish. Both nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves by
lacerating and sucking and causing following symptoms
vSilvery white blotches on leaves giving whitish appearance to the whole crop which become
brownish and get distorted from tips downwards
vWilting and drying of crop
Nymph passes through 4 instars and the nymphal period is about 7 days. Total life
cycle takes 14 – 24 days. It completes 10 generations in a year.
MANAGEMENT:
· Variety “Spanish White” is tolerant to thrips
· Foliar sprays with dimethoate 2ml/l or fipronil 2ml/l + mancozeb 3g/l two or three times at
10 day interval.
RAGI CUT WORM

Spodoptera exigua
It damages by defoliation. Its life history is detailed under pests of millets. In its management
foliar sprays with carbaryl 3g/l or 2ml/l or profenophos 2ml/l are recommended.
PESTS OF CORIANDER
CORIANDER APHID
Hyadaphis coriandri
Adults are light green in colour but appear grey due to white powdery substance covering the
body. Nymphs are yellowish green.
Both nymphs and adults infest terminal shoots and inflorescens and suck sap. They also
excrete honeydew leading to sooty mould formation and making the foliage sticky. The
damage results in
vDevitilization of plants
vLeaves and young shoots twisting
MANAGEMENT:
 Coccinellids and green lace wings suppress natural pest population
· Foliar sprays with dichlorvos 1ml/l or monocrotophos 1.6ml/l or methyl demeton 2ml/l or
dimethoate 2ml/l after which harvesting of crop for foliage should not be done atleast for one
week.
LEAF EATING CATERPILLARS Spodoptera litura, Helicoverpa armigera Noctuidae:

Lepidoptera
Larvae defoliate plants heavily. Foliar spray with acephate 1.5g/l is recommended.
PESTS OF ROSE
THRIPS
Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus
Nymphs are reddish and adults are dark brown or black in colour. Both nymphs and adults
infest leaves and flowers as a result, leaves turn sickly, crinkled and malformed and flower
buds fail to open, become deformed.
Foliar spray with carbaryl 3g/l or malathion 2ml/l or monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or
phosphamidon 0.5ml/l after removing flowers including tender ones.
SCALE
Lindingaspis rossi, Aonidiella aurantii
Diaspididae: Hemiptera
Red scales completely cover the stem. Both nymphs and adults suck sap causing drying and
death of plants
Rubbing off scales with cotton soaked in kerosene, diesel or methylated spirit, cutting and
burning the affected branches, foliar sprays with malathion 2ml/l two roundsm, at pruning
and during March – April are found to be effective
ROSE LEAF CATERPILLARS

Euproctis fraterna, Porthesia scintillans: Lymantriidae
Latoia lepida: Limacodidae
Achaea janata: Noctuidae
Lepidoptera
Caterpillars defoliate the plants. Foliar spray with monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or phosphamidon 2
ml/l or carbaryl 3 g/l after removing flowers is effective.
ROSE CHAFER BEETLE

Oxycetonia versicolor
Cetoniidae: Coleoptera
Beetles are red coloured with black markings. Adults feed on leaves, flowers during night
causing irregular feeding marks on buds and flowers.
Soil drenching with lindane or some other soil insecticide around rose plants, dusting
malathion 5D 15 Kg/acre in evening hours or foliar spray with 2ml/l are effective.
PESTS OF JASMINE
JASMINE STINK BUG
Antestiopsis cruciata
Pentatomidae: Hemiptera
Nymphs and adults suck sap from flowers, tender plant portions causing heavy damage to
flowers and yellowing and drying of leaves. Sometimes, they feed in large numbers on tender
shoots and buds preventing flower formation. Foliar spray with malathion 2ml/l or
monocrotophos 1.6ml/l or phosphamidon 0.5ml/l after removing all flowers including very
tender ones is effective.
JASMINE BUD WORM
Hendecasis duplifascialis
Greenish caterpillar attacks two or three buds and buds are webbed together by silken threads.
Petals are eaten away by larva resulting in buds with bore holes, webbings soiled with
excreta. Pupation is in soil.
Foliar sprays with malathion 2ml/l or dimethoate 2ml/l or 2ml/l are effective.
JASMINE GALL/ FELT MITE

Aceria jasmini
It produces white felt like hairy outgrowth on the leaf surface, tender stems and buds leading
to stunted growth and suppression of flower development
Dusting sulphur 8 – 10 Kg/ac is recommended.
PESTS OF CHRYSANTHEMUM
CHRYSANTHEMUM BLACK APHIDS
Macrosiphoniella sanborni
Nymphs and adults infest tender shoots sucking sap and causing yellowing and drying of
tender shoots, devitilization and stunted growth.
Foliar sprays with malathion 2ml/l or monocrotophos 1.6ml/l or phosphamidon 0.5ml/l are
effective.
Areca nut
Scale insect Red scale, Aonidiella orientalis Mussel
Thread scale Ischnaspis longirostris (Diaspididae: Hemiptera)
The scale insects are seen feeding on nuts, rechillae, and leaves- the damage is done by
sucking the sap from the plant tissues as a result of continuous sucking, the tissues become
yellow in colour and severe feeding leads to withering and shedding of buttons/fruits-the
damage is heavy during drought situation.
Chemical control is not advocated against the scale insects, as the beneficial biocontrol agents
are killed by the insecticide spray. Ladybird beetles, Chilocorus nigrita and Chilocorus
circumdatus are found to be effective biocontrol agents against the scale insects attacking
arecanut. These can be released in the affected areca garden to control the scale insects.
Insect pest of Cacao
Mealy bugs: (Planococcus lilacinus, Planococcus citri, Paracoccus marginatus,
Rastrococcusi ceryoides)
Pseudococcidea; Hemiptera
 It colonizes on the tender parts of the plant such as growing tips of the shoots, the terminal
buds, the flower cushions, the young cherelles and mature pods. Feeding of mealy bugs
induces cherelle wilt.
Management
 When the infestation is lesser: Spraying of Neem Oil 3% or fish oil rosin soap 25g/litre
 In case of severe incidence, spraying of any one of the following chemicals is
recommended : Dimethoate (2 ml/litre) , Profenophos (2 ml/litre), Chlorpyriphos (5 ml/litre),
Buprofezin (2 ml/litre), Imidacloprid (0.6 ml/lit), Thiamethoxam (0.6g/litre)
 In the area where P. Marginatus alone occurs, field release of Acerophagus papayae, the
encyrtidparasitoid @ 100 per hamlet is recommended as the best management strategy.
Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis antonii) Miridae; Hemiptera
Infested pods develop circular water soaked spots around the feeding punctures. These
punctures subsequently turn pitch black in color. Deformation of pods occurs because of
multiple feeding injuries.
Aphids: Toxoptera aurantii and Aphis gossypii
Aphididae; Hemiptera
 They colonize on the underside of tender leaves, succulent stem, flower buds and small
cherelles. Heavy infestation may occur during hot summer and after rainy season which
brings about premature shedding of flowers and curling of leaves.
Insect pest of cardamom

Cardamom thrips: Sciothrips cardamomi
Distribution and status: India and Papua New Guinea. Most destructive pest of cardamom
in South India
Host range: Cardamom, tea, grapevine, castor, cotton Prosopis juliflora, ginger and turmeric.
Damage symptoms
Thrips lacerate the surface tissues of capsules and suck the exuding sap. The injured tissues
form a corky layer on the capsule surface which appear as scales. Such capsules appear
stunted, malformed and shrivelled with gaping slits on the skin. The condition is popularly
known as “cardamom itch”. Seeds from infected capsules give poor germination. At panicle
formation stage, infestation causes stunting of panicles and shedding of flowers. Scrapping of
capsules lower their quality and quantity to the extent of even 80-90%.
Bionomics and identification :
Greyish brown full grown adult female lays 5 - 31 minute, kidney shaped eggs on the leaf
sheath, flowers and surface tissues of capsules, egg period 9-12 days. I and II nymphal instars
lacerate the surface of the tissues; nymphal period 9-12 days; pupal period 3-5 days. Life
cycle is completed in 20 -25 days. High temperature and low humidity favours the growth of
the insects.
Management
 Maintain plant density with wider spacing of 2.5x2.5 m
 Regulate the shade in open areas
 Remonve and destoyaltenate hosts like Panicum longipes, Ammomum sp, Alocasia sp and
Colacasia sp
 Remove dry leaves , leaf sheath and old panicles prior to chemical spraying.
 Spray phenthoate 500 ml or dimethoate or quinalphos 1.0 L or diafenthiuron 50 WP 800 g
with 500 - 1000 L water/ha
PESTS OF PEPPER
Pollu beetle: Longitarsus nigripennis
(Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera)
Distribution and status: India (West Coast area)

Host range: Pepper (No alternate host reported so far)
Damage symptoms
 Grub feeds on the growing tip, tender stem, leaf petiole, spikes and berry.
 Tunneling of tender stem causes drying up of the shoot.
 The portions of the spikes tunneled by grubs turn black and cause dropping of spikes due to
the subsequent rotting.
 Grubs bore into the berries and feed on entire internal contents.
 Exit holes could be seen on dry berries.
 As a result of grub boring, the berries dry up and turn dark in colour.
 They are hollow and crumble when pressed.
 Such hollow berries are called ‘Pollu’ berries.
Leaf damage:
 The adult beetles feed on all stages of the leaves.
 Most preferred one is tender leaves.
 Due to feeding irregular holes are seen.
 On mature leaves, the beetle scrapes the green matter leaving the layer of upper epidermis.
Identification of the pest
 Eggs: Female beetle scoops out shallow holes on growing bud, leaf, petiole, terminal buds,
spikes and tender berries and lay eggs singly.
 Freshly laid eggs are yellow and turn brownish yellow.
 Grubs: Pale yellowish in colour.
 Pupa: Pupation takes place in the soil in an earthen cell
 Adult: Beetle is oblong with shiny black elytra and enlarged hind femur
Binomics
Adult is a bluish yellow shining flea beetles. Eggs are laid on the berries and lays 1-2 eggs in
each hole, egg period 5-8 days, larval period 30-32 days. Pupation occurs in soil in a depth of
5.0 - 7.5 cm. Pupal period 6-7 days. Life cycle completed in 40 - 50 days. Four overlapping
generations in a year.
Management
 Regulation of shade in the plantation reduces the population of the pest in the field.
 Tilling the soil at the base of the vines at regular intervals
 Spraying quinalphos (0.05% each) during June/July and September/October or quinalphos
(0.05% each) during July and Neemgold (0.6%) (neem-based insecticide) during August,
September.
 The undersides of leaves (where adults are generally seen) and spikes are to be sprayed
thoroughly
Top shoot borer: Cydia hemidoxa
(Eucosmidae: Lepidoptera)
Distribution and status: India

Damage symptoms
Larvae bore into tender terminal shoots and feed on internal tissues resulting in blackening
and decaying of affected shoots.
 The pest infestation is higher during July to October when numerous succulent shoots are
available in the vines
Identification of pest
 Larva: The full grown caterpillar is greyish green in colour.
 Pupa: Pupation takes place inside the shoots within the tunnel.
 Adult
o It is a small moth.
o Forewing: The basal half of is black and distal half is red.
o Hind wings: Greyish in colour
Bionomics
Larva greyish green, 12-14 mm long, larval period 10 -15 days.Pupates inside shoots, pupal
period 8 – 10 days. Adult moth is tiny, forewing black with distal half red, hind wing greyish.
Life cycle completed in a month.
Management
Spray quinalphos (0.05% ) on tender terminal shoots; repeat spraying at monthly intervals
(during July - October) to protect emerging new shoots.
Eucalyptus gall wasp : Leptocybe invasa (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)
HOST PLANTS: There are at least 11 Eucalyptus species reported as favorable host plants of
L. invasa, including Eucalyptus botryoides, E. bridgesiana, E. camaldulensis, E. globulus, E.
gunii, E. grandis, E. robusta, E. saligna, E. maidenii, E. tereticornis, and E. viminalis
Biology
The female adult wasp is 1.1 to 1.4 mm long. The body is brownish in color with a blue to
green metallic sheen. Fore coxae are yellow, mid and hind coxae are brown.
Mean development time from oviposition to emergence is 132.6 days at room temperature
with two or three overlapping generations per year. Mean survival time for wasps fed with
honey and water is 6.5 days.
Leptocybe invasa produces galls in the form of distinct swellings on leaf petioles, midribs and
stems on new foliage of both young growth and mature trees. leaves of rapidly growing trees
may contain greater than 50 galls per leaf. The female wasps insert eggs into the upper side of
the leaves and stems. As larvae develop, galls begin to form and the green color of the leaves
containing the galls turns glossy pink. Subsequently, the leaf glossiness then diminishes and
the galls turn from pink to red. Upon emergence of the wasps, the galls on the leaves turn
light brown and the galls on the stems turn reddish-brown. The adults leave round exit holes
after emergence.
DAMAGE: Leptocybe invasa is a serious pest in young plantations. Heavy galling prevents
further development and causes leaf curling and stunted growth. Infested growth causes
substantial damage, seriously weakening old trees and killing young trees. All new growth is
susceptible to damage when large concentrations of these wasps are found on leaves. The
impact on adult trees is not known.
MANAGEMENT:
Three parasitoid wasps are reported to parasitize L. invasa: Selitrichodes neseri,
Quadrastichus mendeli, and Selitrichodes kryceri.
Acetamiprid 20 SP was effective in reducing the infestation without affecting the
establishment of the cuttings and seedlings raised from treated seeds/ cutting up to 30 and 50
days, respectively followed by imidacloprid (17.8 SL/70 WS) and thiamethoxam (25 WG).
Different insecticides tested as a spray under nursery conditions, thiacloprid was most
effective followed by imidacloprid, acetamiprid and thiamethoxam in reducing the
oviposition damage and gall infestation.
Chlorpyriphos (20 EC) and Dimethoate (30 EC) even at the lowest dosage (2.50 ml/1) were
highly phytotoxic resulting in failure of establishment of the cuttings.
Neem
Tea mosquito bug
(refer under cashew)
Pests of Papaya
White fly: Bemisia tabaci Aleurodidae; Hemiptera
Symptoms of damage
 Nymphs and adults suck the sap from undersurface of the leaves
 Yellowing of leaves.
 Acts as vector for leaf curl virus
Egg - pear shaped, light yellowish
Nymph - Oval, scale-like, greenish white
Settle down on a succulent part of leaves.
Adult - White, tiny, scale-like adults.
Management
 Field sanitation
 Removal of host plants
 Installation of yellow sticky traps
 Spray application of imidacloprid 200SL at 0.01% or triazophos 40EC at 0.06% during
heavy infestation.
 Spray neem oil 3% or NSKE 5%
 Release of predators viz., Coccinellid predator, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri
 Release of parasitoids viz., Encarsia haitierrsis and E.guadeloupae
Green peach aphid: Myzus persicaei, Aphididae; Hemiptera
Symptoms of damage
 Nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaves, petioles and fruits
 Leaf curling and falling
 Premature fruit drop
 Adult: Dark brown to chocolate brown colour
Remove and destroy damaged plant parts
 Spray dimethoate 0.03% or methyl demeton 0.025%
 Field release of parasitoid Aphelinus mali and predators,Coccinella septumpunctata
Papaya Ring Spot Virus: The virus is spread from plant to plant by aphids. The earliest
symptoms on papaya are a yellowing and vein-clearing of the young leaves. This is followed
by a very conspicuous yellow mottling of the leaves and sometimes severe blistering and leaf
distortion. Dark-green streaks and rings also appear in the leafstalks and stems. The disease
derives its name from the striking symptoms that develop on fruit. These consist of concentric
rings and spots or C-shaped markings, a darker green than the background-green fruit colour.
Symptoms persist on the ripe fruit as darker orange-brown rings. Vigour of trees and fruit set
is usually reduced depending on the age of the plant when infected. Fruit quality, particularly
flavour, is also adversely affected
Papaya mealybug Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink (Hemiptera:

Pseudococcidae)
The papaya mealybug is believed to be native of Mexico and/or Central America,where it

never acquired the status of a serious pest, probably due to the presence of an endemic natural
enemy complex.
Infestation of the mealybug appears as clusters of cotton-like masses on the above-ground
portion of plants with long waxy filaments. Immature and adult stages of P. Marginatus suck
the sap of the plant and weaken it. The leaves become crinkled, yellowish and wither. The
honeydew excreted by the bug and the associated black sooty mould formation impairs
photosynthetic efficiency of the affected plants. Papaya mealybug has caused havoc in
agricultural and horticultural crops ever since its first report from Coimbatore in 2007. The
insect assumed the status of a major pest in 2009 when it caused severe damage to
economically important crops and huge losses to farmers in Coimbatore, Erode, Tirupur and
Salem districts of TamilNadu. In the same year, standing mulberry crop over 1,500 hectares
inTirupur was destroyed by the pest leading to enormous financial losses to mulberry growers
across the district.
Management
Cultural and Mechanical
•Monitoring and scouting to detect early presence of the mealybug
•Pruning of infested branches and burning them
•Removal and burning of crop residues
•Removal of weeds/alternate host plants like Hibiscus, Parthenium etc. in and nearby crop
•Avoiding the movement of planting material from infested areas to other areas
•Avoiding flood irrigation
•Prevention of the movement of ants and destruction of already existing ant colonies
•Sanitization of farm equipment before moving it to the un infested crop
•Application of sticky bands or alkathene sheet or a band of insecticide onarms or on main
stem to prevent movement of crawlers
Biological control
•Natural enemies of the papaya mealybug include the commercially available mealybug
destroyer Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, ladybird beetles, lacewings, hover flies, Scymnus sp.
and certain hymenopteran and dipteran parasitoids. Conservation of these natural enemies in
nature plays important role in reducing the mealybug population.
•In the nature, lepidopteran predator, Spalgis epius (Lycaenidae) is a well known
representative of carnivorous butterfly feeding on various species of pseudococcids and
coccids. S. epius, being the dominant predator, feeds efficiently on the ovisacs, nymphs and
adult of papaya mealybug.
* Release Acerophagus papayae @ 100 parasitoids / field / village or block.
If the activities of natural enemies are not observed, use of botanical insecticides such as
neem oil (1 to 2%), NSKE (5%), or Fish Oil Rosin Soap(25g/litre of water) should be the first
choice .
• Chemical control is only partially effective and requires multiple applications.

•Apply recommended chemical insecticides as the last resort such as profenophos 50 EC (2
ml/litre), chlorpyriphos 20 EC (2ml/litre), buprofezin 25EC (2 ml/litre), dimethoate 30 EC (2
ml/litre), thiomethoxam 25 WG (0.6 g/litre), imidacloprid 17.8 SL (0.6 ml/litre)
•Spray profenophos @ 2 ml / litre on stumps immediately after pruning inmulberry followed
by second spray, 15 days after pruning, with dichlorvos @2 ml /litre along with azadirachtin
(10000 ppm) @ 1 ml /litre. Stickers should always be added in spray solutions.
•Drenching soil with chlorpyriphos around the collar region of the plant to prevent movement
of crawlers of mealybug and ant activity is useful.
MITES
S.No Common name Taxonomic position
1 Rice leaf mite Oligonychus oryzae,

Tetranychidae: Arachnida.
2 Rice panicle mite: Steneotarsonemus spiniki,
Tarsonemidae: Arachnida.
3 Jowar mite: Oligonychus indicus,
. Shizotetranychus andropogoni,
4 Cotton leaf mite: Tetranychus telarius,
. T. bimaculatus,
Tetranchydae: Arachnida
5 Wooly mite of Aceria gossypii,
cotton: Eriophyidae: Arachnida.
6 Red gram mite: Aceria cajani,

Eriophyidae: Arachnida.
7 Chilli mites Polyphagotarsonemus latus,
Tarsonemus translucens
Tarsonemidae: Arachnida
7 Citrus rust mite: Phyllocoptruta oleivora,
Eriophyidae: Arachnida.
8 Coconut eriophyid Eriophyes gurreronis
mite Arachnida: Tetranychidae
9 Mites on Tetranychus telarius,

vegetables T. bimaculatus,
Tetranchydae: Arachnida
10 Tea mites
Red spider mite: Oligonychus coffeae,Tetranychidae
Purple mite: Calacarus carinatus, Eriophyidae
Pink mite: Acaphylla theae, Eriophyidae
Scarlet mite: Brevipalpus australis, Tenuipalpidae
The general biology, nature and symptoms of damage and their management of the mite pests
have been covered in the respective crop pests. However general management aspects of
mites are covered here under.
MANAGEMENT OF MITES
Cultural
· Avoiding monoculture
· Intercropping with non - host crops
· Destroying mite damaged parts in case of Erinium patches and malformations
· Adopting clean cultivation
Biological
Predatory mites
· Amblyseius longispinosus
· A. cucumerus
Coccinellids:
· Brumus suturalis
· Scymnus gracilis
· Stethourus pauperculus
Thrips: Scolothrips indicus
Lygaeids: Geocoris sp.
Chemicals:
Chemicals which kill ticks and mites are called Acaricides
- Specific acaricides
· Dicofol (KELTHANE)
· Tetradifon (TIDEON)
· Aryl alkyl sulphide (ARAMITE)
· Barium polysulphide (SOLBAR)
- Insecticides with acaricidal properties

· Phosphamidon
· Dimethoate
· Methyl demeton
· Formothion
· Phosalone
· Monocrotophos
· Ethion
· Phorate granules
· Disulfoton granules
NEMATODES
Nematodes are minute worm – like animals without true body cavity and with unsegemented,
bilaterally symmetrical and externally cuticularised body. In plants, they are either
endoparasites or ectoparasites.
Economically important plant parasitic nematodes, their damages and management are
explained in this section.
WHITE TIP NEMATODE OF RICE/ SPRING DWARF NEMATODE Aphelenchoides

besseyi
It is widely distributed in Tamil Nadu. Remain alive as pre adult, beneath the hull of paddy
seed for two years. When seed are sown, immature forms become active and move up the
plant along a thin film of moisture and feed on foliage as ectoparasites. Adults lay eggs on
foliage. Larvae move to panicle when it is formed and enter grains. The symptoms are
v Leaf tips (2-5 cm) turn yellow, brown and finally turn white, dry up and hang down.
v Tips of developing leaves become twisted and crinkled.
v Kernels distorted and in severe cases it become chaffy.
MANAGEMENT:
o
· Treatment of paddy seeds with hot water at 52 – 55 C for 15 minutes.
· Seed treatment with N – 244 @ 3 ml a.i. for every litre gives 100 % control
WHEAT GALL NEMATODE/ EAR COCKLE NEMATODE: Anguina tritici

It is a problematic pest in all wheat growing areas of world. Second instar larva inside seed
gall gets activated when sown under favourable moisture conditions and come out of the seed.
Larva crawls up the plant through a thin film of moisture. It feeds on tender foliage as
ectoparasite. It enters young green grain and converting it into a gall, grow and reproduce in
the gall. Each female inside the gall lays hundreds of eggs, hatched out larvae remain in seed
and will be viable in dry seeds for years. When those seeds are sown the cycle is repeated.
The following symptoms can be seen.
v Affected plant stunted with wrinkled and twisted leaves.
v Infested grains ripen slowly, smaller in size with irregular contour.
v Whole or part of the grain converted into galls, cockles or pepper galls
Nematode infestation is associated with “Tundu disease” or “yellow slime” disease caused by
a bacterium, Corynebacterium tritici causing rotting of spikelet with oozing of yellow slime
(yellow slime disease). This results in
v Twisting of leaves
v Distortion of ear heads
v Rotting of spikelets with profuse oozing of yellow slimy liquid.
MANAGEMENT
· Seeds for sowing should be immersed in salt solution by dissolving 10 kg of common salt in
60 litres of water. The floating seeds should be rejected.
(or)
Seeds pre soaked in water about 2 h and after rejecting seeds that float, (light and chaffy
o
seeds) the remaining seeds are kept in hot water at 50 C for 2 h. Seeds treated by either of
the above methods should be shade dried by spreading on floor in a thin layer
· Resistant variety is Kanred (USA)
WHEAT CYST NEMATODE Heterodera avenae
It infests wheat and oats. Female encysted with tough resistant leathery wall is called is called
a cyst. This encysted female is resistant to chemicals, adverse environmental conditions and
will remain alive in soil even in the absence of host for years. Second stage larva enters root
near tip and feeds on tissues resulting in
v Shallow root system.
v Stunted plants with chlorotic leaves.
MANAGEMENT
· Soil fumigation with DD @ 500 l / ha
· Application of carbofuran 3G @ 4 kg a.i./ha
ROOT KNOT NEMATODE Meloidogyne spp.
M. incognita and M. javanica infest all vegetables, other crops like cotton, sugarcane, chillies,
wheat, barley, tea. M. incognita infests brinjal, chillies, tomato and bhendi while M. arenaria
infests chillies and tomato. Infections by this nematode lead to the invasion of pathogens like
Fusarium, Rhizoctonia
Female lays 200-500 eggs in a gelatinous sac surrounding the posterior tip of female. Egg
mass is seen protruding out of the galled roots. Second stage larva is slender, long and
cylindrical. After entering the roots, female larva swells up at each moult. Adult female is
spherical, flask shaped. Males are slender. As a result of feeding by nematode, infested roots
show
v Knot-like galls on roots.
v Stunted plants with chlorotic leaves.
MANAGEMENT
· Fallowinfg field in summer after 2 or 3 deep ploughings and drying
· Keeping the field in flooded condition for a few days, whereever possible.
2
· Ploughing nursery area and spreading paddy husk uniformly @ 20 kg/m (about 15 cm
thickness), burning it and ploughing back facilitates productionof nematode free seedlings.
· Crop rotation with mustard
· Application of chopped leaves of Pongamia and Crotalaria reduces disease severity.
· Preplant soil fumigation with DD mixture.
2
· Nursery treatment with carbofuran 3G @ 65 g/m and in main field carbofuran 3G @ 4 kg
a.i./ha is effective.
· Resistant varieties in tomato are
Nematox Nemared
SL 120 Ronita
NTR – 1 Pelican
CITRUS NEMATODE Tylenchulus semipenetrans
It infests many species of citrus and related genera, in all citrus growing areas. Females are
swollen, sac like, remain attached to roots with head region buried in tissues. Damage results
in
v Drying of apical leaves, buds, twigs downward- known as die back.
v Trees show reduced vigour, gradual reduction in yield.
MANAGEMENT
· Selection of planting material from nematode free nurseries.
· Application of neem or castor cake @ 15 kg / tree
· Application of carbofuran 3G @ 50 g / tree and watering.
· Avoiding brinjal, tomato and tobacco as intercrops in citrus gardens which are nematode
prone.
· Preplant soil fumigation with DD mixture and using clean nursey stocks.
· In infested orchards, soil drenching with DBCP (Dibromo chloro propane) is found to be
effective.
BANANA BURROWING NEMATODE Radopholus similis
It infests banana, coconut, rice, sweet potato, tomato, citrus, coffee, pepper, grasses and
weeds.
Nematode enters root at any point, feeds on cell contents, and migrates through root tissues.
Females leave numerous eggs in their trail. Cell walls dissolved and destroyed and roots are
severed from plant. It is an endoparasite responsible for
panama wilt of banana caused by Fusarium oxysporum, F. cubens. Nematode infections give
way to pathogenic fungi, bacteria, which hasten destruction of infested root tissues.
Infestation results in
v Characteristic reddish brown lesions throughout cortex.
v Reduced root system with few short stubs.
v Affected plants getting toppled.
MANAGEMENT
· Crop rotation
· Deep summer ploughing
· Selection of suckers from nematode free areas.
· Planting suckers only after trimming all the roots.
· In endemic areas, trimming rhizome and dipping in clay slurry and applying 40 g carbofuran
3G on clay slurry before planting gives effective protection.
· Application of carbofuran 3G @ 20 – 40 g/plant at the base at a depth and covering it with
soil and water.
RODENTS
Rodents are vertebrate pests which belong to class Mammalia and have an external covering
of hairs. Its order Rodentia includes a large number of animals ranging in size from the
smallest mice to as large as porcupine, squirrel and beaver etc. Rodents are easily
distinguished from other mammals by the characteristic arrangement and form of their teeth.
They have only one pair of chisel shaped incisors in both the lower and upper jaws and no
canines. The rodent incisors grow continuously throughout the life @ 12.5 cms/year. About
2.5% losses are caused due to rodents in storage annually. Rodents not only feed on grains
but also contaminate 20 times more than what they consume with their droppings, urine, hair
and even some times with their own dead bodies. Some of the important rodents species
found in field and storage are discussed in this section.
FIELD RODENTS
Indian mole rat / lesser bandicoot- Bandicota bengalensis
Soft furred field rat / grass rat- Rattus (Millardia) meltada
Indian gerbil rat / antelope rat- Tatera indica
Indian field mouse- Mus booduga
Brown spiny mouse- Mus platythrix
Coconut rat Rattus rattus wroughtoni
RODENTS IN STORES
House mouse- Mus musculus
House rat / common rat- Rattus rattus rufuscens
Larger Bandicoot / Bandicoot rat- Bandicota indica
Brown rat / Norway rat / sewer rat- Rattus norvegicus
MANAGEMENT OF RODENTS
FIELD RODENTS
Three basic components of IPM as in any other pest are
1. Prevention
2. Observatrion
3. Intervention
Prevention:
Food and habitat manipulation is the key in preventing rodents in the field to pose any threat
to field crops
· Summer ploughing
· Keep the field bunds free from weeds
· Trimming the field bunds and reducing the number of bunds as far as possible.
· Selecting uniform maturing varieties
· Uniform planting, avoiding staggered sowings / plantings
· Monitoring rodent population build up particularly after floods / natural calamities.
· Avoiding hay stacks near fileld to eliminate harbourages.
· Encouraging natural enemies (snakes, birds etc.,)
Identifying species can be made by o Visual observation of species o Their burrowing pattern.
Assessment of rodent population by burrow count is handy because single adult whether male
or female, inhabits a burrow.
ETLs 2% tiller damage

(Rice) 15 % affected hills
Intervention:
Setting of indegenous traps
Bow traps @ 20 – 25 / ha
Smoking burrows with burrow fumigator (originally designed at APRII, Maruteru, AP)
Baiting on a community approach over a large area. Rats are colour blind and can not vomit.
This character is exploited in baiting.
1. Acute poison:
Zinc phosphide 2 %.
Pre baiting should be done 2 – 3 days before.
iii. Baiting: Broken rice (local food) – 96 parts
Edible oil – 2 parts
Zinc phosphide – 2 parts
10 bait stations / ac
Followed by baiting, fumigation with aluminium phosphide after enumeration of burrows @
2 pellets (1.2 g) / burrow.
Zinc phosphide burrowing can be done only once during the season.
2. Single dose Anticoagulants

Bromadiolone 0.25 CB at same ratio.
Bait can be used at any number of times at 10 – 15 days interval during crop season.
Sustained baiting with Bromadiolone bait throughout crop period at bait stations, each
provided with 15 – 20 g of freshly prepared bait.
Coconut rats
Bandicota indica (Burrowing rat) damages transplanted seedlings by uprooting
them.
Rattus rattus wroughtoni enters crowns, burrows into immature nuts. Attacked nuts are shed.
Damage is more in closely planted gardens.
Management of coconut rats involve
· Nailing tin hat / tin sheets around trunk of grown up trees.
· Avoid close planting.
· Placing bromadiolone cake @ 2 pieces or 33 g per tree in crown at opposite directions.
· Inserting Aluminium phosphide tablets in holes made in bole.
· Use of traps, burrow smoking.
MANAGEMENT OF RODENTS IN STORES
· Killing by sticks
· Using traps
oSnap neck trap
oLive catch trap
oWonder trap
· Encouraging predators like cats, dogs, owls and hawks.
· Use of chronic anti coagulants
oRodafarin ‘C’ (solid bait)
1. Rodafarin ‘C’ – one part

2. Sugar – one part
3. Vegetable oil – one part
4. Crushed grain /corn meal – 17 parts
oRodafarin ‘S’ (liquid bait)
1. Rodafarin ‘S’ – one part

2. Water – 19 parts
3. Effective in stores as there is lack of water in stores
oDeath of rats is observed after 2.5 day of continuous feeding.

· Bromadiolone (ROBAN, MOOSH MOOSH): Single dose anticoagulant new generation
rodenticide.
o Bromadialone 0.005% RB (Ready Bait)
o One piece should be kept at hiding place / runways etc.,
· Coumatetralyl (RACUMIN): new group of anticoagulant is available as loose bait or
tracking powder.
BIRDS
Birds belong to the class Aves. Their body is covered with feathers. They have a unique
characteristic of forelimbs modified as wings. Mouth is continued to form a beak and are
homoethermous and grainivorous. About 0.85% losses are caused due to birds in storage. The
damage done by birds to food grains in fields and stores is appreciable both quantitatively and
qualitatively. Average consumption by birds ranges from 8 to 25 gm per day. Besides eating
grain in the fields and godowns, they are also responsible for spoilage, contamination with
excreta, feathers and dead bodies. Some of them are responsible for spreading diseases. They
also create nuisance and unhygienic conditions in warehouses.
Some of the important birds of agricultural importance are described here below.
S.No Common name Scientific name

1 Common pigeon, Columba livia Grainivorous, eat foodgrains in
Blue rock –pigeon grain mandies, godowns
2 House Sparrow Passer domesticus Principally grainivorous; lives or
enters house and warehouses,
eat grains in open / bag storage
3 House Crow Corvus splendens Omnivorous feeding on kitchen
waste to dead animals and
hence considered as the best
scavenger.
4 Rose ringed Psittacula krameri Normally frugivorous, attacks
parakeet ripening cereal crops and
foodgrains in open storage.
5 Common mynah Acridotheres tristis Damages food grains in fields
and mandies but seldom enters
ware-houses.
6 Baya/Weever bird Ploceus philippinus Pest of paddy grains
7 Spotted Munia Lonchura punctuata Feed on ripening paddy grains,
other grass seed.
MANAGEMENT
· Habitat manipulation: trimming trees, removal of shrubs on borders reduces roosting place
where birds perch/settle/sleep.
· Netting: arrangement of traps and nets for catching the birds.
· Scaring by
§Beating empty drums
§Mechanical bird scarers
§Metallic ribbons
§Pyrotechniques (art of making fire works)
§Bioacoustics - making distress calls
oFiring blanks with gun
oThrowing missiles
oCatapulting (to shoot from a hurl)
· Destruction of eggs and nests
· Use of non toxic and sticky material like “ Lassa”
· Growing bird resistant varieties like
oGanga 3 in maize
oRed sorghum
· Use of repellents like cupric oxide, methiocarb.
· Use of chemosterilants like mestranol, ornitrol, avitrol.
· Fumigation of holes
· Use of stupefying substances, immobilizers, narcotizers (Alfachloralose 1 – 2 % in bait.)
ANNEXURE
LIST OF COMMONLY USED INSECTICIDES ACARICIDES IN PLANT
PROTECTION (in alphabetical order)
Common name of the

insecticide and its Trade names / Proprietary names
formulation
Abamectin 1.8 EC VERTIMEC
TAMARON, LUCID, DHANRAJ, ACEFEX,
Acephate 75SP
TWINGUARD, LANCER, PACE, ASATAF
DHANPREET, PRIDE, REKORD, POLAR,
Acetamiprid 20 SP
PERMIT, MANIK
FARSA, SHERALP, NUMETHRIN,
Alphamethrin 10 EC
ALPHAGUARD , TATA ALPHA,
BPMC 50 EC BIPVIN, MERLIN
Beta-cyfluthrin2.5SC BULLDOCK
Buprofezin FLOTISH, CHEMISTAR, BLAZE, APPLAUD.
Carbaryl 50 WP SEVIN
LEGEND, DANFURON, DIAFURAN,
Carbofuran 3 G
TATAFURAN
Cartap hydrochloride 4G,50 PRATAP, CALDAN, BEACON, DHAAL,
SP SANVEX
Chlorantraniliprole 0.4G FERTERRA
Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC CORAGEN
DURMET, CLASSIC, DHANVAN , DURSBAN,
Chlorpyriphos 20 EC
TRICEL, CHLOROGUARD, RADAR, FORCE
Chlorpyriphos 50 EC PREDATOR, ECOGUARD
Clorfenapyr 10SC INTREPID, LAPIDO
Clothianidin 50 WDG DANTOP
RIPCORD, BILCYP, SHAKTI, CYPERGUARD ,
Cypermethrin 10 EC
LACER, SURAKSHA, USTAAD
BASATHRIN, CYBIL, SHAKTI, CYPERGUARD
Cypermethrin 25 EC
EC, TROFY, COLT CYMBUSH,CYRUX
Dichlorovos 76SL LUVON, DIVAP, NUVAN, DOOM
Deltamethrin 2.8EC DECIS, DECAGUARD
Dicofol 18.5 EC KELTHANE, COLONEL-S, TIKTOK
Diafenthiuron 50 WP PEGASUS, POLO
Diflubenzuron 25WP DIMILIN
Dimethoate 30 EC NOVAGOR, ROGOR
Emamectin benzoate 5 SG EM-1, SPOLIT, PRABHAAV, PROCLAIM
THIODAN, LUSUPHAN, SPEED, ENDODHAN,
35 EC
ENDOTAF
Ethion 50 EC LAZOR, DHANUMIT, FOSMITE,
Ethofenprox 10EC PRIMO, NUKIL
Fenazaquin 10 EC MAGISTER
Fenpropathrin 30EC DANITOL, MEOTHRIN
Fenpyroximate 5EC MITIGATE
Fenthoate 50EC DELGAN
Fipronil 0.3G REGENT GR
Fipronil 5 SC REGENT SC
Flubendiamide 20WG TAKUMI, FAME
Fenvalerate 0.4 D FENVAL DUST
Fenvalerate 20 EC LUFEN, NEWFEN , FENVAL, SUMICIDIN

CONFIDOR, CHEMIDA, MEDIA, IMIDAGOLD,
Imidacloprid 17.8 SL
IMIDACEL, MAHARAJA , ATOM, ADMIT
Imidacloprid 70WS GAUCHO, TATAMIDA
Indoxacarb 14.5SC DHAWA, AVAUNT, KINGDOXA, DAKSH, FEGO
Lamda cyhalothrin 2.5 EC DEVA, WARRIOR, REEVA, KUNGFU
Lamda cyhalothrin 5 EC AGENTPLUS, WARRIOR+, REEVA 5, KARATE
Lindane20EC KANODANE
Lufenuron 5.4 EC CIGNA, MATCH
Malathion 50EC FYFANON, MALATHION
Methomyl 40SP DUNET, LANNATE
Methyl parathion50EC METACID
LEPHOS, MONODHAN , NUVACRON,
Monocrotophos 36WSC
MONOCIL
Novaluron 10EC CAESAR, RIMON, TATANOVA, PEDESTAL
Phenthoate 50EC DHANUSAN, CIDAL
Phorate 10 G FORATOX, VOLPHOR, THIMET
Phosalone 35EC ZOLONE
Phosphamidon 40 SL KINADON, DIMECRON
Phosphamidon 85EC DIMECRON
AURIFOS, PRODHAN, CELCRON, PROFEX,
Profenophos 50EC
CARINA, PRABAL, CURACRON
Propargite 57EC OMITE
Pyridalyl 10EC RISE
BAYRASIL, VAZRA, DHANULUX, QUINGUARD,
Quinalphos 25 EC
FLASH, EKALUX
Spinosad 45SC SPINTOR, TRACER
Thiacloprid 21.7SC CALYPSO
Thiamethoxam 25WG MAXIMA, ANANT, ACTARA, RENOVA
Thiamethoxam 70 WS CRUISER
Thiodicarb 75 WP LARVIN, SPIRO
Triazophos 40 EC HOSTATHION, TRIFOS, GHATAK , TRIKON ,
Zetamethrin 10EC TOLSTAR, FURY
vThe doses of insecticides (ml/l or g/l) recommended in the text for each pest hold good for
an average instar of the pest in high volume sprays which may be enhanced three times in low
volume sprays. Effective monitoring before interventions is a prerequisite.
MULBERRY SILKWORM - SYSTEMATIC POSITION, DISTRIBUTION,
DETAILED
MORPHOLOGY AND BIOLOGY
Systematic position:
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Sub-phylum: Mandibulata
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Bombycidae
Tribe: Bombyinae
Genus: Bombyx
Species: mori
Egg:
Eggs of European races. Eggs laid early during oviposition are larger.
Indian crossbreed- multivoltine , 400 eggs per laying - very small
Av. egg wt. 0.55 - 0.6 mg (2,000 eggs/g)
White cocoon races lay paler eggs compared to yellow cocoon races.
The color of the eggs changes to deep brown when they enter into diapause.
Non-diapausing races - color does not change till one day prior to hatching - Blue egg
stage.
Eggs are ovoid, spherical or ellipsoid in shape and are flat on one side i.e., - egg dimple.
Protective covering of the egg is chorion and its opening is micropyle
Chorion - exochorion - main component is chorion (more S & N than chitin) and
endochorion - has a waxy layer below it -- The two membranes beneath the chorion are
Serosa and Vitelline
The eggs are centrolecithal: Yolk is concentrated in the middle of the egg and cytoplasm
is pushed to the surface called - periplasm.
At micropylar end the periplasm gets collected in a cup - like depression of the yolk called -
‘Polarplasm'.
Larva:
Eruciform - polypod
Ant, newly hatched black larva with bristles 3 mm long
The bristles or setae are situated on four pairs of tubercles in each segment.
The tubercles are sub-dorsal, supra - spiracular, infraspiracular and basal in position.
The larva 10 cm long
The three body regions (Tagmata) of a larva are head, thorax and abdomen.
Head:
Hypognathous formed by the fusion of cranium -- Apical plate is Epicranium with epicranial
suture.
Clypeus has frontal - clypeus, post - clypeus and ante - clypeus.
Labrum or upper lip hangs from ante – clypeus
Prominent sense organs are three pairs of ocelli.
Antennae, from 2nd head segment are short, 3 or 5 jointed each joint has 30-40 segments -
they perceive odour.
Head segments, 4th - mandible, 5thMaxillae and 6th- labium.
Mouth parts of larva:
Labrum: Unsegmented projection of the ante-clypeus i.e., upper lip.
Mandibles: Paired appendages of the fourth cephalic segment. The duct of salivary glands
opens at their base.
Labium:
Lower lip, formed by fusion of the appendages of the last or sixth cephalic segment.
The cardo and stipes of two sides fused to form, lower, chitinizedmentum and upper,
Heavily chitinized, black, prementum.
There is a median process in the distal end of the prementum called spinneret. Silk exudes
through it during spinning.
Labial palps are short and separate and lie on either side of the spinneret - they are sensory in
function. .
Thorax:
Prothorax: Smaller with a pair of spiracles Meso and meta thorax: Project slightly upwards
and form dorsal hump.
A dorsal eye - spot on mesothorax.
Each thoracic segment has a pair of true legs.
Abdomen:
Formed by 11 segments, but 9 only visible (9, 10, 7, 11th abdominal segments fuse to
form apparent 9th segment, the caudal plate and paired caudal prolegs)
Paired prolegs are also present in 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th abdominal segments.
Projection on the dorsum of the 8th segment is Caudal Horn.
First eight abdominal segments have a pair of spiracles laterally. Spiracles are atriate type -
last spiracle is largest
The number and distribution of nodules as well as markings are racial characters.
Sex differences in the larva:
Female larvae has a pair of sex marks on ventral side of 8th and 9th abdominal segments,
called Ishiwata's Fore glands and Ishiwata's Hind glands, respectively.
Ishiwata's fore glands later modify into bursa copulatrix and receptaculumseminalis.
Ishiwata's hind glands become posterior part of oviduct and the accessory glands.
Male larva has a single median opening at the junction of 8th and 9th segments called
opening of Herold's gland. It becomes seminal duct and ejaculatory duct of the adult.
Then openings are seen only in freshly moulted larvae. Hence, marker genes in the
sex-chromosomes are used in special races for easy separation. The sex marker genes are
located on the w-chromosome of the female.
Pupa:
Pupal moult occurs within the cocoon, non-motile and non-feeding.
Head with a pair of compound eyes and antennae, and mouth parts vestigial.
Thorax with two pairs of wing pads and three pairs of limb buds immovably pressed.
Abdomen with nine visible segments and seven pairs of spiracles in the first seven
segments. Last pair of spiracles non-functional. Female pupa is larger with broad abdomen,
ventral line in the center of the 8th abdominal segment. Male pupa has small round spot on the
ninth segment.
Adult:
Moth is about 4 x 2 cm, no flight, does not feed and short life span of 3-6 days.
Hypognathous head, bipectinate antennae and non-functional coiled proboscis. Thorax with a
pair of wings and three pairs of legs. Abdomen with eight visible segments in male and only
seven in female. Six pairs of spiracles in the abdomen
Dimorphism in adults
S.
No Character Female Male
1. Color Paler Darker
2. Activity Less active More active

3. Antennae Small Large
4. Body size Large Small
5. Abdomen Large, Flat with 7 seg Lomg, narrow with 8
6. External genitalia The caudal end has seg/ caudal ends has a
The
A median knob-like pair of hooks,
projection with hairs. ‘Harpens’ helping in
It can protrude to expel copulation
pheromone
Mulberry silkworm
Bombyx mori Family : Bombycidae
Order lepidoptera.
The mulberry silkworm, Bombyxmori is a domesticated worm which has been exploited for
over 4000 years.
Classification of silkworm races:

1. Classification based on voltinism :Voltinism refers to the number of broods raised per year.
It is a genetically determined character which exerts its effect through hormones. Based on
voltinism, three kinds of races viz ,Univoltines, bivoltines and multivoltines are recognized in
mulberry silkworm
2. Classification based on No. of larval moults :Number of molts during the life cycle is a
hereditary character determined by Mendelian genes. On the basis of the number of moults
which they undergo during larval life, B. mori is divided into three races - tri moulters, tetra
moulters and penta moulters. Most of the commercially exploited races are tetra-moulters
with five larval instars.
3. Classification based on geographical distribution :Based on their place of origin, B.mori is
classified into Chinese, Japanese, European and Indian races. The races can be distinguished
from one another on the basis of
1. Morphological characters of egg, larva, cocoon and adult.
2. Biological characters like duration of life cycle, diapause, number of larval moults and
resistance to diseases as well as other environmental factors and commercial characters like
length of filament, denier, defective cocoon percentage, reelability etc.
4. Classification based on genetic nature :Based on genetic nature, silkworm races are
classified as pure races and hybrids.
Characters of races :
1. Multivoltine Races :
Multivoltines or polyvoltines have more than three generations per year. The larval duration
is short. Larvae are resistant to high temperature and high humidity. They are well adapted to
tropical conditions where mulberry sprouts throughout the year. Larvae and cocoon are small
in size. Commercially these cocoons are poor quality. The adults lay non-diapausing eggs.
Multivoltine races of tropical region generally produce coloured cocoons i.e greenish/ golden-
yellow.
Nichi :This was originally a Japanese bivoltine race which was imported and introduced in
the state of Mysore. Due to continuous rearing by seed producers, this race has now
degenerated to a multivoltine race.
Nistari :This is one of the indigenous multivoltine race which is continuously being reared not
only for producing cross breed hybrids, but also as a commercial indigenous race. It was
introduced in 1881 from China and continues to dominate commercial rearing in the entire
North India, especially in West Bengal.
Pure Mysore :It was imported from China in 1895. The main demerit of this race is its long
larval period (about 27-28 days).
Sarupat :This race belongs to the North - Eastern part of India.
Tamil Nadu white :Some multivoltine races of India are able to produce white cocoons. Tamil
Nadu Sericulture Department isolated the race called TNW in 1975.Other races are Kolar
Gold, KollegalJawan, Mysore princess, Hosa Mysore, MY 1, MY 2, BL 23, BL 24 and BL .
2. Bivoltine Races :
Bivoltine races have two generations per year, the first generation adults developing from
eggs hatched in spring lay non- diapausing eggs. The second generation adults developing
from these eggs lay eggs which remain dormant till next spring. The larval duration is longer
as that of univoltines. Larvae are robust and tolerate environmental fluctuations they are used
for summer and autumn rearing in temperate regions. By careful manipulation of artificial
breaking and incubation, a third crop can be raised using late summer and early autumn
leaves. The bivoltine cocoons are commercially superior. Japanese and Chinese races have
both uni and bivoltine varieties.
Races: Races developed by CSR & TI, Mysore :NB 7, NB 18, NB 4 D2, CSR 2, CSR 3, CSR
4, CSR 5, CSR 6, CSR 12, CSR 16, CSR 17, CSR 18 , CSR 19.
Races developed by RSRS, Kalimpong :KA (Kalimpong).
Races developed by KSSRDI, Bangalore :KSO 1 and SP 2
Comparison of uni / Bivoltine and Multivoltines

Characteristic feature Uni / Bivoltine Multivoltine
Egg Diapausing / Non- Non - diapausing
diapausing
Length of silk filament in cocoon (m) 1000 - 1600 300 -400
Shell ratio (%) 15 -25 10 -12
3. Multivoltine X Bivoltine (cross breeds)

In India, over 95% of the commercial silk being produced is from multivoltine female x
bivoltine male parent (cross breed).
i. PM x NB4 D2 ii. PM x NB 18
These races have limitations, especially lower shell weight, high renditta, low cocoon shell
ratio and poor fiber quality.
iii. BL 23 x NB4 D2 : This hybrid is meant for rainfed areas like Chamrajanagar and
Kollegal of Karnataka.
iv. BL 24 x NB 4 D2: This hybrid is meant for irrigated areas in all the seasons and is
superior over the existing hybrids.
v. PM X CSR 2 (Kolar Gold) : The most popular cross breed
vi. Swarnaandhra (APM 1 x APS 8)
vii. Kapila (BL 43 x NB 4 D2)
viii. Cauvery (BL 67 x CSR )
ix. MH 1 x CSR 2
x. GEN 2
xi. GEN 3
4. Multivoltine x Multivoltinehybrid :PM x C. NichiVaruna ( BL 24 x C. Nichi).
5. Bivoltine hybrids : Keeping in view production of quality silk, the breeding work initiated
at CSR &TI, Mysore under Bivoltine Sericulture Technology Development (JICA) Project
utilizing two Japanese commercial hybrids has resulted in the evolution of highly productive
CSR breeds. During the course of breeding, high raw silk recovery, robustness and
production of cocoons with high quality silk were mainly considered. The full potentially of
these hybrids can be realized only when optimum inputs to mulberry and good rearing
management are assured. Therefore they are recommend for rearing duringfavourable months
(August to February) in southern India and during spring in temperate and sub-tropical zones.
The new hybrids are better over the check hybrid KA x NB4D2 in terms of cocoon weight,
SR%, raw silk%, filament length and neatness. The yarn of new hybrids is comparable to
international standards (2A to 3A Grade).
Races
i.CSR 2 x CSR 4
ii. CSR 2 x CSR 5
iii. CSR 3 x CSR 6
iv. CSR 12 x CSR 6
v. CSR 16 x CSR 17
These races are suitable for rearing from August to February.
vi. CSR 18 x CSR 19 (sex - limited , All seasons)
vii. CSR 48 x CSR 4 (Thin denier hybrid)
viii. KSO 1 x SP 2
ix. Kalpatharu
x. Hemavathy (AP 55 x AP 54)
Comparison of pure race, cross breed and bivoltine hybrid

Sl.No. Parameter Native pure lines Cross breed Bivoltine hybrid
PMxNB4D2 CSR2xCSR4
1 Cocoon weight (g) 1 1.7 1.9
2 Shell weight (g) 10 17 24
3 Filament length (m) 300-400 730 1150
4 Neatness (points) Less 82 94
5 Renditta 10-15 9 5
Tasar silk worm,
Antharea mylitta.
It is known as Indian tropical tasar. It is multivoltine.
Indian temperate tassar (Indian oak tassar): A. proylei
Host plants:
Asan, Terminalia tomentosa Zizyphus sps.
Arjun, Terminalia arjuna Quercus sps.
Shorea robusta
Distribution:
Mainly in Bihar, Orissa, A.P, M.P, West Bengal,
Biology:
These are semi-domesticated (larval stage open) and also thrive naturally. The moth
varies in color but have a prominent eye spot on the wings. Each female lays about 150-
200 eggs. Incubation period is 10 days. The larvae are brownish in I instar and are
greenish with violet tubercles in final instar. Larvae pass through four moults and the
larval period lasts for 30-35 days in summer but longer in winter. The cocoons of A.
mylitta are compact. The pupal period lasts for 15-20 days in summer while the cocoons
of bivoltine harvested in November / December undergo diapause. The cocoons are
generally collected by tribal people from host trees in jungles.
Eri Silkworm,
Samia cynthia ricini Boisdual
Systematic position:
Order : Lepidoptera, Super Family: Bombycoidea, Family: Saturnidae.
Genus :Samia (Philosamia) Species: cynthia ricini
Eri silk worm is found in Assam, Bihar, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Manipur, Nagaland,
Arunachal Pradesh and Orissa.
Main hosts:
Castor, Ricinus communis Kesseru, Heteropanax fragrans
Tapioca, Manihot utilisima Papaya, Carica papaya
Eri cocoons are open ended cocoons utilized for spinning purpose. Cocoon is not
compact, but loosely spun. Silk is white or brick red in color and not as glossy as
mulberry silk. It is not in one single strand and therefore not reelable. Adult moth is stout
and dark with darkish brown and white wings. Female lays 120-200 eggs in clusters. Eggs
hatch in 7-10 days. The caterpillar has a green body with a brown head, and the body has
small tubercles bearing short hairs. The full grown caterpillar is 8 cm long and the larval
stage lasts for about 17-25 days and pupates anywhere. A complete life cycle lasts about
44 days in summer and 85 days in winter.
Muga silk worm:

Antheria assama
Synonyms: A. assamensis, A. mejankari Saturnidae: Lepidoptera;
Muga (Assamese word) means the brown (amber) colour of cocoon.
Distribution:
Brahmaputra valley of Assam and foot hills of East goro hills of Meghalaya. Muga
silkworm is polyphagous, semi domesticated and multivoltine in nature with 5-6
generations per year. The 6 generations in a year are mentioned here under
Host plants:
1) Som - Machilus bombycina, 2) Soalu - Litsaea polyantha
Life cycle: Eggs are oval, dorso - ventrally flattened, bilaterally symmetrical. Newly laid
eggs are brownish gray in colour, but after washing, they appear light green or creamy.
Egg period is 7 days in summer, 16 days in winter. The larvae undergo 4 molts and pass
through 5 instars. Larval period varies from 3 to 72 days. Pupal period varies from 14-40
days. On maturity, larva spins the cocoon with silk filaments around its body after
selecting site for pupation.
Voltinism is a term used in biology to indicate the number of broods or generations of an

organism in a year. According to voltinism, the silkworms are classified into three groups;
i) Univoltine -one brooded silkworm hatches once in a year and is reared either in
summer or autumn or spring season. In qualitative and quantitative aspects, it is
considered to be the best among all other silkworm breeds,
ii) Bivoltine-double brooded silkworm hatches twice in a year -once in summer and next
time in autumn. Bivoltine silkworms also form good cocoons and their silk content is also
high.
iii) Trivoltine, tetravoltine and poly I multivoltine silkworm races. The multivoltine
silkworm passes through successive cycles without rest and can be reared as many times
as desired during a year
Ahimsa silk
Kusuma Rajaiah, a government officer from India's Andhra Pradesh state, applied the
theories behind the ahimsa way of life to the making of silk and found that it was possible
to create silk without killing the creatures that created it. Unlike the conventional method
where the pupae are killed before reeling yarn from the cocoons, in the process of Ahimsa
Peace Silk production the adult moths are allowed to emerge alive from the cocoons and
then the silk yarn is spun from the open ended.
ESTABLISHMENT OF MULBERY GARDEN-PLANTING St LAND
PREPARATION, PREPARATIN OF PLANTING MATERIAL, PLANTING
UNDER IRRIGATED AND RAINFED CONDITIONS
There are distinct species of mulberry in India, which are sometimes referred to as
varieties viz.
a) Morus alba
b) Morus indica
c) Morus serrata
d) Morus laviegata
e) Morus nigra
They belong to family Moraceae. The cultivation of mulberry is called as moriculture.
Soil:
Mulberry is a deep rooted, perennial, long standing hardy monoculture crop. The quality
of soil of mulberry garden influence not only the leaf yield, but also leaf quality, which in
turn influences the growth and development of silkworm, subsequently he quantity and
quality of cocoon production.
The soil should be deep, fertile, well drained clay loam to loam in nature, porous with
good moisture holding capacity.
The pH of the soil should be around 6.2 to 6.8. Saline and alkaline soils are not preferred
and need improvement through the use of soil amendment like gypsum, sulphur or green
manure etc.
Climate:
Mulberry comes up well above 600-700 MSL. It can be grown in areas with rainfall of
600 mm to 2500 mm.
Mean temperature of 20-240C, relative humidity of 65-80% are ideal for growth of
mulberry. It can be grown with sunshine hours of 5.0-10.2 hrs/day in temperate conditions
and 9.0-13.0 hrs/day under tropics.
Planting season:
Planting after the onset of monsoon is idea under both rainfed and irrigated condition.
Planting in winter and summer are to be avoided. Plants are to planted either in north-
south or east-west direction depending on sun shine hours and wind direction.
Land preparation:
The land should be tilled properly before planting to bring the soil to fine tilth. Land
should be free from weds and stabbers and leveled properly. A basal dose of FYM is
incorporated @ 10 tons for rainfed and 20 t/ha for irrigation soil.
Preparation of planting material:
Mulberry can be propagated in two ways.
a) Sexual propagation by means of seedlings.
b) Asexual propagation by means of cuttings.
Propagation through cuttings is most common and widespread practice.
Shoots of proper maturity and thickness with active, well developed buds are chosen for
cutting. The tips of tender branches and the bases of over matured branches are rejected.
Branches with pencil thickness (10-12 mm dia) from 8-10 months old plants of desired
variety are used for cuttings.
The branches are cut into 18-20 cm (7-8”) long cuttings with a minimum of 3 internodes
with well-developed buds are used.
The ends are cut cleanly with sharp knife with no splits or no peelings in the bark. The
cuttings are placed in the nursery bed with about 2.5 cm of cutting with one node
projecting above the soil. The cuttings are watered regularly. In ten days, the roots
develop from buds in the internodes below the soil and the leaves from buds in the
internode above the soil.
The cuttings may be planted directly in fields or may be grown n nursery for 2-3 months
and then transplanted.
Planting systems:
a) Row system :
It is followed under irrigated conditions. Ridges and furrows are made at 60 cm distances.
Two cuttings are planted at each opposite end along the edges of ridges. The crop is
grown as bush end.
b) Pit system :
It is followed under rainfed condition with wider spacings. Pits of 40 x 40 x 40 cm are

dug and filled with 1 kg each of FYM, red soil and sand. Three cuttings are planted in a
triangle. In each pit spacing is 90 x 90 cm for bush type of cultivation. Wider spacing of
180 x 90 cm and 270 x 270 cm is adopted for high bush and tree plantation respectively.
c) Kolar system :
It is nothing but row system with slight modification in spacing followed in Kolar district
of Karnataka. A spacing of 30-45 cm between the rows and 10-15 cm within the row is
advised.
d) Strip System :
It is followed in West Bengal and similar to Kolar system. Mulberry is grown in strips of
2-3 rows. Each strip is separated by a wide distance so that harvesting, intercultivation is
easy within the strip. Distance between rows and between plants within the row is 15 cm.
e) Angular System :
Mostly followed in hill regions of Nilgiris. Distance between plants is similar to pit
system i.e., 90 cm. Plants in adjacent rows are planted in such a way they form a
triangular shape. It allows more plants per unit area.
Varieties :
a) Anantha :
Light green leaves with big size, succulent and good in quality.
Leaves can be tied for both chowks and late age worms.
Yield : 65 – 60 t/ha/yr.
b) S30 :
Leaves boat shaped, succulent, shiny and green in colour.
Branches glow straight.

Leaves can be fed both to chowki and late age worms.
Yield : 36 t/ha/yr under irrigation.
c) V-1 (Victory 1) :
Released during 1987.
Leaves dark green, oval, broad, thick, succulent.
Yield : 55 t/ha/yr. Suitable for feeding all stages.
d) SP3 :
Leaves dark green, succulent and good quality. Branches grow bushy and straight.
Suitable for chowki and late age worms.
Yield : 4 t/ha/yr.
e) S36 :
Leaves heart shaped, thick, light slum with growing nature.
Leaves have high moisture and more nutrients.
Branches glow, straight
Yield : 45 t/ha/yr
f) S54 :
Leaves dark green, succulent, big.
Branches are bushy and will not glow tall.
Wider spacing is required for plantation
Suitable for all stages.
Yield : 39 t/ha/yr
MAINTENANCE OF MULBERRY GARDEN – IRRIGATION, FERTILIZATION,
LEAF HARVEST, MANAGEMENT OF IMPORTANT PESTS AND DISEASES
Irrigation methods:
Judicious use of water for maximum production is important.

During dry period, irrigation should be given at a week to 15 days internal depending
upon soil condition and water holding capacity.
a) Loamy sols – Once in 10 days
b) Clayey soils – Once in 15 days
a) Furrow method:
Field is laid into ridges and furrows. Only one irrigation channel for every two rows of
mulberry. Evaporation from soil surface is less.
More efficient from the point of economy I water use. Furrows serve as drainage channel
during heavy rains and avoids water stagnation.
b) Basin method:
Suitable for tree plantation.
c) Flatbed method:
Field is divided into rectangular bed with bunds all around and channels on sides. Bed
size vary from 3.5 x 2.0 m to 4.0 x 6.0 m.
Irrigation is quicker but labour are required to make beds.
d) Overhead/Sprinkler method :
Practiced in undulating lands where lower and high bushes are cultivated.
Most efficient in economizing water use.
e) Micro irrigation by drip :
More efficient in economizing water use.
Manure and fertilizers:
Manure/fertilizer Row system Pit system

FYM (t/ha) irrigated 20 20
Rainfed 10 10
NPK (kg/ha) – irrigated 300:120:120 300:120:120
Rainfed 280:128:120 280:128:120
Fertilizer schedule 5 splits 6 splits
Fertilizer Schedule (NPK (kg/ha) :
Phase Time Row system Pit system

I 1st leaf harvest 60-60-60 60-60-60
II 2nd leaf harvest 60-0-0 40-0-0
III 3rd leaf harvest 60-60-60 40-0-0
IV 4th leaf harvest 60-0-0 60-60-60
V 5th leaf harvest 60-60-60 40-0-0
VI 6th leaf harvest 60-0-0 40-0-0
Total 300:120:120 200-120-120
Pruning :
Certain branches of mulberry are periodically cut to give a convenient shape and size to
the plant to increase the leaf yield and its feeding value. This is known as pruning.
Types of Pruning :
Based on the height of the plant from ground level where it is cut, there are 3 types of
pruning.
a) Low cut pruning : It is widely practiced in Japan. Plant is cut at a level less than
0.5 m above ground level.
b) Medium cut pruning : Plant is cut at a height of 0.5 to 1.5 m above ground level.
Large number of branches grow, but only 3-4 on the upper part are retained.
c) High cut pruning :
Plant is cut at a height of more than 1.5 m above ground level.
Leaf quality is poor with low moisture.
Harvesting difficult due to more height.

Less damages due to floods, but more susceptible to pests, diseases and winds.
Precautions to be taken while pruning :
a) The cut should be clean without any checks.
b) The bark round the cut should be intact without any pests.
c) Cut ends should be washed with lime to prevent entry of pathogens.
d) Application of fungicides wax coating to cut ends should be done.
During pruning, the injured regions is susceptible to infection, leading to rolling and
formation of dry and dead branches.
Pruning also affects photosynthesis and hence the plants growth.
When the shoots are cutoff, sap oozes out of cut ends due to respiratory and root
pleasures.
To avoid excessive oozing of sap, the followed in pruning methods are useful.
1) Step up and 2) Step down pruning :
a) Step up Pruning :
Annual basal pruning is done to obtain first crop.
For obtaining second crop, primary branches are cut 15 cm from the base.
To obtain third crop, the secondary branches are cut 10 cm from the base.
To obtain fourth crop, tertiary branches are cut from at 10 cm from the base.
To obtain the fifth and final crop, the tetra branches are cut at 10 cm from base.
The primary branches are cut to the base and the process is repeated next year.
b) Step down pruning :
To obtain first crop, annual basal pruning is done.
For obtaining second crop, primary branches are cut to about 60 cm after first harvest.
To obtain third crop, the branch height is reduced to 45 cm.
For fourth crop, the branch height is further reduced to 30 cm from the base.
For fifth crop, the cut branch height is reduced to 15 cm from base.
Finally, the branches are cut to fall and the process is repeated.
1) Rejuvenation pruning :
Pruning over the years results in accumulation of cut portions in the crown that gets
widened. Further, the new branches are intertwined with adjoining brushes. To overcome
this, pruning is done at the utmost base. Rejuvenated branches give better quality leaf.
2) Alternate row harvest pruning :
If the plantation is closely spaced, branches of plants in alternate rows are cut.
If the plantation is wide, spaced, alternate pruning is done.
This facilitates better exposure to sun light, better aeration, temporary increase in spacing
and reduction in disease occurrence.
4) Multiple cropping pattern :
Among the total branches emerging after pruning, the leaves from weak and outer
branches are harvested as first cross, allowing healthy, straight and centre branches to go
as second crop. The outer branches are cut again as third crop and this is repeated.
Leaf harvesting :
Leaves harvested during afternoon contain less water and more of carbohydrates due to
active photosynthesis and transpiration taking place in day time. Such leaves wither very
quickly. Hence, leaf harvesting in early morning hours is recommended.
a) Leaf picking :
Leaves are picked individually from main stem with petioles.
At the same time, terminal buds are nipped off so that lateral shoots develop rapidly.
It requires more labour and leaves wither quickly.
b) Branch cutting (Batchi system in Kashmir) :
The entire branch is harvested and used to feed worms after third moult directly.
It requires less labour and leaves retain succulence for longer period.
c) Whole shoot harvest :
The branches are cut to ground level by bottom pruning.
The entire shoot is fed to leaves. Shoots are harvested at 10-12 weeks interval and 5-6
harvests are made per year.
Management of pests and diseases of mulberry
Bihar hairy caterpillars :Spilosoma (Diacrisia) oblique Arctiidae ; Lepidoptera
It is voracious defoliator causing extensive damage to mulberry.
Life history :
Adults are light brown in colour with brick red abdomen, having dark rows of spots
laterally and dorsally. Female lays about 1000-2000 eggs in batches on ventral surface of
leaf. The eggs hatch in 5-7 days.
The young larvae are gregarious in nature. The grown up larvae possess prominent setae
(heirs) dorsally and laterally. The anterior and posterior regions are black in colour while
rest of the body is reddish brown. The caterpillar moults 6 times and the larvae duration
lasts for 28-30 days.
The pupation occurs in soil in a loose cocoon like structure. The pupa is brown in colour
and its period lasts for 12-14 days. The life cycle is completed in about 48 days.
Symptoms : Defoliation.
Management :
a) Monitor the garden regularly for collection and destruction of egg masses and
gregarious young caterpillars.
b) Ploughing the caterpillar infested garden to a depth of about 6” to expose pupae to

scorching sun on to the sight of its natural enemies like birds.
c) Flood irrigation will help to kill the pupae.
d) Spray DDVP @ 2ml or dimethorate 2ml prepared in 0.5% soap solution.
Safe period is 12 and 13 days respectively.
Tukra disease :
It is caused both in irrigated and rainfed gardens by the pink mealybug, Maconellicoccus
hirsutus. Pseudococcidae, Order : Hemiptera.
Mealy bugs are hard to kill pests.

They live in protected areas such as cracks and crevices of barks at the base of leaf
petioles, leaf whorls and on lower side of leaves which make them inaccessible for
insecticide sprays.
The later instar nymphs and adult females are protected by a water repellent, white
filamentous waxy coating over their bodies.
Even the ovisacs in which the eggs are laid are covered by waxy filamentous coating.
Seasonal incidence :
It occurs on mulberry throughout the year.
Their population is negligible during rain season, but it gradually increases during winter
and reaches maximum proportion during summer months.
Life cycle :
The female lays about 350-500 eggs in a loose cottony egg sac during a weeks time.
Eggs hatch in 5-10 days. The emerging crawlers are orange in colour.
The females have 3 nymphal instars, while males have 4.
Males, when grown form a white case, inside which they transform into tiny, active two
winged fly like insects. The crawlers feed by sucking the sap from leaves or tender stem
portions. Life cycle last, for about a month. Females are bigger and wingless throughout
their life.
Symptoms of damage :
a) Damage leads to curling and crinkling of leaves of apical shoots.
b) Swelling and tursting of apices internodes.
c) Shoots become brittle.
d) Leaves become dark green in colour and deformed.
e) White cottony affecting mealy bus and crawlers seen at the base of leaves in the
malformed regions of branches.
Management :
1) Clipping of affected apical shoots and their destruction.

2) Do not burry the infested plant parts in soil as nymphs/crawlers may crawl back on to
the plant to infest it.
Weeds viz., Phyllanthus niruri, Clitoria ternatea which harbour the mealy bugs may be
destroyed.
4) Mass release of Cryptolaaemus montrouzeri, a predatory beetle 250 adults/acre.
5) Spray dichlorvos or oxydemeton methyl or monocrotophos 2ml/l of water twice at an

internal of 10-12 days, mixed with 0.5% soap solution (50 g of soap dissolved in 10 litres
of water).
Safe period is 15 days after second application of DDVP and 20 days after application of
oxydemeton methyl or monocrotophos.
Thrips :
Bathrips melenicornis ; Frankliniella sp. ; Megalurothrips distalis; Scirtothrips

dorsalis
Pseudodendrothrips mori Thripidae; Thysanoptera
Incidence of thrips was high during dry weather with low rain fall and in rainfed
mulberry. Thrips incidence is low with protected irrigation where whole short harvest is
practiced.
Nature and extent of damage :
Both adults and nymphs lacerate the leaf tissue and such the oozing cell sap from young
buds and leaves. The infested pests get hardened, leaves become brittle, malformed with
reduced area. In addition, sap extraction by the thrips results in necrosis and drying up of
leaves.
Biology :
The females are dark brown, measure 0.9 mm in length. They reproduce both sexually
and parthenogenitically.
Female lays eggs on ventral side of tender leaves which hatch in 6-8 days.
The nymphs are pale yellow and lasts about 15-18 days. The pest completes 7-8
generations a year.
Management :
I. Cultural methods :
a) Clean cultivation :
Removal of alternate hosts/weeds helps in regulating thrips.
Periodical ploughing and digging helps in exposing the thrips pupae to hot sun and natural
enemies.
1) Physical methods : Sprinkler irrigation reduces thrips population.
Frequent irrigation helps in increasing the pupal mortality in soil.
2) Resistant/tolerant varieties : Mysore local harbours low things population due to

its higher least surface wax, maximum trichomes/hairs on upper/lower surface of larvae
with maximum leaf thickness.
3) Biological methods : Predators, thrips, Scolothrips indicus
4) Chemical methods : Spraying with DDVP @ 2ml/l of water or Dimethoate 1ml/l

of water with a safe period of 3 and 15 days, respectively.
Mites :
About 15 species of mites belonging to Tetranychidae and Eriophydae are known to infest
mulberry. Of them, the important ones are
a) Bud mites, Aceria morikcifes (Eriophydea)
b) Tetranychus equitorius (Tetranychidae)
c) T. ludani (Tetranychidae)
Mite injury :
Mites are found on the leaves, bud scales, nodes and apical shoots.
Both nymphs and adults insert their stylets in to leaf tissue and such the sap.
The affected portion of the plant turns grayish white and ultimately withers.
The leaves infested by T.ludani show white speckles at the place of feeding.
With increase in intensity of feeding, the speckles increase in number of and gradually
coalesce with one another, finally producing large patches.
Infested plants remain stunted for a longer period without any sign of growth.
The low temperature (25.5 to 270C) and high humidity (85-90%) coupled with heavy
rainfall affects the population.
Management :
a) Pruning of affected plant parts and then destruction.
b) Dipping mulberry cuttings in 0.1% of monocrotophos/phosphomidon is effective

in killing mites.
c) Spraying Phasolone @ 2ml effect in against T.ludani with a safe period of 9 days.
Root-knot disease :
It is caused by an endoparasitic nematode i.e., Meloidogyne incognita.
The males are small and worm like while the females are pear shaped.
Each female lays 400-500 eggs in a mucilaginous egg sac attached to the root surface.
The young ones hatch out as second stage larvae after undergoing first moult within the
egg.
They are highly infective and enter the roots to induce galls.
Soil moisture is essential for the movement of larvae and hence the disease is prevalent
under irrigated conditions.
Nature of infection :
The roots damaged by the disease loose their efficiency to absorb the available moisture
and nutrients from the soil resulting in reduced metabolic function leading to the
deterioration in leaf quality and yield.
Symptoms :
a) On above the ground parts :
1) Stunted growth, Poor and delayed sprouting, Reduced leaf size and yield
2) Chlorosis and marginal necrosis of leaves, Yellowing and wilting of leaves in spite
of adequate soil moisture availability and, Death of plants in severe cases.
These symptoms first appear as isolated patches, slowly spreading over the entire garden.
b) On the underground parts :
1) Formation of gals/knots on roots.
2) Reduced and stubbier root system.
3) Necrotic lesions on root surfaces and death of roots.
Management :
1. Cultural methods.
2. Saplings free of nematode infection should be used for planting.
3. Minimise the damage by providing adequate nutrition, moisture etc.
4. Heavily infected soils should be deep ploughed to expose nematodes and eggs to
solar radiation.
5. Inter cultivation with nematicides plants like Marigold (Tagetus erecutus), Sesame
(Sesamum orientale) etc. is known to reduce the population of nematodes.
6. Apply oil cakes @ 4 ton/ha, green manure etc.
Chemical methods :
Apply carbofuran @ 40 kg/acre to the soil around plants or in burrows.
Leaves from treated plants can be fed to worms after 45 days.
1. Leaf spot Cercospora moricola
Symptoms
 Brownish circular or irregular leaf spots in the initial stage, enlarge, coalesce and form shot
holes in later stage
 Severely affected leaves become yellowish and fall off prematurely
Management
 Spraying carbendazim @ 500-625 g/ha
2. Powdery mildew Phyllactinia corylea
Symptoms
 Initially,white powdery patches on lower surface of leaves are seen which later cover the
entire leaf surface.
 Later turn black to brown in colour.
 Infected leaves turn yellow and fall off.
 High humidity (>70%) and low temperature (24-26oC) favour outbreak of the disease.
Management
 Providing wider spacing

 Spraying Carbendazim @ 500-625 g/ha
 Releasing yellow lady bird beetles and white spotted lady bird beetles, since they feed on
the mildew fungus.
3. Root rot Macrophomina phaseolina, Fusarium solani .oxysporum
Symptoms
 Occurrence mostly seen in summer

 Initial stage, leaf blade turn to wilt and then spread to entire plant
 Later stage, black fungus are appear on branches and stem
 Spread through soil and water
Management
 Application of farm yard manure @20tonnes as basal

 At root surface pour copper oxy chloride( 2gm/lit of water)
 Prevent the spread of disease to other healthy plant by basin irrigation
 Uproot the died plants
 Application of Trichoderma viride @ 25gm/plant
 Application of Bacillus substilis @ 25gm/plant at the time of planting or pruning
Acquaintance with different appliances of silkworm rearing, model rearing house
and methods of disinfection.
Rearing house and equipment
It is desirable to have a separate rearing house. Space requirement is minimum in shelf or

stand rearing and maximum in floor rearing during old age rearing. Stand rearing is
common in tropical countries. For a capacity of 200 to 250 dfls the features required can
be provided in a 30' x 20' house with the following facilities.
1. Ante - room
2. Open Verandah
3. Leaf room
4. Rearing hall & working space
5. Leaf inlet
6. Litter outlet
7. Two-step roofing
8. Exhaust
9. Air inlet
10. Wire mesh protected windows
11. False roof
REARING SHED
Shed direction East to West

Windows direction North to South
Keep wire mesh to windows ,ventilators& doors to prevent entry of uzi flies.
Equipment for silkworm rearing
1. Rearing stands: These are made of wood or bamboo, portable and are 2.5 m high, 1.5 m
long and 1 m wide with 10 shelves with a space of 20 cm between each shelf. The rearing
trays are arranged in the shelves.
In whole shoot feeding method, Rearing stand width should be 5 -5.5 ft. With One ft
above the ground level and with -2 ft. Distance between rearing stand & wall
2. Rearing trays: These are used to rear silkworms and are made of bamboo. They are
round (1.2 to 1.4 m dia) or rectangular (0.9 to 1.2 m x 0.7 to 0.9 m) with a depth of 7.5
cm.
3. Rectangular wooden trays or boxes: These are used for rearing early age larvae, made
of light wood, size being 0.9 m x 0.7 m with a depth of 7.5 to 15 cm. About 8 boxes are
required for 100 dfls.
4. Paraffin paper: It is a thick craft paper coated with paraffin. It is used for rearing early
age worms, on the bottom and as a cover of the rearing bed to prevent withering of
chopped leaves and to maintain humidity in the rearing bed.
5. Foam rubber strips: Long foam rubber strips of 2.5 cm wide and 2.5 cm thick dipped in
water are used to keep all around silkworm rearing bed during first two instars to maintain
humidity.
6. Chop sticks: These are made of bamboo, 17.5 - 20.0 cm long and thin and tapering to
one end. A pair of chop sticks are used to pick early age larvae and also for preparing the
bed.
7. Feathers: Bird feathers, preferably white ones are used for brushing the delicate newly
hatched worms onto the rearing bed.
8. Chopping board: It is made of soft wood and used for cutting the mulberry leaf to
suitable sizes and the size is 0.9 m x 0.9 m and 5 cm thick.
9. Chopping knives: These are used for cutting the mulberry leaves and are 0.3 to 0.5 m
long with a broad knife blade and wooden handle.
10. Mats: Mats of 1.8 x 1.2 m are used for collecting the leaves when chopping is done on
floor to prevent the dust and dirt on the floor getting mixed with the leaves.
11. Leaf chambers: These are maintained in rearing house for storing the harvested
mulberry leaf ready for feeding the worms at set intervals.
12. Cleaning nets: These are made of cotton or nylon of different mesh sizes to suit the
stage of the larvae. These are used for cleaning the rearing beds and at least two nets are
required for each rearing tray.
13. Mountages: These are used as supports for the silkworms to spin cocoons and are
made of bamboo, usually 1.8 x 1.2 m. Over a mat base tapes of 5-6 cm wide woven out of
bamboo are fixed in the form of spirals with a gap of 5-6 cm in between (Chandrika).
Other equipment includes thermometers, hygrometers, feeding stands, feeding basins,
sprayers, leaf baskets etc.
Disinfection and hygiene:
The rearing house as well as the appliances used in rearing should be disinfected with 2%
formalin prior to commencement of every rearing.
For effective disinfection, the rearing house should be made air tight as far as possible and
with the rearing appliances kept inside, the walls, windows, doors and the appliances
should be sprayed with 2% formalin @ 7-8 lt for 100 sq mt and the doors closed
immediately. After 24 hours of disinfection, the doors and windows should be opened and
the rearing house should be completely aerated at least 24 hours before the
commencement of brushing.
Chawki and late age silkworm rearing - Feed change and spacing techniques.
Incubation
To ensure uniform hatching of the eggs, they are incubated at optimum temperature of 24-
260C and Relative humidity of 70-80%
Black Boxing
Eggs incubated under optimum conditions reach pin head or head pigmentation stage by 7
or 8th day i.e. 48 hrs before hatching. A day later i.e 24 hr before hatching, eggs turn
bluish / brownish called as blue egg or body pigmentation stage. All eggs are kept in
darkness at pin head stage which is called black boxing of eggs. Darkness arrests the
hatching of the fully developed eggs but facilitates the lagging embryos to develop faster.
Eggs after black boxing can be stimulated to hatch by exposing them to sunlight stimulus.
Brushing
Brushing is the process of separating newly hatched larvae gently and carefully from
empty egg shells or egg sheets and transferring them to the rearing sheets. After black
boxing and exposure to light, good hatching is obtained by 9 A.M. to 10 A.M which is
ideal time for brushing also. Bird feather or fine camel hair brush are used for brushing
Chawki Rearing
Rearing of I, II & III instars is called chawki rearing or young age rearing. Young age
worms require tender and succulent mulberry leaves. Of the total leaf requirement, only
6.33% of leaf is utilized during chawki rearing. But when the caterpillars are fully grown,
there will be a 400 times increase in body weights, 300 times in body size and 500 times
in silk gland weight.
Instar Temperature (oc) %Relative Humidity
I 26 - 28 85
II 26 - 28 85
III 24 - 26 80
During moulting low humidity of 70% RH is preferable. Humidity is maintained by using
paraffin papers as cover for the rearing bed and wet foam pads. Silkworms are fond of
dim light of 15 to 30 lux. It influences distribution of larvae in rearing bed. The worms
are more crowded in dark. Photoperiod during early instars influences the type of eggs
produced (hibernating / non-hibernating). A photoperiod of 16 hours light and 8 hours
dark is ideal for young age rearing.
Mulberry leaf
Mulberry leaves for chawki rearing must be soft and rich in water content, protein,
carbohydrates etc. For chawki rearing, young and tender leaves 3, 4 and 5 th fully opened
leaf from the growing tip are used for feeding.
Feeding
About 600, 800 and 1000 kgs of leaf are required to rear 100 dfls of old cross, improved
cross and bivoltine hybrid from brushing to spinning, respectively. Out of this 0.33%, 1%
and 5% of leaves are utilized in I, II & III instars, respectively The feeding ahs to be given
as 4 feeds (6.00 AM, 11.00 AM, 4.00 PM and 10 PM) per day at equal intervals as for as
possible.
Amount and size of leaf required in chawki rearing are, Leaf quantity (kg/100dfls)
Instar Uni/bi voltine Multi voltine

I 1-2 1-2
II 5-6 2-3
III 20 - 55 15 - 20
Total 26 - 63 18 - 25
Bed area
To attain full larval growth, good survival and successful cocoon crop, maintenance of
optimum bed area is important. For multivoltine x bivoltine hybrid 360 ft 2 and for
bivoltine x bivoltine 480 ft2 / 100 dfls are found optimum by the end of V instar. Rearing
bed area has to be increased daily to match the growth of silkworms.
The space requirement for larvae during chawki rearing is given below.
Instar Uni/Bivoltine Multivoltine

Beginning End Beginning End
I 0.2 0.8 0.2 0.5
II 1.0 2.0 0.5 1.5
III 2.0 4.5 1.5 3.0
Bed cleaning
Leftover leaf and litter accumulate in rearing bed leads to increase in humidity and
temperature and multiplication of various pathogens. Hence, regular cleaning of bed is
necessary. Since the young age worms are delicate, cotton / nylon nets are used for bed
cleaning. The cleaning net is placed on the bed, one feed before cleaning, and the feed is
given above the net. The worms crawl through the meshes and come up to feed on the
leaves on the net. At the next feed the net along with the worms above is transferred to
another tray and fresh feed given. The faeces and left over feed are collected and put in
manure pit. Cleaning is done once in I instar prior to I moult (on 3rd day), twice during II
instar, first on resumption of fresh feed and the second prior to II moult, and thrice during
III instar, first on resumption of fresh feed, second during the middle and the third prior to
III moult. The mesh Size of nets used for I & II instars is 2 mm 2 and for III instar 10 mm2.
Handling of silk worm during moult
During moulting the rearing bed should be thin and dry. Silkworms stop eating just prior
to moult. The rearing bed is then thinned out for drying and a layer of lime powder is
sprinkled. Comparatively low humidity (70% RH) is desirable during moulting. Worms in
moult should not be disturbed and there should be good ventilation
Different methods of rearing early age silkworms
The two methods used at present for chawki rearing are Paraffin paper rearing and Box
rearing. The most popular method is Box rearing. In the first method paraffin paper is
used as a bottom layer and as a cover for rearing beds to maintain optimum humidity.
Feeding is restricted to 2 or 3 times a day in this method. The top paraffin paper must be
removed at least 30 minutes prior to feeding for adequate aeration of the bed. In box
rearing boxes with lids or without lids of 10-15 cm deep are used. Paraffin paper, wet
foam rubber pad, etc. are used as usual. Boxes with lids are placed in shelves while boxes
without lids are piled one over the other, with a space of 2-3 cm between boxes is
provided for ventilation. The boxes with lids are not covered during III instar.
Cooperative rearing of young silkworms
Young age silkworm rearing requires technical skill and hence cooperative rearing centres
have been organized which are provided with ideal rearing houses, with necessary
equipment and the rearing conducted by technical experts. Because of
scientific rearing in cooperative rearing centres (collective chawki centres) the worms
are vigorous and healthy. In Japan 90% of young age rearing is done in cooperative
rearing centers.
Late age / old age larval rearing
The IV and V instar silkworms are late age worms. Late age worms require slightly lower
temperature and humidity.
Environmental conditions
The ideal standard rearing temperature and humidity during late age rearing are as
follows:
Instar Temperature (oC) Relative humidity (%)

IV 24-25 75
V 23-24 70
Above 360C, the temperature affects survival and pupation rate. Comparatively low
humidity is preferable during moulting
Feeding:
Too tender and too mature leaves are not fit for feeding in late age. Morning time is good
to pick mulberry leaves. Care must be taken during leaf harvest to avoid over mature and
yellowing leaves. Clipping off the terminal buds in row system, a week prior to the shoot
harvest is desirable for IV and V instars. Quantitative requirement in late age forms the
bulk (93.67%) of the total larval feed.
The feed requirement for 100 dfls is as follows.
Instar Leaf quantity in kg

Uni/Bi voltine Multivoltine
IV 35 - 50
80 - 90
V 335 - 325
450 - 475
Total 335 - 375
530 - 565
Grand total from I to V instars 550 - 600 350 - 400
Leaf harvest is done by individual leaf plucking or shoots harvest. In leaf plucking, whole
leaf is fed without cutting. In case of shoot harvest it is cut into convenient length to
accommodate in rearing trays. Four feeds/days is the practice in late age rearing which
can be reduced in rainy season or increased in summer, without changing the total
quantum of feed. The feeding time usually is around 5.00 AM, 11.00 AM and 10.00 PM.
Bed spacing
The successes of silkworm crop and cocoon quality also depend on spacing. Overcrowded
rearing lead to insufficient consumption of feed, poor growth, susceptibility to diseases
and low cocoon yield of inferior quality. The spacing should be increased daily in
proportion to the growth of silkworms. The rearing bed spacing recommended for IV and
V instars is as follows.
Space in mm2/larvae
Instar Uni/Bivolatime Multivoltine
Beginning End Beginning End
IV 5.0 10.0 3.0 9.0
V 10.0 20.0 9.0 18.0
Bed cleaning
During IV and V instars bed cleaning is done every day with nylon or cotton nets of
appropriate mesh size. The faeces and left over leaf are collected and put into manure pit.
Methods of rearing late age worms
There are three methods commonly known for late age rearing.
1. Shelf rearing: Rearing of silkworms in rearing trays arranged one over the other in
tiers on rearing stands is called shelf rearing. Each rearing stand can accommodate upto
10 trays. Cleaning is more frequent in this method and the amount of labour required is
greater. But it accommodates more silkworms in a limited area.
2. Floor rearing: Rearing silkworms on fixed rearing seats arranged in two or three tiers
is called floor rearing. The rearing seats measure 5-7 m X 1-1.5 m. The space between
tiers is 0.6 to 0.8m. Bed cleaning is followed as for shelf rearing, but less frequently,
twice during IV instars and thrice during V instar. The floor rearing requires less labour
but maximum space.
3. Shoot rearing: It is similar to floor rearing. Silkworms are reared on big branches in
one or two tiers. The big shoots harvested from field, are fed straight to the worms. The
rearing seats are 1m wide and as long as the rearing house and usually on a single tier, 20
cm above ground. In two tiers the gap between tiers is 1 m. It can be carried outdoors or
indoors. In this method as shoots are supplied for every feed, the larvae keep moving
upward and get distributed in three dimensions. There is better aeration of rearing beds.
Hence it is possible to have 50% more worms/unit area of rearing seat compared to shelf
or floor rearing. Cleaning is also reduced to minimum i.e. once in IV instar and once in V
instar.
To clean the bed, ropes of convenient length are spread parallel to each other
lengthwise on the bed under the branches and after two or three feeds, when all the worms
have crawled onto new branches; the bed held by ropes is rolled into loose bundles by
cutting the ropes every 2 m. After clearing the beds, the rolled up branches and the worms
are transferred back on the rearing beds and spread out again. This method requires far
less labour.
Care during moulting
The fourth moult takes nearly 30 hours under optimum conditions of temperature (24 0C)
and humidity (60-70%). As usual prior to stopping the feed for moulting, the rearing bed
is spread to a thin layer and a thin layer of lime powder is applied after the last feed when
the worms settle for moult. Feed should not be given and the worms should not be
disturbed during moulting. CSRZTI, Mysore has developed a dust formulation called,
Resham Keeta Oushad' (RKO) to dust on moulting worms. The liquid formulation
developed by CRSZTI, Berhampore is 'Labex'.
Other chemicals used during rearing:-
A) Rearing bed disinfectant-
1. VIJETA-for all diseases
2. ASTRA-Multipurpose broad disinfectant effective against all diseases
3. ANKUSH—ECO & user friendly powerful nonhazardous bed disinfectant
4. SERICHLOR-20- power disinfectant for rearing house and appliances.
B) Silk worm growth promoters-
1.SAMRUDHI-silk enhancing juvenile harmone , which increases cocoon size and
weight
2.SERINUTRID-semisinthetic diet for chawki rearing
3. SAMPOORNA-A plant based steroids isolated for hastening the maturation and
synchronized spinning.
HARVESTING OF COCOONS, COCOON CHARACTERS AND

DEFECTIVE COCCONS
Harvesting of cocoon is done on the 5th day of spinning. In winter, it may be done on 6th
day.
Harvesting should not be done immediately after pupation, since the soft cuticle of the
pupae may rupture due to bad handlings.
Physical and commercial characteristics of cocoons :
An in-depth study of the physical characters of cocoons will enable a reeler to
(A) determine the size and quality of raw silk so that he can produce the yarn at an
economic cost and
(b) to choose the right type of reeling machine, proper size of raw silk thread to be
produced at an economic cost, the number of ends manageable for maximum output per
reeler and highest recover of good silk from the lot.
The cocoon characters may be heritable and are not influenced by rearing or feeding.
a) Colour :
It is essentially a racial character.
Indigenous MV in South India are pale yellow to greenish yellow. In W. Bengal, they are
deep yellow to golden yellow. The uni and bi voltine exotic races of China, Japan and
Europe are generally grayish whit to bright white. The colour is only superficial and due
to the presence of colouring pigments in the sericin layer of the base. The colour may
show a declining tendency from the outer layer to the inner layer.
b) Shape :
It is essentially a racial characteristic and partly due to the type of montage used. Each
race has it own characteristic shape.
Japanese races - Peanut or bag shape
Chinese races - Elliptical
Indigenous races Spindle like with pointed ends
c) Size : (cocoon volume) :
It is influenced by both race, rearing and feeding conditions.
It is determined by the number of cocoons per litre and varies among the races.
Bivoltine - 70-100/litre
In 500 g of raw cocoon,s the number will be in the range of 230 and 350.
Multi voltine - 120-200/litre
The number of cocoons per 500 g may range between 350 and 500.
d) Granular wrinkles :
Granular formation can be clearly seen on the surface of cocoons in uni and bivoltine
cocoons. The size and formation of grains are dependent on the races. The degree of
fineness and hardness of the granular formulation varies with the type of race viz.,
Japanese, Chinese or European. The grains progressively show a decrease in size and
intensity from outer layer to the middle and inner layer.
Cocoons undergo size variations both in intensity and size, when dried. They shrink and
also thicken. Coarser and larger the grains, the unwinding of filament is observed to be
smoother and quicker.
Cocoons are classified into 4 grades on the basis of granular formation.
1. Cocoons with highest roughness and coarsest grains.
2. Cocoons with high degree of hardness/coarseness.
3. Cocoons of ordinary/common granulations.

4. Crowned small size grained cocoons.
e) Compactness/hardness :
It gives an idea of silk content of cocoon. A good quality cocoon feels firm, compact,
slightly elastic and resilient (quickly recovering original shape).
f) Cocoon weight :
It is influenced by both race and conditions of rearing and feeding. Weight of Indian
crossbreed mv cocoon is 1.1 to 1.49 and Bv commercial hybrid is 1.6 to 1.89 grams.
g) Weight of cocoon shell :
The shell weight is of commercial importance as it is the source of raw silk yarn. It varies
in different races. However, within the race, the variations arise on account of rearing and
spinning conditions.
Japanese Bv - 320-400 mg (pure breeds)
360-500 mg (hybrids)
Indigenous Mv 100-140 mg (pure breeds)
Mv 160-300 mg (hybrids)
h. Shell ratio (SR) :
Raw silk percentage of a cocoon is represented by the ratio
Shell weight
S R = --------------------- x 100
Cocoon weight
Japanese Bv 15-25%
Indian pure MV 10-12%
Improved newly evolved hybrid Mv 13.1%
Commercial Bv 18-23%
i) Length of silk bave :

It indicates the quantity of silk to be unwound in reeling, the rate at which it can be
unwound and the manner of boiling to be done to ensure maximum recovery of the
filament.
Av total length of filament in a single cocoon is
Indian Mv pure race 300-400m
Indian Mv hybrids 400-650 m
Indian Mv cross breeds 800-1200 m
Indian Bv cocoons 1000-1600 m
j) Non-breakable filament length (NBFL):
The longer the non-breakable filament length, the better is the quality.
It is dependent on the races used. The uni and Bv races with higher silk contents register a
higher length contributing to the less number of casts/replacements in the course of
reeling a specified size of raw silk.
k) Reelability:
It is the index of the quality of cocoons used in reeling. The unwinding of the filaments
from the cocoons should be smooth without frequent stoppages of the reel or breakages of
the unwind filaments in the course of reeling.
If frequent casts/additions of filaments arise, the output of raw silk and the rate of
production is affected, rendering the cost of production high.
The reelability is expressed as percentage on the basis of number of cocoons used for
reeling derived by the number of casts made while reeling
Number of cocoons used for reeling

Reelability % = ------------------------------------------------
Number of casts made
l. Size of filament:
This is expressed in terms of denier. Denier (derived from the smaller French coin)
represents the weight of 9000 metres of silk thread in gram.
Filament denier decreases from outside of the cocoon to the inside.

Volume of denier varies from 1.7 to 2.8 g
Wt of filament (g)
Denier = ----------------------------- x 9000
Length of filament (m)
m) Floss percentage:
It is the entangled loose filament around cocoon shell and is unreelable.
Mv – 8-12%
Bv – 2-5%
n) Renditta:
The number of kgs of cocoons required to obtain one kg of reeled silk is called Renditta.
Mv – 8-14
Bv – 6-9
o) Raw silk percentage:
It is the percentage of raw silk that can be obtained per unit of cocoons
Bv – 80-85%
Newly evolved Mv – 55-60%
Mv pure races – 40-45%
Defective cocoons:
I. Defects due to heritable racial characters:
a) Thin middle cocoons:
The entire shell is thin and constricted in the middle. The cocoons have poor silk content
and hence have poor reelability.
b) Thin ends of weak points:
The cocoons are loosely spun at one end or at both the ends.
It is most common in females than in males and in cocoons spun vertically in the
mountages.
Due to thin ends, cocoons become water logged and are unreelable.
II. Defects due to mistakes in rearing of mounting:
a) Double cocoons: When too many worms are mounted on the same mountage, due
to lack of space, two worms lying nearly, while spinning their silk become entangled and
they spin a single cocoon. They are unreelable. Hence, used for spinning.
b) Immature cocoons : When an un ripe worm is mounted, it wanders about for

sometime in search of food and settles to spin when food is not available. It spins a small
sized cocoons with lesser silk.
c) Unsized cocoons : When worms are not adequate quantity of leaves, the growth of
worms become un uniform. They reach spinning stage at different times and spin cocoons
of different sized.
d) Malformed cocoon : These include cocoons of abnormal shape with impression

of mountage etc. These are formed either due to defects in the mountage or violent
fluctuations in environment during spinning.
e) Black stained/inside soiled/mute cocoons : These are cocoons which contain a

dead pupa, putrefying fluid of which ooze out and spoils the cocoons. This may be due to
disease, early harvesting or crud handling of cocoons.
f) Rust or outside soiled cocoon : These cocoons have black patches on the outer
shall formed due to the excrete of other worms falling on them.
g) Spotted cocoons : These are normally healthy cocoons which are stained due to
various reasons.
h) Loose knot/Fragile/Thin shaped cocoons (Straw bags) : These are loosely

woven with spaces between the layer of cocoon shell.
i) Double layered cocoons : When spinning worms are subsided to sudden changes
in environment, they sin cocoons with 2 or 3 layers of shell. This defect can be seen only
during reeling.
III. Defects due to parasite infestation :

Perforated cocoons : When spinning larvae are infested with maggots of uzy fly,
maggots pierce the rough body of the host and cocoons and pupate ………….. of the
room n the soil. They have broken threads and are unreelable.
Mounting
Spinning a cocoon is the final process of silkworm rearing. The process of transferring
matured larvae to a suitable frame to spin cocoon is called mounting. Building a cocoon is
a necessary and indispensable activity for metamorphosis of a larva into moth via pupal
stage. It is desirable to have a separate mounting hall with good aeration for keeping the
mountages. Mounting work requires the most intensive labour during a short period. After
mounting, larva takes 48 hours for complete spinning of cocoon depending on the
environmental conditions. Hence, protection of larvae for 3-4 days after mounting has a
profound influence on quality of cocoons. Hence, in a mass rearing when 40% of the
larvae show maturation, all the larvae can be collected and mounted at the same time. The
following points are to be remembered:
Mounting should not be delayed when larva get matured. Mounting should be done in a
place where it can be handled easily. Mounting place should be kept dry with good
ventilation
Types of Mountages
A mountage for good quality reelable cocoon should have the following minimum
features
should have sufficient cocooning space between frame works. Material used for mountage
should favour reelability of cocoons, material should be cheap, durable and easily
available, should be convenient for the process of mounting and harvesting, and should be
convenient to prevent faeces and urine coming in contact with cocoons.The most
commonly used mountage for spinning cocoons of silkworms
1. Bamboo chandrike
2. Plastic collapsible mountage
3. Rotary cardboard mountage
4. Bottlebrush mountagee
5. Dried grass/straw/ twigs mountage
a)Bamboo Chandrike: It is the most commonly used mountage in India. It is made of
bamboo spirals woven on a bamboo mat with two supporting bamboo sticks. The mat is
of size 1.8 x 1.2 m . The spirals are made of bamboo tapes on mat base with 5-6 cm
width. Small holes are made on the mat base to provide ventilation. Matured silkworms
are transferred to the chandrike @40-50 worms per sq ft. After mounting, the chandrika is
kept at a slanting back position of 45° to allow the urine to fall on the ground and to
prevent the staining of cocoons. During mounting, care should be taken to prevent
damage to the soft skin of larvae which may result in pupal mortality. Chandrikes are also
difficult to disinfect properly.
2. Rotary Card Board Mountage: These are made of pieces of cardboard assembled in a
checkered pattern consisting of 13 rows and 12 sections each providing a total mounting
space of 156 sections of size 4.5 x 3 x 3 cm. Each mountage is 55 cm long, 40 cm wide
and 3 cm deep and can be folded completely when not in use. Ten such mountages are
fixed on a wooden rectangular frame using ten iron clamps on each of the four sides. The
frame consists of two rectangular frames of size 120 x 58 cm and 115 x 44 cm and is
made of square wood of size 1 x 2 cm. Both the ends of the shorter axis are fixed by an
iron screw and the whole wooden frame can be hanged horizontally . It can also revolve
by the horizontal short axis. Hence, the name rotary mountage. The wooden frame can
also be folded when not in use. Each frame can hold 1,560 larvae for spinning, but only
80 % is allowed to mount, i.e., about 1,300 larvae to provide sufficient spacing. For
mounting matured larvae on this mountage, first newspapers are spread on the floor and
then the mountage is kept horizontally on the newspaper. Mature larvae are collected and
transferred to the mountage. After 4-5 hrs, when the larvae climb on the mountage, it is
lifted from the ground and suspended from the ceiling using iron hooks. Urine is collected
at the bottom on gunny cloth which can be removed. The mountage get rotated as the
larvae move up and gets uniformly distributed till it starts spinning. Disinfection of rotary
mountage is done by fumigation and sun drying. Rotary mountages are the best among all
the mountages as it provides uniform spacing for all the larvae and avoid formation of
double cocoons. It provides good aeration during spinning and avoids staining of cocoons.
Occurrence of defective cocoons is minimum and the reelability is better. But, the major
demerits are its high cost and non-availability of good quality card boards.
3. Plastic Collapsible Mountage: These are also called as Netrikes and are made of
plastic mesh having 11 folds of 2.2" height and can be placed in a wooden tray of size 2' x
3' for mounting the larvae . It can be stored by folding. Newspaper is spread at the bottom
of the mountage for absorption of urine. Each mountage can hold 350-400 larvae for
spinning. After mounting, strips of paddy straw or pieces of old newspaper are put on the
mountage for providing anchorage to the spinning silkworms. Plastic collapsible
mountage can also be used for self mounting. It can be directly placed on the rearing bed
when the larvae start spinning by self mounting. These mountages possess several
advantages. It is easy for handling, requires less space for storage and help in maintaining
hygienic condition. It is also easy for harvesting cocoons.
4.Bottle Brush Mountage: Different types of bottle brush mountages are available
depending on the material used, like plastic, bamboo and coconut broomstick. Plastic
bottle brush is a machine made plastic material with individual pieces. Normally, 50 such
individual pieces are joined together by an iron rod and at the end it has an iron stopper.
Each individual piece has eight branches of1.5 cm length with two sub-branches of 9 cm
length. These branches are equally distributed at a distance of one cm at the base and 4
cm at the end in a circular fashion. Distance between two sub-branches is 3 cm. The circle
formed by the branches and sub-branches is 24 cm in diameter. Each bottle brush
assembled is one meter long and can mount 350-400 larvae.
5)Dried Grass/ Straw/ Mulberry Twigs Mountage: When silkworm starts maturing, a
thick layer of dried grass or straw is spread over the rearing bed. Matured larvae crawl
through the bed on the mountage and spin cocoons. For mounting 100 dfls of larvae, 80
m2 space is required. This method is simple, labour saving and is ideal for shoot rearing
method. But, formation of floss and deformed cocoons are more in this method.
PESTS AND DISEASES OF SILKWORM
Indian Uzi fly Exorista bombycis Tachinidae; Diptera

Indian uzi fly was found parasitizing mulberry silk worm in Karnataka during May, 1980. It
has been causing 40-75% loss of cocoon crop.
The Indian uzi fly is known to infest 44 species of Lepidopterans caterpillars belonging to 36
genera including silk worms.
Biology :
Adult flies are larger than house flies with 4 prominent longitudinal lines on the thorax &
horizontal bands on the abdomen. The uzi fly parasitoid complete 2 generations within the
host larval period. it prefers III, IV and early V instar larvae for oviposition. It does not lay
eggs on silk worms settled for moult and spinning worms (ripened) montages.
The fly lays 300-1000 creamy whity eggs singly/ solitarily most on ventral surface of inter
segmental regions. The eggs hatch in 2-3 days and the maggots bore into the body of the
silkworm. The maggots have 3 instars and the maggot period is 5-8 days and the mature
maggot pierces the integument and pupates outside on the floor. The pupal period lasts 10-12
days.
Symptoms :
White creamy oval shaped eggs can also be observed on the skin of infected larva. Black
spots can be observed on the inter segmented surface of larvae from where the maggots enter
into the body of the silk worm.
Control measures :
a) Use of nylon netto prevent entry of uzi fly into rearing house.
b) Use of uzi trap for attracting the adults
c) Application ofUzicide’ (formulated by CSR & TI, Mysore) or Vijeta (formulated by
CSR & TI, Berhampore), can be spread on rearing tray that kills the Uzi-eggs without
affecting the silkworm growth. Besides, bleaching powder is also found to deter Uzi fly from
egg laying.
d) Collection and destruction of uzi fly affected silkworm larvae and cocoons.
e) Destruction of uzi fly maggots and pupae collected from rearing trays, mountages,
cracks and crevices in the floor rearing house.
f) Application of diflubenzuron (Dimilin 25 wp) with lavigated China clay as diluent
(1:9) on third instar maggots to induce sterility in adults
g) Release Nesolynx thymus (a pupal parasitoid of the uzi fly) inside rearing house on
2nd day of V instar.
2. Dermestid beetle : Dermestes ater Dermestidae; Coleoptera
Trogoderma versicolor
The smell of stiffled cocoons attract both the grubs and adults that feed on cocoons, silk fibre,
pupae as well as adult moths. Around 150-200 eggs are generally deposited on the floss of
cocoons. The egg period is around 7 days. The emerging grubs feeds on floss, cocoons,
pupae. There are 6 instars with total larval period of 70-72 days. Pupation takes place outside
and the pupal duration is 7 to 8 days. The adult longevity is 8-14 days. Both the grubs and
adults feed on floss, cocoons, silk fibre, pupae as well as adult moths.
Control :
Preventive measures:
Storage of rejected cocoons and perished eggs for long period should be avoided.
Rearing house & cocoon storage rooms should be cleaned periodically.
Grainage premises should be cleaned before & after moth emergence.
Provide wire mesh to door & windows to prevent the movement of adults
Wooden articles of storage room & grainage should be dipped in 0.2% malathion solution for
2-3 minutes. Trays etc., should be thoroughly washed & sun dried for 2-3 days before
reusing.
Mechanical control: Collect the grubs and adults by sweeping or by using a vacuum
cleaner, destroy by burning or dipping in soap water.
Chemical control: Store cocoons in Deltamethrin treated bags ie., soak the bags in 0.028%
Deltamethrin solution (1 ltr : 100 ltr water) and dry in shade.
Spray 0.028% Deltamethrin solution on walls and floor of cocoon storage room once in three
months.
Sprinkle bleaching powder (200 gm/sq.mt) all around inner wall of storage room to prevent
crawling of grubs.
Fumigate the dried cocoon stored rooms with methyl bromide q 0.5 kg/203 m 2 for a day with
chloropicrin q 0.5 kg/203m2 for 3 days.
3. Mites, Pediculoides ventricosus :
The female mites attack silkworm larvae, pupae and adults causing death. The body surface
of silkworms struck with mites develop black specks. The infested ones lose appetite become
inactive and have difficulty in excreting and the excrete is attached bead like to the anus. If
severely infested the worms vomit yellowish green fluid. The mite takes nutrition from silk
worm and gives out a toxic substance which kills the silkworm.
Control :
a) Avoid the storage of wheat/rice straw near storage house,
b) Treat the building and thatched materials with acaricides
4) Ants :
They attack silkworms in rearing trays. They can be prevented by placing ant wetts with
water below the rearing shelves.
5) Nematode, Hexamermis microamphidis :
It is mostly found n silkworms of late autumn rearing. The nematode attacks the young stage
larvae and penetrates into their bodies. The head of affected silkworm becomes transparent
and the body milky white.
Diseases of mulberry silkworm :
The silkworm Bombyx mori is prone to the attack of a number of diseases. Among the
diseases, pebrine, grasserie, flacherie and muscardine are important.
1. Pebrine (protozoa)
It is caused by a protozoan parasite
Nosema bombycis. It belongs to
Phylum : Protozoa
Class : Sporozoa
Sub class : Coidosporidia
Order : Microsporidia
Family : Nosematidae
Pebrine disease is also known as Pepper disease or corpuscules disease.
De Quatrifuges (1860) gave the popular name pebrine to this disease because of the
characteristic infection and appearance of dark pepper like spots onthe body of the infected
silkworm larvae. Pasteur (1885) observed that the disease is transmitted through the egg in
three ways i.e.,
a) By contact with the diseased silkworms.
b) By ingestion of contaminated food.
c) By transovarial transmission
The life cycle of N. bombycis is completed in 7 days after infection in a cold climate and in
about 4 days in hot weather.
Symptoms of infection :
Egg stage :
a) Few number of eggs on egg cards
b) Overlapping of eggs one over the other, instead of closely side by side
c) Easy to detach eggs from egg case due to lack of adhesiveness.
d) Poor/less egg hatching.
Larval Stage :
a) No external symptoms in early stages of disease
b) With advance indisease, larvae become sluggish and dull.
c) Poor appetite, retarded growth resulting in irregular moulting.
d) Presence of larvae in unequal size in the rearing bed.
e) Appearance of irregular dark brown spots or black spots on the body of larvae.
f) Hanging down of the head, instead of holding up.
g) Infected larvae may die before spinning or it may spin only a poor and flimsy cocoon.
h) Affected larvae lack luster and in later instars turn rusty brown.
Pupal stage :
a) The abdominal area is soft, swollen and dark in colour.
b) Black spots present ion sides of the abdomen.
c) Pupa looses its luster and become dull
Adult Stage :
a) Discolouration of scales on abdominal area
b) Black spots may be seen on abdomen
c) Deformed wings
d) Distorted antennae
e) Low fecundity
Prevention and control :
a) Production and supply of disease free layings through mother moth examination.
b) Surface sterilization of disease free layings by dipping the egg cards in 2% formalin
for few minutes and then washing in running water.
c) Maintenance of strict sanitation, hygienic reading.
d) Destruction of diseased material.
e) Disinfection of rearing rooms and appliances.
Mother moth examination for identifying and destroying the pathogen is an essential
programme in a grainage.
There are 3 methods of moth examination
a) Individual moth examination
b) Sample testing
c) Mass examination of moths
1. Individual moth examination :
It is ideal to check disease, but laborious. In this case, the individual moth is crushed and the
body fluid of the is taken in a cavity slide and a drop of KOH solution is added to the crushed
fluid. A drop of crushed fluid is taken on a glass slide and cover slip is placed over the drop
of the fluid and a smear is prepared. This is observed under a microscope with 600
magnification (i.e., eye piece 15 x objective 40). The pebrine spores are visible as shining
oval bodies.
Even if one moth out of 10-15 thousand moths of a batch of cocoons show pebrine the entire
lot is rejected.
A moth examiner can examine about 200 times a day of 8 hours. This method cannot be
practiced in commercial grainages due to shortage of time between egg laying and disposal.
This can be followed in Jammu and Kashmir where bivotine hibernated eggs are produced.
2. Sample testing :
In this method, about 20% of emerged moths picked a random are examined. Four moths
picked at random from an egg sheet of 20, which forms 20% are examined for pebrine. This
is generally followed in India.
3. Mass examination of moths :
This is a quick and dependable method of moth examination for pebrin disease and can be
practiced in commercial grainage.
In this case, the samples of moths are drawn considering the number of moths to be examined
after 24 hours of egg laying/oviposition.
Each sample consisting of 30 moths are kept in perforated paper covers after marking the
date, lot number, sample number etc.
They are killed in hot air oven and dried at 70 0C ± c for 6 hrs. After 6 hrs of drying, the
temperature in the oven is maintained at 300C to avoid accumulation of humidity and
purification. Then batches are examined next day.
Thirty dried moths are kept into each magic cup and 90 cc to which 0.5% potassium
carbonate solution is added. The material is grind for 2 min of 10,000 rpm. This helps in
macerating moth tissues. The fluid is about to settle for 2 minutes and filtered by using an
absorbent cotton filter. This helps in removing scales and other materials. This fluid is taken
into a centrifuge tube and centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 3 min.
Then the supernatant is rejected. A few drops of 2% KOH is added to the sediment and is
properly mixed by keeping the tube over a cyclomixer for about a minute. A drop of solution
is taken on a micro slide and is prepared by putting a micro cover slip and examined under
microscope. Atleast 2 smears are examined from each cup and each smear is examined
atleast in 5 fields.
This method of examination can be practiced both live and dry moth examination.
Dry moth examination to more effective in pebrine detection than live moth examination.
2. Viral diseases (Grasserie)

Silkworm viruses are two types
a) Occluded (Inclusion type) :
Ex : Nucleus polyhedrosis virus (NPV) – Baculoviridae
Cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (CPV) - Reoviridae
b) Non occluded (Non inclusion type) :

Ex : Inflections flacherie (IFV) – Unclassifed small RNA viruses
Densonucleosis (DNV) – Parvoviridae or Kenchu virus
A. Occluded/Inclusion body viruses :

The virions/viral particles are embedded by a thick protein coat, thereby they have more
viability.
Nuclear polyhedrosis virus :
(Grasserie, Jaundice, Haning diease)
 Polyhedrons are hexagonal or octagonal
 Measure 0.5 to 8.0 microns in size.
 Virion measles 40 x 80 nm
 The polyhedra engulfed along with food will get dissolved in midgut and virions infect the
midgut cells, later they enter haemocoel and invade fat bodies, silk glands, trachea,
haemocytes and the polyhedral formation occurs inside the nucleus of the target cells.
 Fourth and fifth instar larvae are more susceptible.
Symptoms :
 No external symptoms in early stage of disease
 Larvae become sluggish and lose appetite
 Swelling of inter segmented region
 Shining yellowish, fragile skin without elasticity
 Larvae become restless
 Crawling of larvae from rearing tray and falling down, thus resulting in rupturing of fragile
skin, releasing turbid duty whitish haemolymph containing numerous polyhedra
 The diseased larvae lose the holding power of legs except the last pair with which they hang
head (tree top disease) downwards.
Predisposing factors :
a) High temperature, high humidty and their fluctuation in rearing room.
b) Excess moisture in leaf and rearing bed
c) Insufficient ventilation
d) Overcrowding during rearing
e) Inferior quality of mulberry leaves
f) Feeding mature leaf followed by tender leaf
g) Feeding leaf with accumulated due drops and rain drops.
1. Strictly avoiding the predisposing factors
2. Surface sterilization of eggs with 2% formalin
3. Use of bed disfinfectants like dusting resham keet onshad @ 2-2.5 g/sq. ft during
chawki rearing and @ 3.5-4.5 g/sq/ ft during late age rearing once after each moult.
Cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (CPV) : (Bilisappe, sappe) :
 Polyhedra of this virus are tetragonal or hexagonal and measure 3-10 μ in size.
 Virions are spherical and measure 60 nm in diameter
 Virus invades the posterior part of midgut epithelium
 The cylindrical/columnar cells are infected
 Polyhedra are formed in the cytoplasmic showing characteristic chalky appearance of the
whole midgut
 Due to increased pressure, the cell walls break and numerous polyhedra are released to he
lumen of midgut which pass through excreta and further contaminate the mulberry leaves in
bed.
Symptoms :
- Early instar larvae more susceptible.
- Loss of appetite
- Retarded growth and development followed by vomiting gastric juice and diarrhoea
1. Thorough disinfection of rearing room and equipment
2. Rearing under hygienic condition and good quality mulberry leaves
b) Non occluded (Non inclusion type) :

Denso nucleosis (DNV) – Parvoviridae or Kenchu virus
Inflections flacheric (IFV) – Unclassified small RNA viruses
Denso nucleosis virus (DV) :
Caused by a parvo virus measuring 20 nm in diameter.
It invades the nucleus of the cylindrical cells of midgut epithelium.
Late age worms moresusceptible.
Symptoms :
Infected nucleus gets swollen considerably.
Gatine :
 Caused by a non inclusion type virus (Sub microscopic and a bacterium, Streptococcus
bombycia).
 Also called as Luzette or Clairette.
 Popular names are salpa (W.Bengal) and Hasirumoto (Karnataka).
 Virus affects the epithelial cells of midgut followed by factorial infection.
Faecal matter containing virus excreted by infected larvae cause contamination.
Symptoms :
1. Infected larvae show translucent cephalothorax.
(Since the gut is devoid of mulberry leaf)
2. Diarrhoea
3. Vomit alkaline liquid
1) Rearing under hygienic conditions
2) Proper disinfection
Symptoms :
 Stunted larval growth
 Translucent cephalothorax and shrinkage of body
 Flaccidity of the body
 Frequent evacuation of semisolid and whitish faecal matter
 Soiling of anal region
 Excreta in the form of chain with beads
 Rectal protrusion
 Whitish midgut
 Mulberry leaves with poor nutrition
 Feeding with yellowish/soiled leaves or leaves grown in shade/contaminated with pesticides
 High temperature and humidity of rearing rooms
 Improper ventilation and accumulation of poisonous gas
 Avoid predisposing factors
 Disinfection of beds with RKO
 Disinfection of rearing room and appliances with 2-4 per cent formalin
 Destruction of infected larvae, faecal matter and bed refuse
Infectious flacheri :
 Caused by mortar virus
 It is spherical and measured 27± 2 nm in diameter.
 It invades the globlet cells of anterior midgut epithelium and multiplies in cytoplasm
Bacterial diseases
These are referred to as Flacherie
It is of three types
a) Bacterial diseases of digestive organs – Caused by Streptococci, Coliacrogenous bacilli
and Proteus group bacilli
b) Bacterial toxicosis :
- Also called as sotto disease
- Caused by Bacillus thuringiensis whose spores produce toxic substances and affect nervous
system leading to spasm and paralysis.
C) Septicemia – Caused by Sreptococci and Staphylocci
a) Diseased silkworms
b) Faecal matter
c) Contaminated mulberry leaves
d) Rearing appliances
e) Wide fluctuation in temperature and humidity
Symptoms :
a) Larvae become sluggish
b) Poor appetite
c) Retarded growth
d) Body shrinkage
e) Vomiting of yeast juices
f) Excretion in the form of beads/chains
g) Body of dead larva turns black and emit a foul smell
a) Maintenance of hygienic condition in rearing room
b) Avoid the predisposing factors
c) Avoid fluctuation of temperature and humidity
Fungal diseases
White muscardine – Beauveria bassiana, Also known as Calcino disease
Infection occurs through skin
Life cycle : 4-10 days.
Symptoms :
a) Presence of oily specks on body
b) Infected larvae lose appetite and become sluggish
c) After death, larvae become mummified and gets hardened
d) Body covered with white powdery condidia
Diseased worms, faecal matter
1) Disinfection of room/equipment with 2% formation/5% bleaching powder
2) Reduce humidity in bed with time powder
3) Application of formalin chaff @ 0.4, 0.5, 0.6 and 0.8% against I and II instars,
III, IV and V instars, respectively.
Other muscardine diseases :
a) Green muscardine, Metarrhizium anisopliae
b) Yellow muscardine, Paeciliomyces farinosus
c) Brown muscardine, Aspeergillus flavus.
SPECIES OF HONEY BEE, BRIEF MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACERS AND
BIOLOGY
Apiculture : The science and art of rearing honey bees.
Apiary : A bee yard where colonies, hives and other equipment are assembled in one location
for bee keeping.
Importance of bee keeping/apiculture :
1. Bee keeping does not require a) Own land, b) labour, c) full time attention, d) Heavy
continuous investment, except initial establishment cost.
2. Does not compete with other agricultural operations/activities..
3. Provides additional income through a) Honey-a hygienic food, toxic and medicine, b)
Bee products – wax, propolis, royal jelly, pollen and bee venom, c) Sale of conoies.
4. Provides employment to village artisans for fabricting equipment.
5. Provides wealth and valuable food from material (i.e., pollen and nectar) at present
going waste.
6. Improves crop yields and
7. Helps to maintain natural plant diversity through cross pollination.
Limitations :
Lack of
a) Awareness about importance of bee keeping
b) Knowledge about bee management
c) Skill in bee management
d) Patience to grain experience in bee keeping
e) Man power to popularize bee keeping
f) Expectation of immediate returns
g) Fear of bee stings
h) Non availability of equipment and bees at door steps
i) Increased cost of timber
j) Psychology of bee keepers to discourage the others to enter the profession.
Species of honey be :
Honey bees :
Well known, popular and economically beneficial insects
Social insects like ants, termites and some wasps
Vegetarians unlike ants and wasps
Derive protein from pollen, carbohydrate from honey which they make from nectar
Live together in colonies, cooperate in foraging tasks and take care of young ones
The position of honey bees in the animal kingdom is mentioned below :
Phylum :Arthropoda
Class :Hexapoda/Insecta
Order : Hymenoptera
Family :Apidae
Genus :Apis
Species :
a) dorsata
b) florae
c) indica
d) mellifera
Rock bee/giant bee, Apisdorsata
Honey bee species
Little
Indian bee European/Italia
Rock bee/giant bee/dwar
Character A.cernanain n bee
bee A.dorsata f bee
dica A.mellifera
A.flora
1. Wild/domesti Wild in nature Wild in Domesticated Domesticated

cated nature species species
2. Size Largest of all Smallest Intermediate Bigger than

species of all the A.cerana but
species smaller than
A.dorsata
3. Distribution Present al over Found in Present all Imported species.

India in plains plains of over India in Got acclimatized
and in hilly areas India plains and to different
upto 18600 m upto 300 hilly areas climatic
above sea level m above upto 2500 m conditions all
sea level above sea over India
level
4. Worker Light brown 16- Deep Thorax dark The workers are
18 mm in size black coloured with the smallest
with brown hairs. inhabitants of the
white Abdomen beehive. They
strips on brown with form the bulk of
the dark bands the population.
posterior
part of
the bright
orange
abdomen
5. Queen Darker and much Bigger Thorax dark It is considerably

larger than and and sparsely larger than the
workers and abdomen hairy. members of other
drones is golden Abdomen castes. Her wings
brown and les are much shorter
coppery in proportion to
brown. her body.
Abdomen is Because of her
big, long tapering
distended and abdomen, it
without black appears more
bends wasp-like than
other inmates of
the colony
6. Drones Black and as big Black Stout and The drones are
as workers with slightly the male bees.
smoky bigger than They are much
brown workers larger and stouter
hairs on than either the
the queen or the
abdomen workers although
their body is not
quite as long as
that of the queen.
7. Nesting/comb Constructs Construct Constructs Constructs a

construction single, big comb s single, several serious of
in open where small parallel parallel combs
they get some comb (15 combs (13- inside some
diffused light (1- cm long 18) i.e., enclosures.
2 m from side to and 30 parallel to the
side and 0.5 to cm direction of
1.25 m from top height) in the entrance
to bottom open in plains and
where at right
they get angles to the
some entrance at
diffused high altitude
light
8. Place of Suspends its Construct In nature, In nature,

nesting comb to large s the constructs construct comb
tree branches/ comb in combs inside in the hollows of
building the files some walls/rocks/tree
projections/water of cotton enclosures trunks/inverted
reservoirs/ceiling sticks/bus such as baskets etc.
s etc protecting it hes/ hollows in
from direct sun house the
rays and rain chimneys walls/rocks/tr
/house ee trunks/
arches inverted
and other baskets etc.
such
places
9. Temperament Ferocious Very Gentle Moderately mild

mild, but temperament
they do
sting
when
rritated
10. Habit Migratory. Migratory Has strong Domesticated

Hence, cannot be . Hence tendency for
domesticated cannot be swarming.
domestica domesticated
ted
11. Sting Present Absent Present Absent
12. Honey Heavy gathers 37 Poor Fair gather 3- 15-20 kg. A

gathering per kg gathers 5 kg in strong colony can
year/colony 0.5 to 1.0 plains, but gather upto 50 kg
kg yields are as if abundant bee
high as 20-25 flora is available
kg in
Kashmir
Biology :
Honey bees undergo metamorphosis. Through four developmental stages i.e., larva, pupa and
adult.
Eggs :
Queen lays both fertilized and unfertilized eggs which are similar in size and shape.
Fertilized eggs develop into females (worker and queen) and unfertilized eggs develop into
drone bees. Eggs are laid singly and attached vertically to the bottom of cell wall. Eggs hatch
on 3rd day.
Larva :
After hatching, all the larvae fed with royal jelly (bee milk produced by worker bees)
for 3 days. Thereafter, the worker and drone larvae are fed with nectar and pollen. Queen
larvae is fed continuously with royal jelly upto 8th day, when the queen cells are further
pecked with royal jelly and are scaled. The capped royal larva (queen) continue to feed until it
pupates. Initially, the larva are loop shaped, but towards cell capping, they get stretched in the
cell with head facing upwards. After passing through four moults, larvae enter into the
prepupal and final pupal stage.
Pupa :
Before entering into pupal stage, the larva spins a thin silken cocoon around itself and
undergoes gradual, but drastic changes. At this stage, head, thorax and abdomen are clearly
distinguishable. The compound eyes and various appendages are also clearly visible.
Adult :
When pupal development is completed, the insect metamorphosis into adult and
finally adult bee emerges by growing its way out of the sealed cell. The development stages
of all the three castes of honey bees are similar, but the time taken for development, sexual
maturity and also longevity of different castes are variable as shown in table.
Duration (days) of developmental stages of different castes :
Stage/species Queen Worker Drone
EGG
A.c 3 3 3
A.m 3 3 3
Larva
A.c 5 4-5 7
A.m 5 5 7
Pupa
A.c 7-8 11-12 14
A.m 8 12-13 14
Ac. Apiscerane
Am. Apismellifera
Morphology of honey bee :

Honey bees share the general characters of class insecta. But the organ systems are
variously modified to lead a specific life i.e., food habits, social life etc.
Body :
Covered with a hard external skeleton to protect the internal organs.
Divided into three regions i.e., head, thorax and abdomen.
Head : Bears
a) A pair of geniculate antennae. Flagellum (third segment) having chemo and mechano
receptors.
b) A pair of large compound eyes on lateral sides and three simple eyes (Ocelli). Bee can
distinguish colour, but are red blind.
Ocelli : Perceive only the degree of light and do not form an image on the retina.
c) A pair of mandibles : Mandibles differ in the three castes.
Mandibles in
Workers Queen Drone
Narrow in the middle, Have bilobed distal end Smaller in size
broad at the base and distal
end
Has channel leads to a There is no groove from Have a fair groove,
groove which ends at the mandibular gland opening covered with long hairs,
opening of mandibular with an apical projection
gland
Used for grasping,
scraping pollen from
anthers, feeder pollen and
manipulating wax during
comb building
d) Mouth parts : These are modified for sucking and lopping in worker.
The proboscis (tongue) is formed by median labium and two lateral maxillae and is used
for ingesting liquids.
e) Thorax : Consists of three segments and joined to the abdomen by a narrow
propodeum. Besides locomotion, legs modified to perform other function i.e.,
prothoracic legs for antenna cleaning, meta thoracic legs for pollen and porpoise
collection, meso thoracic legs for wax picking.
f) Abdomen : bears a sting, wax and scent glands and genital organs and viscera
internally.
Sting : In worker, the ovipositor (egg laying apparatus) is modified into a sting
Wax glands : Situated in the sternites of 4 th to 7th abdominal segments. Become active in
worker bees at the age of 14-18 days. Wax is secreted in liquid form which solidified into
then flakes
Scent glands : Present in the thin membrane connecting the last two abdominal terga. Bee
bends her abdomen and exposes the membrane to produce the scent. The odour produced
from the cells is derived from scented waste products of mectabolism.
CASTE DISTINCTION OF HONEY BEE, BEE COLONY, MAINTENANCE IN

DIFFERENT SEASONS
Honey – Castes – Distinction

Stage/character Queen Worker Drone
Egg
Appearance and Similar to worker Similar to queen Similar to queen
size and drone and drone and worker
Larva -do- -do- -do-
Become larger than Become larger than
worker larvae worker larvae
during later half of during later half of
their development their development
Pupa :
Eyes Apart Apart over the head
Brood comb Queen cell long Flat capping with Convex capping
with round capping dull and dry with hole in the
appearance centre in A.cerona
Adult :
Size Longest of all and Smallest of all Longer than
broader than worker, but shorter
workers at the than queen.
thorax Broadest of all
Head Smaller in Larger in Largest of all
proportion to body proportion to body
size size
Antennae Longer - Longer than queen
Mandible Well developed Smooth, rounded Chisel like and
and notched notched
Compound eyes Medium sized and Medium sized and
located well apart located well apart Large, black and
kidney shaped,
meeting with each
other at the top of
the head
Proboscis Not well developed Well developed for Not well developed
lapping nectar from
deep nectarines
Wings Do not cover body Cove the abdomen Cover the abdomen
fully fully fully
Hind legs Not modified for Well developed Not modified for
pollen collection and modified for pollen collection
pollen collection
Wax glands Absent 4th to 7th abdominal Absent
segments bear wax
gland
Sting Curved with very Is barbed and used absent
small barbs and for colony defence
used for stinging
rival queen only
Colony organization :
Honey bees are social insects.
They live in colonies with highly organized system of division of labour.
A coolly is composed of three castes i.e., queen, worker and drones.
Queen :
 The only perfectly developed female in the colony.
 Her sole function is to lay eggs. But it lacks motherly instinct to rear young ones
 Can lay about 1500 eggs/day
 Mates with drones in the air only once in her life time.
 The stock of male sperms received during mating is preserved in a pouch like
structure i.e.,spermatheca in her body.
 Queen draws up on it for a long time (i.e., 2-3 days) to regulate the sex of the
offspring.
 Queen can lay either fertilized/unfertilized eggs at her will.
 From fertilized eggs, workers and sexual females (i.e., potential queens) are produced.
 From unfertilized eggs, drones are produced.
 New queens are reared in specially prepared queen cells, under the following impulses
a) swarming b) supersedure (replacement of old and inferior queen with an young and
active queen) and c) emergency
 On her mating flight, queen is followed by drones and have multiple matings in one or
more days.
 Her mate dies during the act of copulation and falls on the ground.
 Queen returns to have with the mating sign i.e., the male reproductive organ attached
to her reproductive opening, which is removed by worker bees.
 After 2-4 days of mating, queen starts egg laying, first slowly, then vigorously.
Drones :
 The only function of the drone is to mate with the queen.
 Has very short tongue, but does not collect food from flowers.
 Tongue is used to receive food from worker bees.
 Drones are driven out of the colony to die of starvation, when not needed.
Workers :
 Females with under developed reproductive system.
 Do not lay eggs normally.
 In a queen less colony, workers lay the eggs. Such workers are known as “Laying
workers”.
 From worker eggs only drones develop.
 Workers live for 6 weeks.
 During first 3 weeks, they perform indoor/house jobs.
 During the rest of 3 weeks, they perform outdoor duties.

Indoor duties :
a) Cell cleaning
b) Producing royal jelly
c) Nursing young ones
 When workers are about 13 days old, they fly in front of the hive entrance (play
flights) to orient/acquaint themselves about their surroundings.
 When bees are 14-17 days old, they clear the hive, pack the pollen brought by the
forgers ripen the honey.
 Produce the bee wax from the wax glands situated underneath of the 4 th-7th
abdominal segments and use the wax scales, so produce for comb construction.
 At the age of 20-21 days, bees act as guard bees and prevent intruders from entering
into their hive/colony.
Outdoor activities :
Bees older than 21 days act as foragers and go out to bring nectar, pollen and water
and raw material for propels.
Bee colony maintenance in different seasons :

Nectar and pollen are not available through the year. During certain period,
excess/surplus food may be available. During certain period, bees may face dearth period.
Weather during certain period of the year may be hard to bees. Hence, during different
seasons, different management operations are to be adopted to minimize the difficulties faced
by bees and to maintain bee population at a higher level to exploit the major honey flow
seasons.
Management during spring :
a) In hills, winter is severe and there is lack of flare. Bees confine themselves to the hive
for most of the time. Bees face the problem of maintaining nest temperature. Hence,
the activity of bee colony starts in spring after prolonged winter.
b) Examine the colonies on a bright, warm and calm day and assess the colony condition,
working of queen, amount of brood present, honey and pollen stores and clean the
bottom board debris accumulated during winter.
c) Gives a stimulant feeding with thin sugar syrup (30-40%) during early spring to boast
the morale of colonies and to enhance brood rearing.
d) Add the combs as the bee strength increases
e) Be careful about robbing.
f) Replace the queen, if it is not working properly.
g) Unite the weak colonies with strong ones.
In plains of northern India, flare is available from October to January. Hence, precautions
against extension of brood nest and stimulant feeding can be relaxed. In south India, bees do
not face weather problem. Spring is a swarming season.
Swarm control :
Swarming should be prevented and controlled in colonies used for honey production.
a) Avoid over crowding by adding combs.
b) Regularly remove queen cells.
c) Remove combs with young brood and give to weak colonies and in place add more
empty combs.
d) Divide the colonies temporarily to overcome the instant and reunite just before honey
flow.
e) Divide the colonies, if increase n colony number is desired so that swarms are not lost.
Management during autumn :

Post monsoon/autumn season extends from September to November. During this
season, the kharif crops start flowering. Climate is moderate. Hence, colonies increase then,
brood rearing activity and they do not issue any swarms. However, this is the second best
season for starting bee keeping, colony multiplication and honey extraction. Hence, except
swarm control, all other spring management practices should be followed. Queen stops egg
laying in autumn, if there are less or no honey and pollen stores to avoid starving in future. So
ensure honey and pollen supply artificially.
Management during winter :
During winter bee activity is curtailed due to severe cold. Before the onset of winter,
a) Check the colonies for queen performance, worker population, brood and food
b) Equalize the colony strength
c) Feed the colonies artificially
d) Place the colonies when sun exposure is maximum
e) Protect colonies from chill and dew by winter packing
Winter packing is of two types i.e., Inner packing and outer packing.
Inner packing :
It refers to packing the empty space inside the hives with some suitable material so
that the inside air space is minimized and less are able to regulate the require cluster and hive
temperature. Inner packing is generally needed for weak colonies with poor bee strength, but
otherwise having efficient queens. Inner packing may be of any easily available material like
paddy straw, wheat bursa, sew dust or thermocole sheet. For this purpose, 4-6 cm thick layer
of strew should be filled in polythene bag and placed on the sides of the frames of hives.
Out packing :
In refers to packings/covering the bee colonies from outside and underside with suitable
material so that chilly winds do not enter the hive through cracks and crevices if any.
Management during summer :
Bees have to survive the intense summer heat and dearth period.
a) Keeps hives under shade of trees/artificial grass shades.
b) Cover the hives with gunny bags and sprinkle with twice during the day to reduce the
temperature and increase the humidity.
c) Feed dilute sugar syrup
d) Ensure water availability either in antwells/nearby.
e) Protect bees from predatory wasps.
Management during monsoon :
Bees are confined to hives for long inside during continuous rainy days. Large number of
workers will be lost in sudden storms/down sizing or reducing the colony strength. High
humidity coupled with high temperature in the hive creates unfavorable environment for bees.
a) Keep the colonies with a slanting position towards hive entrance to prevent entry of
rain water.
b) Clean the bottom boards regularly.
c) Supplementary feeding should be given whenever food is in shortage.
d) Unite the weak colonies with strong ones.
e) Regular examination and constant checking is essential.
000
BEE HIVES AND EQUIPMENT FOR REARING
The successful use of movable frames and the discovery of bee space revolutionized
the primitive way of keeping bees and paved the way for designing of modern bee hive.
Bee hives were designed after the discovery of “Bee Space” or “Bee Passage” by
L.L.Langstroth. It is the optimum distance to be left in between two adjacent comb surfaces
in a bee hive which is essential for normal movement and functioning of bees. It is too small
for comb construction and is too large for propolis deposition. It varies with honeybee
species. Eg. For Indian bees – 7-9 mm and Italian bees – 10 mm
In 1851, Rev.L.L.Langstroth improved the earlier type of hive based on his discovery
of “Bee Space”.
Bee space (Passage way) is the space required between any two frames for the bees to
move about between the combs and is too small to build combs and too large to deposit
propolis.
Bee space for Apies mallifera is 5/16 inch and Apis cerena indica is ¼ inch
Langstroth hive and Newton’s hive are generally used for beekeeping with
A.mellifera and A.C.indica respectively.
Beehive :
It is a tool/equipment used in a season like method of bee keeping.
It consists of a bottom board, brood chamber, brood frame, super chamber, super frame, inner
cover and top cover.
Beehive stand : This is made of RCC or wood or iron with provision for water
cups to prevent ants from entering beehive kept on the
beehive stand.
Smoker : This is made of a tin or copper container attached with a

leather bellow. This is used to smoke bees to sub due them
while handling.
Hive tool : It is made of a thick iron plate to clean the hive, to try the
frames and to remove propolis etc.
Bee veil : This is made of mosquito net type material for being worm to
protect the face from being stung by bees while handling.
gloves : This is used to protect handy from bee sting while handling.
Honey extraction : This is made out of tinned copper, bras or zinc drum with
basket cages to hold frames and wheel to rotate them in order
to extract honey by centrifugal force generated in it.
Queen gate : This is made out of zinc sheet with perforations to prevent
queen from going out or from deserting hive
Queen excluder : This is made out of zinc sheet with perforations and is placed
between brood chamber and super chamber to prevent the
movement of queen be from brood chamber to queen
chamber.
Drone excluder : This is used to prevent the reentry of drones into the hive
after the bees have come out of the hive in evening.
Drone trap : It is useful for fixing in front of the hive entrance when
workers and drones come out for play flight. Workers can
easily go out through the groove at the bottom, but drones are
trapped. Drones, thus trapped can be removed and killed,
when they are no longer required in the hive.
Comb foundation : This is made of pure wax. It is used to aid the bees to
sheet construct straight parallel combs.
Dummy division : This is useful to reduce the inner area of the brood chamber
board so that the bees can be confined to a limited space when bee
population in the hive is low.
000
BEE PASTURAGE, HONEY EXTRACTION AND PROCESSING IMPORTNT
PESTS AND DISEASES OF BEES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
Bee pasturage :
Honey bees have close link with flora because they live solely on nectar and pollen.
To maximize the honey production, bee keeper should have a thorough knowledge of floral
cycle, on set of major honey flow and dearth periods.
Bee flora :
Avenue and timer trees
a) Eucalyptus sp
b) Terminalia sp
c) Pongamia pinnata (Keranji)
d) Hevea brasiliensis (Rubber)
e) Dalbergia sisso (Shisham)
f) Sapindu ssp (Soapnut)
g) Tamerindus indica (Tamarind)
Fruits :
a) Anacardium occidentala (cashew)
b) Citrus sp
c) Cocos mucifera (coconut)
d) Litchi chinersis (Litchi)
Shrubs and field crops :
a) Vitex negunda
b) Alfalfa, Medicago sativa
c) Cotton
d) Brassica sps
e) Maize
f) Niger
g) Sun flower
h) Sesamum
Vegetables :
a) Carrot
b) Coriander
c) Onion
d) Cucurbits
Honey extraction and processing :
When the honey flow begins to slow down, the frames with honey should be removed for
extraction.
To remove honey combs, a colony is smoked, the desired combs taken out and bees brushed
off with a soft brush or leaves. These combs are taken to extraction chamber.
A room with wire gauged bee tight doors is necessary for honey extraction. Frames should be
uncapped with a hot knife.
The uncapped framed should be placed in extractor and rotated slowly and then at a faster
speed. Then the frames are reversed and extraction is again worked.
Finally, honey collected in the container, strained and packed in tins or bottles.
After the extraction, the place should be swabbed with water and the appliances cleaned. The
empty wet combs should be returned to the hives for bees for cleaning and rinse.
Important pests and diseases of bees and their management :
A) Greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella :

Adult brownish grey, 10-18 mm length.
The colour and size of adults vary according to food eaten during larval period.
Dark brown combs containing pollen give rise to darker and bigger adults
The fore wings of male has a semilunar notch, while that of female are smooth.
Female lay eggs 300-400 eggs in clusters in 4-10 days. Eggs hatch in 3-5 days.
Caterpillars are highly active and eat pieces of comb. They soon spin silken tunnels in the
comb or tubular galleries on bottom board to protect themselves.
Life cycle is completed in 6 weeks to 6 months.
Caterpillars eat away the combs by making tunnels in midrib of combs.
The presence of small pieces of minute particles of wax outside the holes is the first
indication of entry of larva into comb.
Later, faint webbings are perceptible over some cells of comb. In case of severe infestation,
brood development is stopped and the bees desert their nest.
Management :
a) Maintain the colonies strong to resist wax moth.
b) Keep the hives without cracks and crevices.
c) Reduce hive entrance size for effective guarding by bees.
d) Keep the bottom board neat and clean without debris.
e) Hold the comb against sun rays to observe the larvae.
f) Extra combs stored should be fumigated with sulphur.
B) Black ant, Componotus compressus Fab.
The black ant, Camponotus compressus, the-household red ant, Dorylus labiams and
Monomorium spp. are dangerous enemies of the bee. They attack weak colonies and carry
away the honey, pollen and the brood. Strong colonies are able to withstand the ants, but in
weak colonies ant attack will result in destruction and end of the colony.
By providing ant pans around the bases of the stand or oil bands over the stands ants can be
kept away. Underground ant nests are eliminated by dusting of Methyl parathion or carbaryl
or pouring 0.1% chlorpyriphos solution.
C) Bee hunter wasps
The yellow banded hornet, Vespa cincta F., is a large wasp with a broad transverse Yellow
band on the abdomen. It is a social insect constructing papery nests in hollow spaces. It waits
near the entrance of the hive, catches bees as they come out, macerates them for feeding the
juice to its young. It captures bee in the field also. By reducing the width of the alighting
board of the hive, the wasps can be prevented from sitting near the entrance Wasp nests
should be destroyed by burning them.
The bee hunter wasp, Palarus orientalis Kohl., is black in colour with transverse yellow lines
on the abdomen. It catches bees while they are on flight. A wasp can collect about 20 bees a
day, stings and carries them to its underground nest and places one in each of the
compartments of the nest before laying an egg on the back of each bee. The grub on hatching
feeds on the bee.
In hilly regions another bee hunter wasp, Phyllanthus ramakrishnae T. attacks and carries
away bees.
D. Tracheal Mites
The tracheal mite, Acarapis woodi, causes Acarine disease of adults. The adult mites infest
the prothoracic tracheae i.e. the first pair found on the thorax, and complete their life cycle
there. They feed on the blood (haemolymph) by piercing with their mouthparts through the
tracheal walls. It causes ‘K’ winged condition in bees, where the wings are held at unusual
angle and bees are unable to fly as the rows of hooks holding the pairs of the bee’s wings
together become detached. Bees are seen crawling in front of the hive.
E. The parasitic mite Varroa destructor

These mites are ectoparasitic and attack both Indian and Italian bees. It feeds on early stage of
lava and prepupa. It attaches to the body of the bee and weakens the bee by sucking fat
bodies. They are a vector for at least 5 debilitating bee viruses. All the above mites can be
managed by dusting micronized sulphur on the frames or by burning Folbex strips (isopropyl‐
4,4‐dibromo‐benzilate) as a fumigant inside the hive. The mites can also be controlled by
keeping absorbent cotton soaked in 65 per cent formic acid.
F. Other enemies
The 'death's head' moth, Acherontia styx enters hive and consumes honey. Occasionally
cockroaches enter weak colonies and impart a foul smell to the hive. The Robber bee, the leaf
cutter bee Megachile disjuncta, dragon flies and preying mantids capture bees and feed upon
them. Lizards, frogs toads capture bees at hive entrances. Bears dismantle the hives and eat
upon honey, pollen, brood and the bees.
Diseases
Brood diseases :
Honey bee brood suffer from a variety of diseases. Adult bees are not affected by brood
diseases, but they can spread the causal organism. Brood diseases are more serious than adult
diseases.
Bacterial diseases :
a) American foul brood (Paenibacillus larvae)
b) European foul brood (Mellissococus pluton)
Viral diseases :
a) Thai sac brood
b) Sac brood
Fungal diseases :
a) Chalk brood (Ascosphera apis)
b) Stone brood (Asperigillus flavour)
Symptoms of brood diseases :
American foul brood European foul brood
General appearance of Brood irregular, Brood irregular

brood comb intermingling of capped,
open and punctured cells. Dead brood mostly in open
Much dead brood in cells
capped cells, cells with
punctured cappings
Time of death Late larval/early pupal Coiled larvae in unsealed
stage cell
Cell capping Cappings sunken and Some cappings perforated
usually have holes
Consistency of dead brood At first watery/lightly At first soft and watery,
visual becoming ropy, afterwards pesty
finally brittle
Position of dead brood Extended on the cell base Coiled, twisted or
collapsed
Colour of dead brood Dull white to dark brown Dull white to yellowish
or almost black white, often dark brown
Odour of dead brood Putrid faint Strong and sour
Appearance of scale of Dark, thin, brittle, adheres Irregular in colour, thick,
dead larva to cell walls easily removed from cell
Brood affected Worker, rarely drone or Worker, drone and queen
queen
Control Terramycin 0.25-0.40 g in Same as
5 lit sugar syrup fed to
infection colonies. Repeat
after 7-10 days
Thai sac brood disease :

The causative agent is Thai Sac-brood virus. This virus attacks specifically Apis cerena
indica. The dead brood is found in prepupal but sealed stage. The pupae turn into sac-like
structures filled with lemon-coloured liquid at the posterior end. In advanced stage, the larvae
change their appearance from yellowish to brownish to black colour. No discernible foul
odour is noticed. Many Indian bee colonies were destroyed by TSBV in South India during
early 90s and caused severe loss to bee keeping industry
The virus multiples in adults which transmits to larvae.
Dead larvae straighten out and lie on their backs. Prepupae turn dry up in brood cells forming
loose scales.
No definite preventive/curative measures available.
Keep the colonies strong
Sac brood virus :
Sac brood is a virus disease attacking Apis mellifera. The diseased larvae appear sac like and
hence the name. But so far this disease is not reported in India.
Infected larvae fail to pupate and lie stretched on their back with head turned upwards.
Larvae become sac like due to filling of fluid between new integument and unshed skin.
Colour of larvae turns pale yellow and finally become dark brown, the darkening starts from
head.
Chalk brood disease and stone brood disease
The fungus Ascosphera apis that causes chalk brood only attacks larvae. When the spores are
ingested, they germinate and mycelia grow through the body penetrating the epidermis and
covering the pre-pupa in a short time-span. They cause mummification of the diseased larvae.
Stone brood disease Aspergillus flavus
Dead larvae turn black and are difficult to crush and hence the name stone brood disease. The
fungus erupts from the integument and the body of larvae covered with powdery fungal
spores.
Adult disease
NOSEMOSIS: Caused by: Nosema apis
Spore-forming protozoan. Infection of digestive tract .It invades the digestive tracts of honey
bee workers, queens, and drones. Bees become Dysentric with distended and swollen
abdomens. Colony needs to be strengthened. Move colony to sunny sites. Good brood food
stores
Colony collapse disorder (CCD)
CCD is the phenomenon that occurs when the majority of worker bees in a colony disappear
and leave behind a queen, plenty of food and a few nurse bees to care for the remaining
immature bees and the queen.
 When CCD is found in the colony, healthy colonies should not grow in the same
vicinity which encourages the other colony bees to migrate from their original colony.
 Add Fumagillin in the sugar syrup when it is using as feed to bees. Fumagillin is an
antimicrobial compounds extracted from Aspergillus fumigatus
 When the colony is infested with European foul brood besides colony collapsing
disorder, treat the colonies with oxytetracycline.

 Avoid use of neonicotinoid pesticides on a blooming crop or on blooming weeds if
honey bees are present
000
Lecture No. : Date:
LAC INSECT-BIOLOGY, BEHAVIOUR, FOOD PLANTS AND PRUNING
Indian lac insects i.e.,Kerria lacca (Laccifer lacca) Kerr
Hemiptera, Coccidae, Lacciferidae
Lac insects are exploited for their products of commerce i.e., a) Resin, b) Dye and c) wax.
Lac cultivation provides:
a) Livelihood to millions of lac growers
b) Conserves vast stretches of forests and biodiversity assisted with lac insect complex
c) Complex comprises of 87 species under 9 genera.
d) In India, 19 sps belonging to two general i.e.,Kerria and Paratachordina are found.
e) Lac insects thrive on 400 plant species.
f) 22 sps of lac predators, 30 sps of primary parasites, 45 sps of secondary parasites,

several fungal pathogens represent the rich biodiversity of this system.
India is the largest producer of lac (i.e., a resinous compound secreted by lac insect while
feeding on phloem sap of certain plants called Lac hosts) in the world and contributes for
about 50-60% of total world lac production. Production of raw lac in India is 20,000 mt and
major lac producing states are Jharkhand (57%), Chhattisgarh (23%) and West Bengal (12%)
while minor producers are Orissa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, U.P. and A.P. Over 3 million people
dependent on lac. Lac fetches Rs.120-130 crores of foreign money. Lac resin – natural,
biodegradable, nontoxic and Used in food, textile, pharmaceutical industries, in addition to
surface coating, electrical and other fields.
Species belonging to Parachardina produce a hard, horny substance which insoluble in

alcohol. These are univoltine and are generally treated as parasites of economically important
plants like tea and sandal and are bio control agents on weeds. Species belongs to Keeria are
bivoltine except K.lacca mysoransis on Jalari (Shoreata lura), K. sharada on Kusum
(Schleichera oleosa) routrer (Albizia saman) are trivoltine. Indian lac insects i.e.,Kerria lacca
(Laccifer lacca) Kerr is the most important and widely exploited insect. It belongs to Order:
Hemiptera, Super family: Coccidae, Family: Tachordiidae (Lacciferidae).
It is distinguished into two strains or sub species forms i.e.,Rangeeni and Kusmi on the basis
of differences in life cycle, host preference and quality of lac produced. Rangeeni strain is
characterized by unequal duration of bivoltine life cycle and non-preference of kusum as a
host. Kusum strain is characterized by more or less equidurational life cycle and preferring
kusum as a host. Quality of resin produced by kusumi is superior to the resin produced by
rangeeni.
Biology and behavior:
1. The female lays eggs inside the encrustation. They hatch almost immediately and the
nymphs crawl out of the cell.
2. A single female may produce 300-1000 nymphs, of which a third would be male.
3. Nymphs are minute, about 0.6 mm long, soft bodied, pointed posteriorly, deep red in
colour with black eyes.
4. They wander about on the shoots, move mostly upward towards tender branches and
settle on them.
5. They start feeding by piercing the shoot.
6. The nymphs settle on the short and do not move about.
7. They secrete resign over their body after one/two days of setting.
8. The resin glands are situated all over the cuticle except near mouth parts, anus and
breathing parts.
9. The resinous covering increases with the growth of insect.
10. The nymphs moult thrice and become the adults.
11. After first moult, both male and female nymphs lose their eyes, antennae and legs.
12. The males regain their lost appendages at the last moult and females never regain
them.
13. After second moult, the female nymphs becomes swollen with no trace of
segmentation.
14. The posterior end of abdomen is bent upward and insect becomes roundish occupying
the entire space in the cell
15. The males may be winged or apterous and they live for 3 or 4 days after emergence.
16. The male and female cells can be distinguished even during early stages.
17. The male has grown up in its longitudinal axis and is slipper shaped.
18. The female has grown up in its vertical axis and is spherical shaped.
19. The male copulates with the female even while the later remains inside the cell.
20. A copulated female grows up very fast and secretes lac abundantly and the size of the
insect and the cell read several times that of male cells.
21. Thus, the female insects are the chief producers of the lac.
22. Egg laying ceases when the temperature inside the cell falls below 170C and the
nymph becomes inactive below 200C.
Host plants:
1) Palas – Butea monosperma – Jarkhand, Chattisgarh, West Bengal
2) Kusum – Schleichera oleosa – Jarkhand, Chattisgardh
3) Ber – Zizyphus mauritiana – Jarkhand, Chattigarh, W.Bengal
4) Ghont – Zizyphu sxylopyra – Chattisgarh
5) Arhar – Cajanus cajan – Assam
6) Jalari – Shorea talura – Tamil Nadu
7) Rain tree – Samanea saman – W.Bengal
8) Fig – Ficus carica Jarkhand, Punjab, Karnataka
Inoculation methods:
Propagation of lac insects is done by inoculation of newly hatched (brood) nymphs on the
same or different host plants.
a) Natural/self/auto inoculation: This is a simple and common process, when the

swarmed nymphs infect the same plant again. Natural inoculation, repeated on the same host,
makes the host plant weak and thereby nymphs do not get proper nutrition. Uniform sequence
of inoculation does not take place.
b) Artificial inoculation: The old weak and diseased twigs of host plants are pruned in
January or June. It induces host plants to throw out new succulent twigs. The cut pieces of
brood twig (i.e., 20 x 30 cm in length) are tied to fresh twigs in such a way that each stick
touches the tender branches at several places. The nymphs swarm from brood and migrate to
tender and succulent twigs and infest them.
Following swarming, brood twigs should be removed from the host plant to prevent pest
infestation.
Precautions for artificial inoculation:
a) Use fully mature and healthy brood
b) Don’t keep the brood meant for inoculation for long and use immediately after
cutting.
c) Tie the brood stick on upper surface of branches securely.
d) Raise brood site room temperature to 200C to induce swarming.
e) Avoid cultivation of rangeeni in kusumi area and vice versa.
f) Inoculate only on non-rainy day.

Harvesting of lac (Cropping):
It is done by cutting the lac encrusted twigs when the crop is mature. It is of 2 types.
a) Immature harvesting: In this method, lac is collected before swarming. The lac, thus,
obtained is known as “ARILAC”. In this method, lac insect may be damaged during harvest..
b) Mature harvesting: In this method, lac is collected after swarming. The lac obtained is
known as mature lac. Symptoms of swarming of nymph include the following.
a) A yellow spot develops on the posterior side of lac towards maturity.
b) Dried out appearance of encrustation two weeks before swarming and appearance of
cracks on the encrustation at a later date.
Cutting of twigs for harvest can be done at any time between stages while yellow spot
occupies one third to one half of the cell area. It is sometimes desirable to wait till the
emergence of first few nymphs. The kertiki crop is harvested in Oct/Nov. baisaki in
May/June; aghani in Jan/Feb and Jethwi in June/July. The broad lac left after emergence of
nymphs is known as stic lac or phunki lac.
The time of inoculation and harvesting of different lac crops are
Time of With broad lac Time of

Strain Crop
inoculation from harveting
Rangeeni Baisakhi Oct – Nov Katki June - July

Katki June - July Baisakhi Oct – Nov
Kusumi Jethwi Jan – Feb Aghani June - July
Aghani June – July Jethwi Jan – Feb
Inoculation:
The method by which the lac insects are introduced to the new lac host plant is known as
inoculation. This may be of two types, namely “Natural infection” and “Artificial infection”.
When infection from one plant to other occurs by natural movements of insect, it is called
natural infection. This may be due to overcrowding of insect population and nonavailability
of tender shoots on a particular tree.
Artificial infection takes places through the agencies other than those of nature. Prior to about
two weeks of hatching, lac bearing sticks are cut to the size of six inches. They are
called“Brood lac”. Brood lacs are then kept for about two weeks in some cool place.
When the larvae start emerging from this brood lac, they are supposed to be ready for
inoculation. Strings со be used for tieding the brood lac with the host plant may be of
different types in longitud infection the brood lac is tied in close contact with host branches.
In lateral infection the brood lac is tied across the gaps between two branches. In interlaced
method, brood lac is tied among the branches of several new shoots.
Lac Crop:
The lac insects repeat its life cycle twice in a year. There are actually four lac crops since the
lac insects behave in two ways either they develop on Kusum plants or devlop on plants other
than Kusum. The lac which grows on Non-Kusum plants is called as “Ranjeem lac,” and
which grows on Kusum plant is called as “Kusumi lac. Four lac crops have been named after
four Hindi months in which they are cut from the tree. They are as follows:
Ranjeeni Crop:
(i) Katki:
Lac larvae are inoculated in June-July. Male insect emerges m August-September. Female
give rise to swarming larvae in October-November and the crop is reaped in Kartik (October
and November).
(ii) Baisakhi:
Larvae produced by Katki crop are inoculated in October-November, male insects emerges in
February-March, females give rise to swarming larvae m June-July, the crop is reaped in
Baisakh (April-May).
Kusumi Crop:
(i) Aghani:
Lac larvae are inoculated in June-July, male insect emerges m September, female give rise to
swarming larvae in January-February and crop is reaped in Aghan (December-January).
(ii) Jethoi:
The larvae produced by Aghani crop is inoculated in the month of January- February, male
emerges in March-April, female give rise to swarming larvae in June- July and the crop is
reaped in the month of Jeath (June-July).
The time of infection with swarming larvae, the time of emergence of male insects, the time
of reaping the crop, and the time of producing swarming larvae by female etc., are shown m
tabular form below
Enemies of lac insect:
Include both predators and parasites and non-insect pests like monkeys, squirrels, rats, birds
and lizards.
Predators:
Larvae of Eublema amabilis (Noctuidae) and Holococera pulverea(Gelichidae) are predators

on lac both in field and store. Adult moths lay eggs on or near lac encrustation. The
caterpillars bites its way into the encrustation and makes the tunnel lined with silk, excrete or
pieces of lac in which it spends whole of its larval and pupal life. A single caterpillar E.
amabilis can devour 40-45 lac cells. H. pulveria is more sever in a stores than in fields. Katki
and Aghani crops are greater affected than Baisaki and Jethwi crops.
Minor predators:
Ephestia sps (Physitidas),Chrysopa sps (Chrysopidae)
Larvae of chrysopa suck the body fluid of the lac insect and do not feed on the lac.
The predators affect not only the quantity of lac produced, but also the quality by the presence
of their larvae, pupae and their grass.
Parasites:
Parecthrodryinus clavicornis, Erencyrtus dwitzi, Euplenus tachardiae etc.
Methods of control:
a) Select brood lac from healthy trees.
b) Cut the brood lac from the trees as near the time of swarming, never more than a week
before.
c) Remove the brood lac sticks immediately after two weeks of inoculation
d) Remove the lac sticks from field after harvest
e) Do not leave the crop in field for natures inoculation
f) Pack the brood lac in 30-60 mesh wire net before inoculation.
One to 20 kg of brood stick are necessary for inoculating a tree depending up on its size in
case of kusume strain; 0.4 to 5 kg in case of Renguni strain. Heavier inoculation is not
desirable as it may result in death of host tree. The crawlers start moving out in one/two days
after inoculation. The brood lac sticks are to be removed within three weeks of inoculation.
Otherwise, the enemies of lac insect may be spread from broad lac to fresh crop.
Lac cultivation:
It is done by putting broad lac on suitably prepared specific host plants. The broad lac
contains gravid females which are to lay eggs to give birth to young larvae. After emergence
from mother cells, the young larvae settle on fresh twigs of host plants, such the plant sap and
slow to form encrustations.
a) Local practice:
In this method, the host plants are continuously exploited without giving ret for recoupment.
Only natural inoculation occurs. Partial harvesting is done leaving few branches untouched
for auto inoculation of next crop and no pruning is done. The host trees lose the vigour and
cannot throw out new succulent shoots. In course of time, the trees become weak and die.
b) Improved practice:
The principle in improved practice is to provide much needed rest to host plants after harvest.
For this, coupe system of lac cultivation is adopted. In this, the trees are divided into coupes
i.e., groups that consist to certain number of trees. In practice, only few number of trees in a
coupe are inoculated. After harvest, these trees are made to ret and recoup the last vigour
while other trees are ready with succulent twigs for inoculation. Thus, in a coupe system,
alternate groups of trees are put to lac cultivation. In case of slowing kusum, 18 months rest is
given by dividing trees into 4 coupes and inoculating each coupe once in two years. In case of
rengeeni hosts, trees are divided into 3 coupes i.e., two large and one small in ratio of 3:1:3.
The baisakhi crop is raised in 2 large coupes in alternate years. So that each coupe has a rest
of 15 months in between and the kalki crop is raised in small coupe every year allowing a rest
period of 7 months between two successive crops.
Composition of lac:
Lac resign – 68%, Lac wax – 6%, Lac dye - 1-2%, other 25%
Lac processing:
1. Stick lac: After harvest, lac encrustations are removed from the twigs of host plant by
scraping. The raw lac thus obtained is known as crude/scrapped/stick lac. The crude lac
consists of resin, encrusted insect body, lac dye, and sand and twig debris. The stick cannot
be store for long duration, as the lac has a tendency to form lump and there is a loss in quality
of lac. High moisture content is responsible for lump formation. The optimum moisture
content is 4% for storage of stick lac to avoid lump formation.
2. Seed lac: The stick lac is crushed and sieved to remove send and dust. It is then washed in
large vats repeatedly to break open the encrusted insect bodies, to wash out the lack dye and
twig debris. Decaying bug bodies turn the water a deep red that is processed further to get the
byproduct lac dye. The remaining resin is dried, winnowed and sieved to get the semi refined
commercial variety product called seed lac. The seed lac is in the form of grain of 10 mesh or
smaller and yellow/reddish brown in colour.
3. Shellac: The seed lack is processed into shellac by any of the 3 methods i.e., handmade
country process/heat process/solvent process.
Handmade process: The seed lac is filled into long sausage shaped cloth 2” diameter and 30
feet long. The long bag is passed gradually in front of a charcoal fired heat not enough to melt
the lac. By twisting the bag, molten lac is squeezed through cloth. The residue left inside
cloth bag is another variety of refuse lac known as Kirilac. The molten filtered man is
stretched into sheet approximately 0.5 cm thick. Alternatively the molten man is allowed to
solidity in the form of discs and then it is called button lac.
Heat Process: The seed lac is melted by steam heat. The molten soft lac is squeezed through
filter by means of hydraulic pressure. The filtered molten lac is drawn into long and
continuous sheets with the help of roller. The sheet is then broken into pieces called flakes.
Solvent process: The seed lac is dissolved in a refrigerate alcohol and filter through filter
press to remove wax and impurities. The colour may be removed by any required standard by
charging with activated carbon and then alcohol is recovered. The molten shellac is stretched
with a roller.
Cropping:
The crop is harvested sufficiently earlier than the swarming is due. But in case of crop
required for brood, it is harvested later just before swarming is due to occur. The general
symptoms of swarming are dried out appearance of encrustation two weeks before swarming
and appearance of cracks on the encrustation at a late date. However, the appearance of an
orange yellow area in the vicinity of the anal tubercle is the accurate indication for swarming.
The crop for manufacture of shellac is spread out after harvest in a pucca floor without
allowing then to stick together.
Yield: About 2.5 to 3 times the weight of brood lac can be expected as yield.
REFERENCES:
1. An introduction to Sericulture – Ganga, G; SulochanaChetty J 1997 (2ndedt).
2. Sericulture manual – Silkworm – Krishnaswamy, S 19990, FAO
3. Bee keeping in India – Singh S, 1975.
4. Lac cultivation in India – Glover P M 1937.
5. Honey bees and their management in India – Mishra R C 1995
6. Principles of Sericulture – H. Aruga 1994.
000

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INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

1. Destroying crops and valuable plants:

2. Annoying and injuring man and animals:

4. Making home in and on our body:

5. Disseminating diseases in man and animals:

6. Destroying useful articles:

Government Press, Madras.

Beetle is small round to slightly oblong in shape measuring about 5

Larval period lasts for 10-35 days.

v Drooping of tender shoots and wilting in vegetative stage

v Holes on the infested fruits filled with excreta

· The damaged portions of the plants should be removed and destroyed .

BRINJAL STEM BORER

BRINJAL MEALY BUGS

Coccinellids, Coccinella septumpunctata and Menochilus sexmaculata are predaceous on

Brinjal brown leafhopper

This insect acts as a vector for little leaf of brinjal

BRIJAL LACE WING BUG

BRINJAL LEAF WEBER

RED SPIDER MITE

BHENDI SHOOT AND FRUIT BORER / SPOTTED FRUIT BORER

v Drooping of tender shoots

v Holes on the infested fruit and filled with excreta

v Fruits distorted and rendered unfit for human consumption.

It is distributed throughout the country.

RED SPIDER MITE

Refer under pests of brinjal

SERPENTINE LEAF MINER

v Leaves with serpentine mines

TOMATO FRUIT BORERS

PESTS OF CUCURBITACEOUS VEGETABLES

vPremature drop of fruits .

vNumerous of holes on leaves .

· Hand picking and destruction of grown up larvae and pupae .

PUMPKIN LEAF CATERPILLAR

COCCINIA GALL FLY

PESTS OF CRUCIFEROUS VEGETABLES

It is distributed worldwide infesting cruciferous plants of Brassica sp. cauliflower, Brassica

It infests cabbage, cauliflower, knolkhol and beetroot .

CABBAGE LEAF WEBBER

vWebbed leaves with faecal matter

Two sprays at fortnightly interval with carbaryl 3g/l are effective.

IPM IN CRUCIFEROUS VEGETABLES

PESTS OF TUBER CROPS

SWEET POTATO WEEVIL

It is a major pest of sweet potato both in field and storage .

It is a specific and a common pest on drumstick .

CHLLI POD BORERS

CHILLI BLOSSOM MIDGE

AMARANTHUS LEAF EATING CATERPILLAR

AMARANTHUS STEM WEEVIL

These insects are monophagous on mango and occur as regular pests.

v Affected flowers wither and drop down.

MANGO STEM BORER

· Collection and destruction of infested fruits

MANGO FRUIT FLY

MANGO SHOOT BORER

MANGO FRUIT BORER

Avoid growing of castor in mango orchards to eliminate C. punctiferalis which comes as a

MANGO LEAF WEBBER

MANGO RED TREE ANT

LEAF GALL MIDGES

Spraying NSKE 5% or 2 ml/l at new flush is effective.

RED SPIDER MITE