Anatomy & Physiology for Nurses Unit 03

Anatomy and Physiology

Unit No: 03
Definition of Cell:
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of the body so called building blocks of life.
The cell was discovered by “Robert Hooke” in 1665. The cell theory , first developed in 1839
by “Matthias Jakob Schleiden ” and “Theodor Schwann ”.
The word cell comes from Latin “Cella” meaning “small room” and was coined by “Robert
Hooke” in book “Micrographia” 1665 .
Human body contain about 100 trillion (1014) cells.
The cell is a “Jelly-like” mass of protoplasm.
Protoplasm contains:
1. Water = 75% 2. Protein = 20% 3. Carbohydrate = 02% 4. Lipids(Fat) = 02% 5. Salts = 01%
Structure of the cell: The cell is composed of three main components:
1. Cell Membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus
Cell Membrane:
Cell membrane is double layered thin outer covering of the cell.
Cell membrane acts as a selective permeable barrier.
Cell membrane prevents certain substances to enter into the cell and other two pass through the cell.
It is most important in the maintaining the correct chemical composition of the protoplasm.
It is Composed of:
 Proteins
 Lipids
 Small quantity of carbohydrates
In 1972, S. Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicolson developed new ideas for membrane structure. Their
proposal was the fluid mosaic model, which is the dominant model now.
 Lipid bilayer in which protein molecules are embedded.
 Small amounts of carbohydrates are also found.
 These are joined with protein or lipids.
Nucleus:
It occupies central portion of the cell.
It is most important part of cell because it controls all the activities of the cell.
Nucleus is responsible for growth and reproduction of cell (by cell division).
It transmits the hereditary characteristics or the factors from the parents to their offspring.
Nucleus consists of:
i. Nuclear membrane:
a. It covers the nucleus roundly.
ii. Nucleoplasm:

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a. It is jelly like substance present in nucleus.

iii. Nucleoli:
a. These are more clearly visualized in developing cell in a round shape.
b. These are made up of ribonucleic acid (RNA).
c. The main function of nucleoli is to form proteins in the cell.
iv. Chromosomes:
a. These are thread like structure and situated in nucleus.
b. The basic units of chromosomes are genes.
c. Genes are manufactured from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
d. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes, in this way collectively chromosomes of male and female are 46
chromosomes.
e. In these 23 pairs the 22 pairs are similar but one pair is different.
f. So that 23rd pair in female is “XX” and in male is “XY”.
g. From male = sperm (male gamete)
Sperm + Ovum =Zygote
From female = ovum (female gamete)
(Zygote later becomes embryo, fetus and finally newborn baby)
h. The one “X chromosome” from mother and one “X chromosome from father produces a female baby.
i. The one “X chromosome” from mother and one “Y chromosome” from father produce a male baby.

Cytoplasm:
It is the material surrounding the nucleus.
It contains the following structures (organelles):
i. Endoplasmic Reticulum
Network of membranous canals.
There are two different types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are composed of cisternae, tubules, and vesicles, which
are found throughout the cell and are involved with protein manufacture.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are the storage organelle, associated with the production of
lipids, steroids, and also responsible for detoxifying the cell
ii. Mitochondria:
These are small rod like structure.
It is responsible for catabolic and respiratory functions.
iii. Golgi Apparatus (Golgi Body):
These are canal like structure
These are nearest to the nucleus.
These are responsible for excretory function of cell.
iv. Ribosomes
Ribosomes are either encompassed within the endoplasmic reticulum or are freely traced in the cell’s
cytoplasm.
Protein factories

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v. centrosome 
Comprises two microtubule rings known as centrioles.
Plays important role during cell division
vi. Vacuoles
They are fluid-filled organelles enclosed by a membrane.
The vacuole stores the food or a variety of nutrients that a cell might need to survive.
In addition to this, it also stores waste products.
Functions of cell:
1. Ingestion:
The cell is very important unit of body in which the nourishing food material is absorbed by broken
down.
2. Growth and repair:
The material which used by the cell is synthesized.
New protoplasm is produced in which the cell increases in size; e.g.: its growth.
This continued activity of cell, growth and repair is called anabolic activity of cell.
3. Metabolism:
The continued chemical changes in living body by which life is maintained, needs activity and energy for
its growth to provide heat, secretions of glands, movement and nervous activity.
4. Respiration:
Oxygen is brought from the lungs and carbon dioxide is removed by blood stream.
5. Excretion:
The waste material is carried away by the blood.
The waste material is eliminated from the cell into extra cellular fluid from which it is carried away by
blood.
There are three types of fluids in the body, these fluids make up about 75% of
entire body weight. These fluids are as under:
i. Plasma: 05 % (of the body weight)
ii. Extracellular fluid: 20 % (of the body weight)
iii. Intracellular fluid: 50 % (of the body weight)
6. Irritability and excitability:
When a cell is stimulated by physical, chemical, mechanical or nervous means, cell responds.
7. Reproduction:
In all organs and organisms, each cell grows and produces other cells.

Cell Division:
The nucleus will be doubled and divided into two parts.
There are two types of cell division:
1. Mitosis
2. Meiosis
1. Mitosis:
It is type of cell division.

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It occurs in somatic cells (body cells) except sex organs.

In this type the chromosomes first will doubled and then divided into two parts.

2. Meiosis:
This also the type of cell division.
It occurs only in sex organs; e.g.: Testes and ovaries
In this type of cell division chromosomes will not be doubled but only be divided.

Process of reproduction:
There are five phases of mitosis (Karyokinesis):
1. Prophase:
The chromatin in the nucleus condenses into double rod-shaped structures called chromosomes in
which the chromatin becomes visible. This process is called chromatin condensation .
The nucleolus disappears and the centrosome is divided into two parts at opposite poles of nucleus
forming a bridge of spindle fibers, this stage is called as “Prophase”.
Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nucleolus disappears
2. Metaphase:
The chromosomes in the nucleus become darker (condensed and highly coiled).
The nuclear membrane disappeared and chromosomes always themselves around the centre of the cell.
They attack to the thread-like structure of the centrosome.
3. Anaphase:
The centrosomes become longitudinally divided into equal parts.
The chromosomes split into two groups of chromosomes (chromatids) and move away to opposite poles
of the cell and arrange themselves around the centrosomes.
4. Telophase:
The cell body becomes narrow and thread-like structure disappears and two nuclear membranes reform
and nucleoli reappear.
It is the final stage of cell division.
5. The Daughter cell:
The cell is divided and chromosomes disappeared into nucleus and then formation of daughter cells took
place.

Tissue
A. Definition of Tissue:
Tissue is a group of living cell similar in structure and function is called tissue.
Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and organ.
Collection of same cells is called tissue.
B. Types of Tissue:
There are four types of tissues in human body:
1. Epithelium tissue
2. Connective tissue

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3. Muscular tissue
4. Nervous tissue

1. Epithelium tissue:
These are widely distributed throughout the body.
These make the surface and layers of the skin in which hollow organs, cavities and tubes
are lying underneath. For example; heart, stomach, kidney, bladder, blood vessels etc
Types of epithelium:
Simple epithelium
Compound epithelium
1. Simple epithelium : This type of tissue consists of a single layer of cells and is subdivided into four
types:
 Squamous (Pavement) epithelium tissue
 Columnar epithelium tissue
 Ciliated epithelium tissue
 Goblet epithelium tissue
i. Squamous epithelium tissue:
It is thin tissue plate placed edge to edge like a stone of pavement.
It forms the alveoli (air sacs) of lungs and peritoneum of abdomen.
It is found on smooth surfaces, as in linings of the heart, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels.
ii. Columnar epithelium tissue:
It forms single layer of cells which lines the ducts of most glands, bladder and nearly the whole digestive
tract.
ii. Ciliated epithelium tissue:
It is like columnar tissues in shape but have hair-like structure called “Cilia”.
It is found in linings of the respiratory tract, intestinal tubes and ventricles of brain.
iv. Goblet epithelium tissue:
It is secreting cell.
It lines the cell wall of glands and ducts.
It is found in stomach, colon and trachea.
2. Compound epithelium tissue: this type of tissue consists of more than one layer and is subdivided
into two types:
 Stratified epithelium tissue
 Transitional epithelium tissue
i. Stratified epithelium tissue:
It forms the epidermal layer of the skin.
It also lines the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, lower part of urethra, anal canal, vagina, covering surface of
cornea.
ii. Transitional epithelium tissue:
It consists of three layers of cells.
It is round and pear shaped cells.

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It is found in linings of the urinary bladder, pelvis of kidney, ureter and upper part of urethra.
Functions of epithelium tissue:
Absorption (by food), Secretion (by glands), Filtration (by Kidneys)

2. Connective tissue:
These are most widely spread tissue in the body.
These make up all the solid parts of the body.
There are several varieties of the connective tissues.

Types of connective tissue:

1. Areolar connective tissue
2. Adipose connective tissue
3. Reticular connective tissue
4. Elastic connective tissue
5. Fibrous connective tissue
6. Cartilage connective tissue
7. Bone connective tissue
8. Blood connective tissue
1. Areolar connective tissue (Loose connective tissue):
It is stretchable tissues.
It is distributed throughout the body.
It is placed beneath the skin, which is called subcutaneous tissue.
It is supporting, building and connects together the muscles, nerves, blood vessels and other organs.
2. Adipose connective tissue (fatty or Lipid connective tissue):
It is deposited in most parts of the body.
It is just like areolar tissue by the deposition of fat cells, which is present in all subcutaneous tissue
except of the eye lids, penis and inside the cranial cavity.
Functions:
It helps to support and retain in position of the organs of the body. For example; kidney is embedded in
fat.
It forms protective coverings for the body.
It provides a source of heat and energy for the use of body.
3. Reticular connective tissue (retiform connective tissue):
It is similar to areolar connective tissue.
It is rounded in shape.
It lies in tonsils, spleen and small intestine.
4. Elastic connective tissue:
It contains a large proportion of the elastic fibers.
It is founded in walls of arteries and air tubes of the respiratory tract.
It is also present in certain ligaments, layers, where these maintain the erect position of spine.

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Fibrous connective tissue (white fibrous tissue):

It is often spoken of white fibrous tissue because these are composed mainly of white collagen fibers.
Fibrous tissue is tough and strong.
It forms ligaments except the elastic ones and tendons.
It is found in:
i. Dura matter (Skull)
ii. Neural canal (Nerve canal)
iii. Periosteum (membrane covering the bone)
v. Sclerotic coat of the eyeball (opaque outer coat of the eyeball)
vi. Pericardium (membrane sac that holds the heart)\
vii. Strongest layer of the fascia
6. Cartilage connective tissue:
It is very firm but less firm than the bone.
It is found in joints and between the bones.
The bones of embryo are first cartilage then changed into bone after birth with deposition of calcium
salts.
Cartilages do not contain blood vessels but are covered by a membrane called perichondrium.

Types of cartilage connective tissue:

i. Hyaline cartilage connective tissue
ii. White fibro-cartilage connective tissue
iii. Elastic cartilage connective tissue
i. Hyaline cartilage connective tissue:
It is firm and elastic in nature and found in the covering ends of long bones at the joints, eg: costal
cartilage, nose, larynx, trachea, bronchial tube
ii. White fibro-cartilage connective tissue:
It is composed by bundles of white fibers.
It is usually found in the cavities of bony sockets, eg: Acetabulum of innominate bone, glenoid cavity of
scapula, pubic symphysis.
iii. Elastic cartilage connective tissue:
It is also called “yellow elstic cartilages” because these contain yellow fibers.
It is found in external ear.
It is flexible ion nature.
7. Bone connective tissue:
Bone is the hardest connective tissue of the body.
It is composed of 50% of water and 50% of solid.
Bone consists of two types of tissue:
i. Compact bone connective tissue:
It is hard and dense in structure.
It is found in flat bones, in the shaft (diphysis) of long bones and as thin covering over all bones.
ii. Cancellous bone connective tissue:

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It is spongy in structure.
It is found in the ends (epiphysis) of long bones, short and flat bones; such as scapula, cranium, sternum
and ribs.
The gross structure of long bones:
It is divided into three parts: one shaft and two extremities.
Long bone has a hollow center called “medullary cavity” containing bone marrow.

8. Blood connective tissue:

Blood is liquid connective tissue.
Blood consists of solid part (blood cells)=45% and intracellular material (plasma)=55%.
Liquid plasma contains:
a. Water……………………………. 91%
b. Proteins………………………….. 8.1%
c. Salts……………………………… 0.9%
Blood plasma pH ranges from 7.35 to 7.45 and average 7.4.
Blood plasma is a clear, yellowish and slightly alkaline liquid.
The normal amount of blood in an adult male is about 4.5 to 5.5 liters.
The normal amount of blood in adult female is about 4 liters to 5 liters.
Solid blood cells are:
i. R.B.Cs (Erythrocytes), ii. W.B.Cs (Leucocytes), iii. Platelets (Thrombocytes)
i. R.B.Cs (Erythrocytes):
These are normally 4.5 to 5.5 million (45 lacs to 55 lacs) per cmm (cubic millimeter) in body.
These act as transport of oxygen (O 2) and carbon dioxide (CO 2).
These are formed in the red bone marrow.
These also transports the nutrients to the body tissues.
ii. W.B.Cs (Leucocytes):
These are normally about 6000 to 10,000 per cmm (cubic milimeter) in the body. These act as to
immune the body and defense against the microorganisms.
iii. Platelets (Thrombocytes):
These are normally 2-3 lacs (200,000 to 300,000) in average but 6-10 lacs also count normal.
These acts as clotting factors in the blood.
3. Muscular tissue:
Muscle is a tissue which is specialized for contraction and by this means the movement is performed.
It is composed of cylindrical fibers which are bound together into little bundles of fibers.
Types of muscular tissue:
1. Voluntary muscular tissue
2. Involuntary muscular tissue
3. Cardiac muscular tissue
1. Voluntary muscular tissue (Striped or striated muscles):
These are under control of will.
These are found in arms and legs.

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When these muscles contract they become shorten.

These muscles are made up of fine tissue membrane and connective tissue. They produce movement.
They maintain posture and produce heat
2. Involuntary muscular tissue (Unstriped or unstriated muscles):
These are not under control of will
These are found in coats of blood, lymphatic vessels, in walls of digestive tract and hollow viscera,
trachea, bronchi and skin.
These also form the walls of all visceral organs (trachea, blood and lymphatic vessels).
3. Cardiac muscular tissue:
These are not under control of will.
These are found only in muscles of heart.
These are like voluntary muscles but differ in that their fibers, branches and anastomes.
These are arranged longitudinally and red in color.
Muscle tone:
It is never completely in rest but is always in the condition of muscle tone.
Example of muscle without its tone is like the body without soul.
The muscle tone is a condition in which it is ready to respond to stimuli.
Knee jerk and patellar tendon in contraction are by the stimulation of the nerve.
Posture is determined by the degree of muscle tone.
Functions of muscular tissue:
Maintains posture and supports body.
Locomotion
Heat production
4. Nervous tissue:
These are composed of three types of matter:
1. Gray matter
2. White matter
3. Neuroglia matter
1. Gray matter:
It forms the nerve cell.
2. White matter:
It forms the nerve fibers
It is also called medullary sheath
3. Neuroglia matter:
These are special type of supportive and protective cell, found only in the nervous system, which hold
together and support the nerve cells and fibers.
These do not generate or conduct a nerve impulse.
Neuron:
Neuron is the basic functional and structural unit of the nervous system.
Each nerve cell, which its process is called as “Neuron”.

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Types of neuron:
i. Motor Nerve, ii. Sensory Nerve, iii. Mixed Nerve
i. Motor Nerves:
They carry impulses (sudden uncontrollable act) from the brain and spinal cord to the periphery
(Muscles and glands).
ii. Sensory Nerves:
They carry impulses from periphery (muscle and glands) to the brain.
iii. Mixed Nerves (Mixed nerve trunk):
They contain both motor and sensory nerves so that they carry impulses in both directions.
Most of the nerves in the body are of this type.

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