2.1 Mathematical Systems, Direct Proofs and Counterexamples

§ 2.
1 Mathematical Systems, Direct Proofs

and Counterexamples
Types of Mathematical Statements
1 Axiom - statement that is accepted to be true without proof


Example: Euclid’s axioms, the first of which is “A straight line
segment can be drawn joining any two points.”

2 Theorem - a mathematical statement whose truth can be verified,
although mathematician usually reserve this term for important
or interesting.

or interesting.
3 Corollary - a mathematical statement that is a consequence of a
theorem or an axiom.

or interesting.
3 Corollary - a mathematical statement that is a consequence of a
theorem or an axiom.
4 Lemma - a mathematical result that is useful in verifying the
truth in another result.
Direct Proofs
Definition
A direct proof is a way of showing the truth or falsehood of a given
statement by a straightforward combination of established facts,
usually existing lemmas and theorems, without making any further
assumptions.
Direct Proofs
Definition
A direct proof is a way of showing the truth or falsehood of a given
statement by a straightforward combination of established facts,
usually existing lemmas and theorems, without making any further
assumptions.
Definition
An indirect proof may begin with certain hypothetical scenarios and
then proceed to eliminate the uncertainties in each of these scenarios
until an inescapable conclusion is forced.
How To Write Proofs: The Basics
1 Always state the assumptions that can be made.


2 Always state what you are trying to prove.

3 Always separate strings of equations - whether a simple
statement or a long series of algebraic steps, separation makes it
easier for the reader to be able to verify the work.

4 Always state that the proof is complete in some way
Use a black box or an open box

Write Q.E.D., which is the abbreviation for the Latin phrase
‘quod erat demonstrandum,’, which means ‘which had to be
demonstrated’

Write Q.E.D., which is the abbreviation for the Latin phrase
‘quod erat demonstrandum,’, which means ‘which had to be
demonstrated’
5 Never refer to yourself in a proof - if you need to use a pronoun,
use ‘we’
A First Proof
Example
If n is an odd integer then 5n + 3 is an even integer.
A First Proof
Example
We need to start with something of the form 2k + 1 and we need to

end with something of the form 2k. So we want to use the definitions
we established above and keep these in mind.
A First Proof
Example

Proof: Assume that n is an odd integer. We want to show that 5n + 3

is an even integer.
A First Proof
Example

Proof: Assume that n is an odd integer. We want to show that 5n + 3

is an even integer.
Since n is odd, then ∃ k ∈ Z 3 n = 2k + 1. Now,
5n + 3 = 5(2k + 1) + 3 = (10k + 5) + 3 = 10k + 8 = 2(5k + 4)
Since 5k + 4 ∈ Z, 5n + 3 is an even integer. Q.E.D.

Another Example
Example
If n is an odd integer then n2 is odd.
Another Example
Example
Suppose n is an odd integer. Then we can write n in the form

n = 2k + 1 where k ∈ Z.
Another Example
Example
Suppose n is an odd integer. Then we can write n in the form

n = 2k + 1 where k ∈ Z. Consider
n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1
Since k is an integer, so is 2k2 + 2k and so we can write n2 in the form

necessary for inclusion in the set of odd integers.Therefore, if n is odd
then n2 is as well. Q.E.D.
Perfect Squares
Example
Every odd integer is the difference of two perfect squares.
Perfect Squares
Example
Let n be an odd integer. We want to show that n is the difference of

two perfect squares.
Perfect Squares
Example

two perfect squares. Since n is odd, ∃ k ∈ Z where n = 2k + 1.
Perfect Squares
Example

two perfect squares. Since n is odd, ∃ k ∈ Z where n = 2k + 1. Since
k is an integer, k2 and (k + 1)2 are both perfect squares.
Perfect Squares
Example

two perfect squares. Since n is odd, ∃ k ∈ Z where n = 2k + 1. Since
k is an integer, k2 and (k + 1)2 are both perfect squares.
Consider
(k + 1)2 = k2 + 2k + 1
and
k2 + 2k + 1 − k2 = 2k + 1
Therefore, if n is odd then we can express n as the difference of
perfect squares. Q.E.D.
More Odd and Even Integers
Example
If n is an odd integer then 4n3 + 2n − 1 is odd.
Example
Proof: Suppose n is an odd integer. We will prove that 4n3 + 2n − 1 is

an odd integer.
Example

an odd integer.
If n is odd, then ∃ k ∈ Z 3 n = 2k + 1.
Example

an odd integer.
If n is odd, then ∃ k ∈ Z 3 n = 2k + 1. Consider
4n3 + 2n − 1 = 4(2k + 1)3 + 2(2k + 1) − 1

= 4(8k3 + 12k2 + 6k + 1) + 4k + 2 − 1
= 32k3 + 48k2 + 28k + 5
= 2(16k3 + 24k2 + 14k + 2) + 1
Example

an odd integer.
If n is odd, then ∃ k ∈ Z 3 n = 2k + 1. Consider
4n3 + 2n − 1 = 4(2k + 1)3 + 2(2k + 1) − 1

= 4(8k3 + 12k2 + 6k + 1) + 4k + 2 − 1
= 32k3 + 48k2 + 28k + 5
= 2(16k3 + 24k2 + 14k + 2) + 1
Since 16k3 + 24k2 + 14k + 2 is an integer, 4n3 + 2n − 1 is odd and

this completes the proof.
A Better Way
Although this is correct, it is not the most efficient proof we could

have written. We could have simply noted that
4n3 + 2n − 1 = 4n3 + 2n − 2 + 1 = 2(2n3 + n − 1) + 1
is odd for all n, making this a trivial proof. It would be better to

rewrite the hypothesis as ‘if n is an integer’.
Intersections and Unions
Example
For all sets X, Y, Z, prove that if X ∩ Y = X ∩ Z and X ∪ Y = X ∪ Z
then Y = Z.
Let X, Y, Z be sets. Assume X ∩ Y = X ∩ Z and X ∪ Y = X ∪ Z. We
will show that Y and Z are subsets of each other.
Example
then Y = Z.
Let y ∈ Y. Then y ∈ X ∪ Y. So, y ∈ X ∪ Z. That means y ∈ X or

y ∈ Z. If y ∈ Z, we are done. So suppose y ∈ X. Then y ∈ X ∩ Y. So,
y ∈ X ∩ Z. Thus both cases lead to y ∈ Z. Hence, Y ⊆ Z.
Example
then Y = Z.

In a symmetric argument, it can be shown by assuming that we have

some z ∈ Z that Z ⊆ Y.
Example
then Y = Z.

In a symmetric argument, it can be shown by assuming that we have

some z ∈ Z that Z ⊆ Y.
Since Y ⊆ Z and Z ⊆ Y, it must be the case that Y = Z. Thus, we

have arrived at the desired result. Q.E.D.
Power Sets
Example
Prove that if A and B are sets then P(A) ∪ P(B) ⊆ P(A ∪ B).
Power Sets
Example
Suppose X ∈ P(A) ∪ P(B). By definition of union, X ∈ P(A) or

X ∈ P(B). Therefore, X ⊆ A or X ⊆ B.
Power Sets
Example
Suppose X ∈ P(A) ∪ P(B). By definition of union, X ∈ P(A) or

X ∈ P(B). Therefore, X ⊆ A or X ⊆ B.
Now, if X ⊆ A, then X ⊆ A ∪ B. So X ∈ P(A ∪ B). But, if X ⊆ B,

then we still have X ⊆ A ∪ B and so again, X ∈ P(A ∪ B). Therefore,
we have shown that if X ∈ P(A) ∪ P(B), then X ∈ P(A ∪ B). Q.E.D.
Rational Numbers
Example
The sum of any two rational number is rational.
Rational Numbers
Example
Let r and s be rational numbers. We want to show that r + s is a

rational number.
Rational Numbers
Example
Let r and s be rational numbers. We want to show that r + s is a

rational number.
By definition of rational numbers, there are integers a and b with

b 6= 0 such that
a
r=
b
Similarly, there are integers c and d with d 6= 0 such that
c
s=
d
Proof (cont.)
Consider
a c
r+s= +
b d
da bc
= +
db bd
ad bc
= +
bd bd
Proof (cont.)
Consider
a c
r+s= +
b d
da bc
= +
db bd
ad bc
= +
bd bd
Let p = ad + bc and let q = bd. By closure of the integers under

addition and multiplication, p and q are integers. Hence,
p
r+s=
q
Therefore, we can write r + s in the appropriate form for inclusion in
the set of rational number. This completes the proof.
Counterexamples
The purpose of counterexamples is to prove a statement is false.

Usually, we use counterexamples to disprove a universally quantified
statement.
Counterexamples
The purpose of counterexamples is to prove a statement is false.

Usually, we use counterexamples to disprove a universally quantified
statement.
For the following, how would we disprove using counterexamples?

1 All professors like pizza.
2 ∀ x ((x + 1)2 = x2 + 1)
3 If n is an integer and n2 is divisible by 4, then n is divisible by 4.

2.1 Mathematical Systems, Direct Proofs and Counterexamples

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§ 2.

1 Mathematical Systems, Direct Proofs

1 Axiom - statement that is accepted to be true without proof

1 Axiom - statement that is accepted to be true without proof

1 Axiom - statement that is accepted to be true without proof

1 Axiom - statement that is accepted to be true without proof

1 Axiom - statement that is accepted to be true without proof

1 Always state the assumptions that can be made.

1 Always state the assumptions that can be made.

1 Always state the assumptions that can be made.

1 Always state the assumptions that can be made.

1 Always state the assumptions that can be made.

1 Always state the assumptions that can be made.

We need to start with something of the form 2k + 1 and we need to

We need to start with something of the form 2k + 1 and we need to

Proof: Assume that n is an odd integer. We want to show that 5n + 3

We need to start with something of the form 2k + 1 and we need to

Proof: Assume that n is an odd integer. We want to show that 5n + 3

Since n is odd, then ∃ k ∈ Z 3 n = 2k + 1. Now,

5n + 3 = 5(2k + 1) + 3 = (10k + 5) + 3 = 10k + 8 = 2(5k + 4)

Since 5k + 4 ∈ Z, 5n + 3 is an even integer. Q.E.D.

Suppose n is an odd integer. Then we can write n in the form

Suppose n is an odd integer. Then we can write n in the form

n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1

Since k is an integer, so is 2k2 + 2k and so we can write n2 in the form

Let n be an odd integer. We want to show that n is the difference of

Let n be an odd integer. We want to show that n is the difference of

Let n be an odd integer. We want to show that n is the difference of

Let n be an odd integer. We want to show that n is the difference of

Proof: Suppose n is an odd integer. We will prove that 4n3 + 2n − 1 is

Proof: Suppose n is an odd integer. We will prove that 4n3 + 2n − 1 is

Proof: Suppose n is an odd integer. We will prove that 4n3 + 2n − 1 is

If n is odd, then ∃ k ∈ Z 3 n = 2k + 1. Consider

4n3 + 2n − 1 = 4(2k + 1)3 + 2(2k + 1) − 1

Proof: Suppose n is an odd integer. We will prove that 4n3 + 2n − 1 is

If n is odd, then ∃ k ∈ Z 3 n = 2k + 1. Consider

4n3 + 2n − 1 = 4(2k + 1)3 + 2(2k + 1) − 1

Since 16k3 + 24k2 + 14k + 2 is an integer, 4n3 + 2n − 1 is odd and

Although this is correct, it is not the most efficient proof we could

4n3 + 2n − 1 = 4n3 + 2n − 2 + 1 = 2(2n3 + n − 1) + 1

is odd for all n, making this a trivial proof. It would be better to

Let y ∈ Y. Then y ∈ X ∪ Y. So, y ∈ X ∪ Z. That means y ∈ X or

Let y ∈ Y. Then y ∈ X ∪ Y. So, y ∈ X ∪ Z. That means y ∈ X or

In a symmetric argument, it can be shown by assuming that we have

Let y ∈ Y. Then y ∈ X ∪ Y. So, y ∈ X ∪ Z. That means y ∈ X or

In a symmetric argument, it can be shown by assuming that we have

Since Y ⊆ Z and Z ⊆ Y, it must be the case that Y = Z. Thus, we

Suppose X ∈ P(A) ∪ P(B). By definition of union, X ∈ P(A) or

Suppose X ∈ P(A) ∪ P(B). By definition of union, X ∈ P(A) or

Now, if X ⊆ A, then X ⊆ A ∪ B. So X ∈ P(A ∪ B). But, if X ⊆ B,

Let r and s be rational numbers. We want to show that r + s is a

Let r and s be rational numbers. We want to show that r + s is a

By definition of rational numbers, there are integers a and b with

Let p = ad + bc and let q = bd. By closure of the integers under

The purpose of counterexamples is to prove a statement is false.

The purpose of counterexamples is to prove a statement is false.

For the following, how would we disprove using counterexamples?

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