Elementary Number

Theory and Methods of

Proof
Direct Proof
• Even Integer
 Let n be an integer, n is even if it is equals to 2 times some
other integer.
 n = 2k, where k is an integer
 n = 10, n = 2 * 5

• Odd Integer
 Let n be an integer, n is even if it is equals to 2 times some
other integer plus 1.
 n = 2k + 1, where k is an integer
 n = 11, n = 2 * 5 + 1
• Example 1: Answer the following and justify your
answer.
a. Is 0 even?

b. Is -21 odd?
c. If a and b are integers, is 6a2b even?

d. If a and b are integers, is 18a + 12b + 1 odd?

e. If a and b are integers, is 11a + 12b + 1 odd?

• Prime Numbers
 Let n be an integer, n is prime if and only if, n >1 and for all
positive integers a and b, if n = ab, then either a = n or b =
n.
 2 is prime. The factors of 2 are 1 and 2 and in this case 2 = 2.
• Composite Numbers
 Let n be an integer, n is compsite if and only if, n >1 and n =
ab for some integers a and b where 1 < a < n and 1 < b < n.
 10 is composite, 5 and 2 are factors of 10 and both are greater
than 1 and less than 10.
Proving Existential Statements
• Two ways:
 Find an element of the domain that makes the predicate
true.
 give a set of directions for finding an element that will make
the predicate true
• Example 2:
a. There is a perfect square that can be written as a sum of
two other perfect squares
Proving Universal Statements
• Majority of mathematical statements to be proved are
universal.
• First Method: Proof by Exhaustion
 The proof goes by taking each element in the domain and
show that the statement holds true to each of these
elements.
 This method is good if the number of elements in the
domain is very few. But if the domain has an infinite
elements or even if the domain is finite but the elements
are too many, it is impossible/impractical to show that the
statement holds true to every element.
• Example 3: if n is an integer and 1 ≤ n ≤ 4, then n2 < 10.
Solution: This can be proven using exhaustion.
(12 < 10) ^ (22 < 10) ^ (32 < 10) ^ (42 < 10)
(1 < 10) ^ (4 < 10) ^ (9 < 10) ^ (16 < 10)
TRUE ^ TRUE ^ TRUE ^ FALSE
Since one of the truth values in the conjunction is false,
then the statement is false.
• Example 3: if m and n are even integers, then m + n is
also even.
Solution: This statement is impossible to prove using
exhaustion.
• Method 2: Generalizing from the Generic Particular
 Method of Direct Proof
1. “Express the statement to be proved in the form “∀x ∈ D,
if P(x) then Q(x).”
2. “Start the proof by supposing x is a particular but
arbitrarily chosen element of D for which the hypothesis
P(x) is true.”
3. “Show that the conclusion Q(x) is true by using
definitions, previously established results, and the rules
for logical inference.”
• Example 4:For all integers m and n, if m and n are
even then m + n is even.
Proof: Suppose m and n are even integers. By definition
of even, m = 2e and n = 2f for some integers e and f.
Then
m + n = 2e + 2f by substitution
= 2 (e + f) by factoring out a 2
Hence, m + n is of the form 2k, where k = (e + f) which
is an integer. It follows that by definition of even that m
+ n is even.
Writing the Proof
1. “Copy the statement of the theorem to be proved on
your paper.”
2. “Clearly mark the beginning of your proof with the
word Proof.”
3. “Make your proof self-contained.”
 Introduce your initial variables and what they are.
4. “Write your proof in complete, grammatically correct
sentences.”
5. “Keep your reader informed about the status of each
statement in your proof.”
 If you make some assumptions, start with the word
suppose or assume.
 If it is still to be shown, start with the phrase like “we
must show that…”

6. “Give a reason for each assertion in your proof.”

 Indicate the basis for each step, like is it a hypothesis, a
definition, or a theorem.
7. “Include the ‘little words and phrases’ that make the
logic of your arguments clear.”
 If a line, follow from the previous sentence or
combinations from earlier previous sentences, start it
with Then, thus, so, hence, therefore, consequently, or it
follows that. For example, you can say “by definition of
even, m = 2k for some integer k.”
 If the sentence is not related to any of the previous
sentences, precede it with observe that, not that, but, or
now.
 If your proof requires a new variable in terms of previous
variables, introduce it with the word let.
8. Display equations and inequalities on separate lines
to improve readability.
Common Mistakes
1. “Arguing from Examples”
 It is wrong to think that the sentence can be proved by
showing it to be true for some special cases.
 Example: if m = 12 and n = 30, which are all even, then m
+ n = 42, which is also even.
2. “Using the same letter to mean two different things.”
 Defining two different variables using the same letter.
 Example: suppose e and f are any perfect squares. Then by
definition of perfect square, e = k2 and f = k2 for some
integer k.
3. “Jumping to a conclusion.”
 Claiming the truth of any statement without giving
adequate reason.
 Example: suppose m is any even integer. By definition of
even, m = 2k for some integer k, then m2 = (2k)2 = 4k2. so m2
is even.

4. “Circular reasoning.”
 Assuming what is to be proved.
 Example: suppose m is any even integer. When an even
number is multiplied to itself the product is even.
Therefore, m2 is even.
5. “Confusion between what is known and what is still to
be shown.”
 The conclusion to be shown is restated using a variable –
still circular.
 Example: “Suppose m and n are any odd integers. We must
show that mn is odd. This means that there exists an
integer s such that
mn = 2s + 1.
Also, by definition of odd, there exist integers a and b such
that
m = 2a + 1 and n = 2b + 1.
Then
mn = (2a + 1)(2b + 1) = 2s + 1.
So, since s is an integer, mn is odd by definition of odd.”
6. “Use of any rather than some.”
 Example: by definition of perfect square, m = b2 for any
integer b. – the correct word is some.

7. “Misuse of the word if.”

 The use of if when what is meant is because.
 Example: Suppose p is a prime number. If p is prime, then
p cannot be written as a product of two smaller positive
integers.
 If should not be used here.
Additional Examples
• Example 5: For all integers n, if n is odd then n 2 is odd.
• Example 6: If k is any odd integer and m is any even
integer, then, k2 + m2 is odd.
• Example 7: There exists an integer m ≥ 3 such that m 2
− 1 is prime.
• Example 8: For all integers n, 4(n2 + n + 1) − 3n2 is a
perfect square.
Rational Numbers
• “Areal number r is rational if, and only if, it can be
expressed as a quotient of two integers with a nonzero
denominator. A real number that is not rational is
irrational. More formally, if r is a real number, then
𝑎
r is rational ⇔ ∃ integers a and b such that r = and b ≠ 0.”
𝑏
• ZeroProduct Property: “If neither of two real numbers is
zero, then their product is also not zero.”
• Theorem 4.2.1: “Every integer is a rational number.”
• Example 9: For all real numbers r and s, if r and s are
rational then r + s is rational.
Some Properties of Even and Odd Integers
1. The sum, product, and difference of any two even integers
are even.
2. The sum and difference of any two odd integers are even.
3. The product of any two odd integers is odd.
4. The product of any even integer and any odd integer is
even.
5. The sum of any odd integer and any even integer is odd.
6. The difference of any odd integer minus any even integer is
odd.
7. The difference of any even integer minus any odd integer is
odd.
• Example10: Use the properties listed in the previous slide to
show that, if a is any even integer and b is any odd integer,
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 +1
then is an integer.
2
Additional Examples
• Example 11: Assume that m and n are both integers
and that n ≠ 0. Explain why (5m + 12n)/(4n) must be a
rational number
• Example 12: Prove that the difference of any two
rational numbers is a rational number.
• Example 13: If r is any rational number, then 3r 2 − 2r + 4
is rational.
• Example 14: “Proof: Suppose r and s are rational numbers.
By definition of rational, r = a/b for some integers a and b
with b ≠ 0, and s = a/b for some integers a and b with b ≠
0.
Then, r + s = a/b + a/b = 2a/b.
Let p = 2a. Then p is an integer since it is a product of
integers. Hence r + s = p/b, where p and b are integers and b
≠ 0. Thus r + s is a rational number by definition of rational.
This is what was to be shown.” What is wrong with this
proof?
Indirect Proof
Proof by Contraposition
• Justlike direct proof, contraposition is used to prove
conditional statements of the form “If P, then Q”
• The statement 𝐏⇒𝑸 is logically equivalent to ~𝑸 ⇒~𝑷.

P Q ~Q ~P P → Q ~Q → ~P
T T F F T T
T F T F F F
F T F T T T
F F T T T T
• Outline for Contrapositive Proof
Proposition. If P, then Q.
Proof. Suppose ~Q.
.
.
.
Therefore ~P
• Example 15: Suppose 𝒙 ∈ ℤ. If 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟗 is even, then 𝒙 is
odd. [solve using direct and by contrapositive]
• Example 16: If 𝒙𝟐 −𝟔𝒙+𝟓 is even, then 𝒙 is odd.
Proof By Contradiction
•A proof technique that can be used to prove any kind of
statement whatsoever.
• The basic idea is to assume that the statement we want
to prove is false, and then show that this statement led
to nonsense. [If we want to prove the statement P, we
assume that P is false and comes with the conclusion C
and not C: (~𝑷)⇒(𝑪 ∧ ∼𝑪) ]
• Proving a Single Statements with Contradiction
 To prove a statement P, it suffices to instead prove the
conditional statement (∼𝑷)⇒(𝑪 ∧ ∼𝑪
 Outline for Proof by Contradiction
Proposition P.
Proof. Suppose ~P
.
.
.
Therefore C ^ ~C
• Example 17: Prove the statement 2 is irrational.
• Example 18: Prove that there is no integer that is both
even and odd.
• Proving Conditional Statement
 The proof begins with the assumption that ∼(𝑷 ⇒𝑸) that is
(𝑷 ⇒𝑸) is false. This means that P is true, and Q is false.
 Outline in Proving Conditional Statement
Proposition If P, then Q.
Proof. Suppose and ~Q.
.
.
.
Therefor C ^ ~C.
• Example 19: If 𝒂∈ ℤ. If 𝒂𝟐 is even, then .𝒂 is even
• Example 20: Prove that if n = ab, where a and b are
positive integers, then a ≤ 𝑛 or b ≤ 𝑛.
• Example 21: If 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ ℤ, then 𝒂𝟐 −𝟒𝒃 −𝟐 ≠ 𝟎
End of Presentation
Sources :
Epp, Susanna S. (2011). Discrete Mathematics With
Applications, Fourth Edition. Brooks/Cole Cengage
Learning
Garnier Rowan and John Taylor (2002). Discrete
Mathematics for New Technology, Second Edition.
IOP Publishing Ltd.
Haggard, Gary, John Schlipf, and Sue Whitesides (2009).
Discrete Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists,
Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.
Rosen, Kenneth H.. (2008) Discrete Mathematics and Its
Applications, 6th ed. McGraw Hill.