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1 Proof
You should be able to use four different types of proof.
Proof by deduction
o A proof by deduction (or by reasoning) always has a few logical steps.
Proof by exhaustion
o In a proof by exhaustion you check all possible cases separately.
Disproof by counter-example
o When trying to find a counter-example, you may need to try several possibilities.
Proof by contradiction
o In a proof by contradiction you start with an assumption and then make some
deductions until you get to something that is wrong (a contradiction of the
assumption).
means implies.
For example, x + 2 = 5 x = 3.
Examples
Example 1 Proof by deduction - Year 1 textbook Ex7E
Use completing the square to prove that n2 − 6n + 10 is positive for all values of n.
The only positive integers less than 6 are It may be helpful to begin by explaining
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. what you will do to prove the statement.
Check that 2n < (n + 1)2 for each case.
n = 1:
In a proof by exhaustion, work through
2n = 21 = 2 and (n + 1)2 = (1 + 1)2 = 4; all the possibilities in a systematic way
2<4 to make sure you don’t miss any.
n = 2:
2n = 22 = 4 and (n + 1)2 = (2 + 1)2 = 9;
4<9
n = 3:
2n = 23 = 8 and (n + 1)2 = (3 + 1)2 = 16;
8 < 16
n = 4:
2n = 24 = 16 and (n + 1)2 = (4 + 1)2 = 25;
16 < 25
n = 5:
2n = 25 = 32 and (n + 1)2 = (5 + 1)2 = 36;
32 < 36
2n < (n + 1)2 for all five possible cases Always end your proof with a
and this completes the proof. conclusion.
For m = 2 and n = –1, You can pick any m > 0 and n < 0.
1 1 1
= and = −1.
m 2 n
Assume that there are a finite amount of Start by stating your initial
primes: assumption.
p1 , p2 , p3 , ... , pN
Multiply all these prime numbers and add 1.
P = p1 p2 p3 ... pN + 1
P is greater than any of the prime numbers P cannot be prime because it would
and cannot be prime. mean you had found an extra
prime!
This means one of the primes, pi , must
divide into P.
So pi must divide into
p1 p2 p3 ... pN + 1
pi divides into ( p1 p2 p3 ... pN ) as
pi is in the product.
So pi must therefore also divide into 1,
which is a contradiction.
The assumption must be incorrect. Remember to explain how the
So there are infinitely many prime numbers. contradiction proves the statement.
Example 6 Proof by contradiction
Note: The proof that 3 is irrational is similar. Replace the 2 in the proof by 3 and
replace ‘so p2 is even and therefore p is even’ by ‘so p2 can be divided by 3 and
therefore p can be divided by 3’.
Exercise
4. Find a counter-example to prove that n2 + n + 11 is not prime for all positive integer values of n.
Prove that x − y = ( x − y)( x + xy + y ) .
3 3 2 2
5.
6. Prove by exhaustion that there are exactly two natural numbers less than 101 that are both a
square and a cube integer. [Note: the natural numbers are the set {1, 2, 3, … }.]
10. Insert one of , or into the following statement about integer n. Explain your answer.
n2 + 1 is even ……. n is odd
1. x2 + 8x + 21 = x2 + 8x + 16 − 16 + 21 = ( x + 4)2 + 5
(x + 4)2 ≥ 0 for all values of x, and therefore (x +4)2 + 5 > 0.
Hence x 2 + 8 x + 21 is positive for all values of x.
6. The cubes less than 101 are 13 = 1, 23 = 8, 33 = 27 and 43 = 64. (53 = 125 > 101)
Of these four numbers, two are squares, 12 = 1 and 82 = 64.
So there are exactly two cubes between 0 and 101 that are also squares.
So y 1 y 1 is not correct.
2
9. n = 13 gives a counter-example.
n2 + 3n + 13 = 132 + 3 13 + 13 = 221 = 13 17.
Therefore n 2 + 3n + 13 is not prime for all values of n.
10. because
n2 + 1 is even n2 is odd n is odd
and n is odd n2 is odd n2 + 1 is even