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OF
PROOF
JOEROM D. ONOFRE
METHODS OF PROOF
v Trivial Proofs
v Vacuous Proofs
v Direct Proofs
v Indirect Proofs
v Proof by Cases
v Principles of Mathematical Induction
v Proofs Involving Quantifiers
v Disapproving Statement and
Counterexample
PROOF
It is a logical argument in which each
statement that you make is backed up
by a statement that is accepted as true.
TRIVIAL
PROOFS
Trivial Proofs : Conclusion holds without using the
hypothesis. A trivial proof can be given when the
conclusion is shown to be (always) true. That is, if q is
true then p → q is true.
Example 1:
��� � ∈ �, �� � �� �� ��� ������, �ℎ�� 2 �� � ����� ������.
Proof:
��� � ∈ �, ����� 2 �� � ����� ������, �ℎ� ���������� ��
������ ����, �� �ℎ�� ����������� ��������� �� ��������� ����. ∎
Not���:
We didn’t make any mention of hypothesis.
Example 2: ��� � ∈ �, �� � > 0, �ℎ�� �2 + 5 ≥ 0
Q - is always true
�2 ≥ 0 ��� ��� � ∈ ℝ and Z , 5 > 0
so �2 + 5 ≥ 0
Proof: Let x ∈ Z, Notice the conclusion is always true, this
is beacuse for any real number and hence, for any integer, we
have shown that the 2 scenario is always greater than or equal to 0.
Therefore,
�2 + 5 ≥ 0, this statement is trivially true. ∎
Example 3: ��� � ∈ ℝ, �� �2 − 4 ≥ 0, �ℎ�� �2 + 4 ≥ 0
Q - is always true
�2 ≥ 0 , 4 > 0
so �2 + 4 ≥ 0
Proof: Let x ∈ ℝ, Observe that the conclusion is always true,
beacuse we have seen for all � ∈ ℝ, where the
2 scenario is always greater than or equal to 0 and thus �2 + 4 ≥ 0,
we can conclude that this statement is trivially true. ∎
VACUOUS
PROOFS
Vacuous Proof: If p is a conjunction of other
hypotheses and we know one or more of these
hypotheses is false, then p is false and so p → q is
vacuously true regardless of the truth value of q.
Example 1: ��� � ∈ �, �� �2 < 0, �ℎ�� � �� �� ��� ������.
P - is always false
Proof:
Let x ∈ N, Notice that the hypothesis �2 < 0 is always false,
beacuse any square of natural number is always positive. Thus
the entire statement is vacuously true. ∎
Example 2:
��� � ∈ ℝ, �� � + 1 < 0, �ℎ�� �5 < 4.
P - is always false
� ≥ 0,
� +1≥0
Proof: Let x ∈ ℝ, By definition of absolute value, � ≥ 0,
and so � + 1 ≥ 0. This means that the hypothesis is always
false, Thus the entire statement is vacuously true. ∎
Example 3:
1 1
��� � ∈ �, �� � + < 2, �ℎ�� �2 + < 4.
� �2
P - is always false
1
n=1:1+ < 2 - false
1
1
n=2:2+ < 2 - false
2
1
n=3:3+ < 2 - false
3
Example 3:
1 1
��� � ∈ �, �� � + < 2, �ℎ�� �2 + < 4.
� �2
P - is always false
1
n �+ <2
�
�2 + 1 < 2�
�2 + 1 − 2� < 2� − 2�
�2 − 2� + 1 < 0
(� − 1) (� − 1) < 0
(� − 1)2 < 0 This must be false because for any square of natural number is ≥ 0. ∎
DIRECT
PROOFS
Direct Proof: We assume P is true, and together with
other establish properties, one should show that Q is
also true.
DEFINITIONS
Even Intergers: An even integer takes the form 2k for some
integer k.
Since our inequality � ≤ �2 is true for all possible cases, We can conclude
that � ≤ �2 for all integers. ∎
MATHEMATICAL
INDUCTION
a. P1 is true (that is, the statement is true for n = 1).
1(1 + 1)
1 =
2
1(2)
1 =
2
2
1 =
2
1 =1
Hence, the formula is true for n = 1.
Example 2:
�(�+1)
Using mathematical induction prove that, 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + � =
2
6
1 =
6
1 = 1
Hence, the formula is true for n = 1.
Example 3:
�(�+1)(2�+1)
Using mathematical induction prove that, 12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + �2 =
6
� + 1(� + 1 + 1)(2(� + 1) + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + ... + �2 + (� + 1)2 =
6
(� + 1)(� + 2)(2� + 3)
12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + �2 + (� + 1)2 =
6
Example 3:
�(�+1)(2�+1)
Using mathematical induction prove that, 12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + �2 =
6
∀� �(�)
For all x, P(x)
For every x, P(x)
where ∀ is called the universal quantifier
Universal Quantifier - The Universal Quatifification P(x) is the
statement
“P(x) for all values of x in the domain”.
Domain or Domain of Discourse
A domain specifies the possible values of a variable under consideration.
For example: Let P(x) is the statement � + 1 > � and let us assumme
that the domain is a set of all positive integers.
�(1) : 1 + 1 > 1 ����
�(2) : 2 + 1 > 2 ����
∀� �(�) �� ���� ����� �ℎ� ������ �� �������� ��������. ∎
Existential Quantifier - The Universal Quatifification of P(x) is the
proposition
“There exists an element x in the domain such that P(x).
Notation:
∃� �(�)
There is an x such that P(x)
There is at least one x such that P(x)
For some x P(x)
where ∃ is called the existential quantifier
Note: Specifying the domain is important. Without domain, the statement
∃� �(�) has no meaning.
Existential Quantifier - The Universal Quatifification of P(x) is the proposition
“There exists an element x in the domain such that P(x).
For Example: What is the thruth value of ∃� �(�), where P(x) is the statement �2 >
10 and the universe of discourse consists of positive integers not exceeding 4?
Solution: Domain 1, 2, 3, ��� 4
P(1) : 12 > 10 False
P(2) : 22 > 10 False
P(3) : 32 > 10 False
P(4) : 42 > 10 True
(� + 1)2 ≠ �2 + 1.
(1 + 1)2 ≠ (1)2 + 1
(2)2 ≠ 1 + 1.
4 ≠ 2. ∎
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