Week 7 - Fatigue

ENGG103
– Materials in Design
CHAPTER 8 – Fatigue
Madeleine du Toit
11 April 2016
Importance of fatigue
On Wednesday, 7 November 2007, a
Boeing 737‐200 aircraft carrying 106
passengers had to make an
emergency landing after losing an Forward engine
engine during take‐off. mount forging
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 2
Fractured forward engine mount cone bolt.
Cone bolt fracture surface
Brittle fracture
Fatigue crack
10 mm
The forward cone bolt attaching the engine mount assembly to
the wing fractured as a result of a low cycle fatigue crack.
What is fatigue?
• Many engineering components are subject to dynamic and
fluctuating stresses:
‒ Aircraft structures
‒ Bridges
‒ Pressure vessels
‒ Axles, shafts …
• Is it enough to keep stress below σy?
‒ No.
• Fatigue is failure due to non‐static, fluctuating loads.
• Fatigue occurs at stress levels below σTS and below σy
Image from: Ashby, M., H. Shercliff, and D. Cebon, Materials: Engineering, Science, Processing and Design. 2nd ed. 2010, Oxford: Butterworth‐Heinemann.
Characteristics of fatigue
• Fatigue of a pin due to poorly aligned grease ports:
Crack initiation
Final Fracture
Beach Marks
Image from: Budynas, R., Nisbett, K. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design. 8th ed. 2006, Hightstown, New Jersey: McGraw‐Hill.
• Fatigue of large piston due to casting defect:
Crack initiation
Final Fracture
Beach Marks
200 mm
Initiation
Fractured truck crankshaft.
Initiation
Fractured stud.
• Brittle type fracture, even in ductile materials:
‒ Due to repeated cyclic loading.
• Cracks originate from stress concentrations:
‒ At the component surface, OR
‒ At large internal defects.
• Cracks grow with each loading cycle to leave concentric ‘beach
marks’ in the fracture surface.
• Crack growth continues until critical size is reached causing fast,
catastrophic fracture.
Fatigue loading
• Failure occurs due to varying loads, typically at stresses lower
than the yield stress.
• Three main classifications for loadings:
a) Fully reversed loading:
‒ Rotating axle of rail car
Fatigue loading
b) Repeated:
‒ Batch pressure vessel
Fatigue loading
b) Repeated:
c) Fluctuating:
‒ Ship or oil platform
Fatigue loadings
than the yield stress
b) Repeated:
c) Fluctuating:
‒ Ship or oil platform
Fatigue testing
• Fatigue is a process of crack initiation and propagation under
cyclic or fluctuating loads.
• To characterise the fatigue behaviour of a material:
‒ Subject sample to cyclic or fluctuating loads.
‒ Subject sample to cyclic or fluctuating displacements.
‒ Observe the number of cycles to failure Nf
‒ Repeat for various magnitudes of load/displacement.
‒ Generate a relationship between stress/strain and cycles to failure.
Fatigue testing
• Loading may be:
‒ Axially applied loads (tension‐compression)
F F
‒ Bending (3‐point bend test)
F
‒ Cantilever + Rotation
F
Some definitions
• Stress Range:
∆ 
 max
• Stress Amplitude:
∆
m
a
• Mean Stress:  min time
• Stress Ratio:
If R = ‐1 then σm = 0
• Amplitude Ratio:
Fatigue of uncracked components
• Materials may be subjected to varying loads or displacements.
• Stress or strain is below the elastic limit:
‒ Hooke’s law holds true
‒ ∆σ  ∆εelastic
Stress amplitude
Stress range
Mean stress/strain
Strain range
Fatigue of uncracked components
• Materials may be subjected to varying loads or displacements.
• Stress or strain is above the elastic limit:
‒ Elastic and plastic deformation
‒ Stress‐strain loop
Stress amplitude
‒ Shape of loop takes many
cycles to stabilise
Stress range
Mean stress/strain
Strain range
Fatigue data
Two regimes of fatigue:
a) Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF)
‒ Below ≈ 104 cycles
‒ Plastic strain is dominant
b) High Cycle Fatigue (HCF)
‒ Above ≈ 104 cycles
‒ Elastic strain is dominant
HCF vs LCF
Low Cycle Fatigue ‐ Stress is
between the yield stress and
Tension
tensile strength, and failure occurs
within a small number of cycles.
High Cycle Fatigue ‐ Stress is
below the yield stress, yet failure
still occurs. A high number of
Compression
cycles is required for final failure.
Vibration ‐ does not normally
cause failure.
High Cycle Fatigue is of greater importance in general engineering.
Most structures are designed to operate below σy for long times.
Fatigue S‐N curves
• Sample subjected to stress amplitude σa (= ∆σ/2) about a mean
stress σm and cycles to failure Nf recorded.
• Plot stress amplitude σa against cycles to failure Nf (log scale).
‒ S‐N curve.
‒ Particularly suited to HCF.
Image from: Norton, R.L., Machine design : an integrated approach . 3rd ed., [International ed.] ed. 2006, Boston, Mass. ; Pearson.
Two types of fatigue behaviour observed:
A. Fatigue failure does not occur below a certain stress level.
‒ Endurance limit σe (also called fatigue limit)
‒ Ferrous alloys (carbon steels, stainless steels, alloy steels)
‒ Titanium alloys
‒ Some polymers
Two types of fatigue behaviour observed:
B. Fatigue failure occurs at all levels of applied stress.
‒ No endurance limit
‒ Define a fatigue strength σf at a certain number of cycles
‒ Aluminium alloys
‒ Copper alloys
‒ Magnesium alloys
‒ Nickel alloys
S‐N curves
• The number of cycles to failure increases as the applied stress
range decreases.
Normalised AISI 4130 steel:
Using S‐N curves
• Loading conditions below the curve = safe.
• Loading conditions above the curve = unsafe.
UNSAFE
SAFE
S‐N curves
• Sample variability:
‒ No two samples are identical.
‒ Gives scatter in measured fatigue values.
‒ For higher rates of survivability, S‐N curves
drop to lower stresses.
Probability of failure curves for
7075‐T6 aluminium alloy:
Image from: Callister, W.D., Materials Science and Engineering, an Introduction. 6th ed. 2003, Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Example ‐ Fatigue
A steel shaft operates continuously at a rotational speed of 600
rpm. Using the S‐N curve provided determine the maximum
continuous life for a stress amplitude of:
a) 450 MPa
b) 380 MPa
c) 310 MPa
Example ‐ Fatigue
.
a) For → 10 cycles
16000 cycles

/
.
b) For → 10
1.26 10 cycles
.

/
c) For → 10
1.0 10 cycles
.

/
Using S‐N curves
• Data in S‐N curves is for a specific loading type under certain
atmospheric conditions.
‒ Should be given on the curve. Material and Atmosphere
condition Stress ratio
• Usually data is for:
‒ Fully reversed loading.
‒ Mean stress (m = 0). 0
‒ Stress ratio (R = ‐1). 1
Image from: Lutjering, G. and J.C. Williams, 5. Alpha+Beta Alloys, in Titanium. 2007, Springer: Berlin. p. 203‐258.
S‐N curves
• Often fatigue tests are conducted with rotating samples
‒ Fully reversed loading
‒ Mean stress 0
‒ Stress ratio 1
• How does data compare to other loading conditions
‒ Other loading cycles:
Mean stress 0
Stress ratio 1
σm = compression
• Many engineering σm = 0
applications involve HCF σm = tension
where
‒ Is the data useless?
Fatigue data
• Easiest for testing if mean stress is zero, σm = 0.
• Not often the case.
• Typically σm > 0.
• Fatigue loading on top of a non‐zero
mean stress is more detrimental.
• To achieve equivalent effect on
material with mean stress the stress
amplitude must be larger.
Using S‐N Curves
• Where we use Goodman’s rule:
Stress range at a
mean stress of σm Mean stress σm
∆ ∆ 1
Stress range at a Tensile strength
mean stress of zero of material
• While the above equation is in terms of stress range it clearly
holds for stress amplitude (as ∆ 2 for all cases).
Example ‐ Fatigue
A high strength low alloy steel with a tensile strength of 855 MPa is
subjected to a cyclic tensile stress with min = 120 MPa and max = 780 MPa.
Calculate the equivalent stress amplitude for zero mean stress that gives
equivalent fatigue behaviour.
855 MPa
120 MPa
780 MPa
 and
Stress amplitude (= ∆σ/2) with zero mean stress that gives equivalent fatigue
behaviour:
∆
∆

Fatigue of cracked components
• Engineering structures and components are rarely defect‐free.
‒ Usually contain internal flaws and cracks.
‒ These defects may be so small they go undetected.
• Cyclic loading will cause the cracks to grow.
‒ At some point the crack size may reach the critical crack length for fast
fracture.
‒ Need to know the number of cycles (or time) until these cracks reach the
critical length.
• Consider the stress intensity factor:
π
• For fatigue loading we have the fatigue stress intensity factor:
∆ ∆ π
Fatigue of cracked components
• Fatigue stress intensity factor:
∆ ∆ π
‒ Crack grows under tension  a increases
‒ With repeated loading ∆K increases (same loading each cycle)
Fatigue crack growth
• Three stages to crack growth:
I. Crack initiation.
II. Steady state growth.
III. Unstable (fast) fracture .
• Stage II is the most important
‒ Crack growth per cycle:
∆
‒ A and m are material constants (determined empirically).
• Safe number of cycles is estimated by integration:
∆
‒ ao and af are the initial and final crack lengths respectively.
= critical crack length for brittle fracture
Mechanisms – Crack initiation
• High cycle fatigue:
‒ Ductile material with no cracks.
‒ But does contain defects / inclusions / hard particles.
‒ Component or structure is loaded so stress is below the yield strength:
‒ Geometry changes cause stress concentrations with high local stress:
‒ Localised plastic deformation occurs forming
slip bands (regions of intense deformation).
‒ Formation of micro‐voids at particles / inclusions.
‒ Void growth and coalescence to form a crack.
Mechanisms – Crack initiation
• Low cycle fatigue:
‒ Ductile material with no cracks.
‒ But does contain defects / inclusions / hard particles.
‒ Component or structure is loaded so stress exceeds the yield strength:
‒ Plastic deformation causes geometry changes at the free surface.
‒ Geometry changes cause stress concentration.
‒ Cracks initiate in same manner as HCF but more rapidly.
‒ Once a crack has formed in a slip band it can grow
into the bulk material (normal to the tensile stress).
Mechanisms – Crack growth
• Comparison of high cycle and low cycle fatigue crack growth:
• HCF:
‒ Plastic zone is small.
‒ Crack growth per cycle is small.
• LCF:
‒ Plastic zone is large.
‒ Voids and cavities form ahead of the crack tip.
‒ Crack growth per cycle is large.
Mechanisms – Crack growth
• Rate of fatigue crack growth depends on:
‒ Magnitude of the applied stress (σm and σa):
‒ Stress must be tensile for crack opening.
‒ Higher stress means less cycles to failure.
‒ Frequency of loading cycles:
‒ More cycle per unit time means failure in shorter time period.
‒ Material response to crack growth:
‒ Size of the plastic zone.
‒ Barriers to crack growth (grain boundaries, etc).
• Crack growth will increase as time progresses under a consistent
loading regime.
Mechanism – Fatigue failure
• Crack growth continues with each loading cycle:
‒ Crack growth per cycle:
• At some point crack length a is large enough to cause brittle
fracture.
Stress concentrations
• Holes, slots, threads and general changes in geometry cause
localised changes in stress distributions.
‒ Local stresses exceed the nominal ‘background’ stress.
‒ Higher local stresses promotes failure from these locations.
• These features are stress concentrators.
Stress concentrations
• Stress Concentration Factor (SCF): σlocal = 3 σnominal
σnominal
• Hole in an infinite plate:
‒ Uniaxial applied stress (nominal).
‒ SCF = 3.
‒ Bolted connections in bridges, buildings, etc.
• Rotating shaft with diameter change:
‒ Bending gives tensile and compressive stresses.
‒ SCF depends on shaft diameters and fillet radius.
‒ Axles in vehicles, gearboxes, machinery, etc.
Stress Concentrations
• Stress Concentration Factor (SCF) must be considered in design.
• To avoid fatigue failure:
a) Design to minimise stress concentrations as much as practically possible:
‒ Avoid abrupt changes in profile.
‒ Use chamfers or fillets.
‒ Use largest fillet radius possible.
‒ Avoid holes or notches.
b) Design stresses:
‒ Keep maximum stress below the required fatigue stress σf
‒ σlocal is the critical stress, not σnominal
Notch sensitivity
• A notch is any discontinuity which changes stress distribution:
‒ Holes.
‒ Grooves.
‒ Step changes in size.
‒ Threads.
• SCF increases with decreasing fillet radius:
‒ A perfectly square corner should have ∞.
‒ Implies failure by fatigue at any level of nominal stress.
‒ Components with sharp corners can survive fatigue.
• Low strength, softer materials tend to show lower notch sensitivity.
Images from: Budynas, R., Nisbett, K. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design. 8th ed. 2006, Hightstown, New Jersey: McGraw‐Hill.
Notch sensitivity
• What happens if we choose a material with higher tensile
strength to avoid fatigue?
• Advantages:
‒ Increased fatigue strength.
‒ Crack initiation retarded.
‒ Improved fatigue performance.
• Disadvantages:
‒ Increased notch sensitivity.
‒ Crack growth is accelerated.
‒ Reduced fatigue performance.
• Strength is not everything in fatigue loading.
Welded structures
• Welding is used to generate permanent and rigid join between
two or more components.
• Why welding?
‒ Simple.
‒ Continuous load bearing joint.
‒ Cost effective.
‒ Does not require precise fit up.
‒ Reduced material requirements.
Welded structures
• Welded structures tend to show unique fatigue behaviour.
• Welds generate:
‒ Changes in geometry.
‒ Changes in material properties.
‒ Residual stresses.
Residual stress in welded structures
• Residual stresses are stresses that exist in a solid body after all
externally applied loads are removed.
• Thermal cycles during fusion welding generate residual stresses.
Consider a 3‐bar model of a ‘bead‐on‐plate’ weld:
• All bars are fixed together at the ends and are the
same length.
• Welding heats the centre bar causing thermal
expansion.
Compression
Compression
• Expansion is restricted by outer bars and so centre
Tension
bar yields in compression.
• On cooling the centre bar contracts.
• Contraction is restricted by outer bars but yielding is
not possible (no thermal softening).
• Results in tensile residual stress along weld line and
compressive stresses away from the weld.
Welded structures
• Typically welding reduces fatigue performance significantly.
• This is due to:
‒ Stress concentration factors due to geometry changes.
‒ Rough surface finish.
‒ Small cracks in the weld region.
‒ Weld defects such as undercut or slag inclusions.
‒ Tensile residual stresses.
• Design of welded structures for fatigue applications uses different
methods to those previously described.
Improving fatigue behaviour
• Design:
‒ Reconsider loadings.
‒ Change connections (flexible instead of rigid).
‒ Refine designs to reduce stress concentrators.
‒ Incorporate pre‐loadings to reduce stress variations.
• Crack formation (and growth) is due to high local stresses which
cause plastic deformation.
• High local stresses are due to stress concentrators:
‒ Macro scale  notches, fillets, geometry changes.
‒ Micro scale  surface defects, scratches, corrosion pits.
• For internal defects:
‒ Improved manufacturing and process control.
‒ Non‐destructive testing to identify flaws.
• Majority of fatigue failures initiate at the free surface:
‒ Maximum stress under bending.
‒ Highly susceptible to stress concentrators.
• Reducing surface roughness improves fatigue performance:
‒ Reduced number and severity of micro‐scale
stress concentrators.
‒ Less sites for crack initiation.
• Techniques include:
‒ Machining.
‒ Grinding.
‒ Polishing (mechanical and electrochemical).
• Corrosion increases surface roughness.
• Cracks can only grow where there is tensile stress.
• Use mechanical or chemical processes to introduce compressive
residual stresses:
‒ Applied load must first overcome the compressive stresses before crack
growth is possible.
‒ Increased loads required for crack growth.
• Methods include:
‒ Shot peening.
‒ Grinding.
‒ Thread rolling.
‒ Carburising.
‒ Nitriding.
• Shot peening:
‒ Mechanically induced plastic deformation of surface layers.
‒ Hard particles (d ≈ 0.1 ‐ 1.0 mm).
‒ High velocity impact.
‒ Depth of stress ≈ 0.25d ‐ 0.5d.
shot
shot peening
put
surface
into
compression
• Laser peening – thermally induced residual stresses.
• Shot peening:
Shot peened
Reference condition
Peened + plated
Plated
• Plating with hard coatings (nickel or chrome) tends to reduce
fatigue performance:
‒ May be used to avoid corrosion.
‒ May be use in conjunction with peening.
• Grinding:
‒ Reduces surface roughness (compared to forged or machined).
‒ Introduces shallow compressive stresses at the surface.
• Case hardening:
‒ Surface chemistry is altered by introduction of carbon (carburising) or
nitrogen (nitriding).
‒ Forms interstitial solid solution.
‒ Distorts the crystal lattice.
‒ Puts surface layer into compression.
‒ Increases hardness of surface layers.
• High temperature exposure to
carbon‐ or nitrogen‐rich Carburised gear profile.
atmosphere.
• Thread rolling:
‒ Plastically deforms material.
‒ Gives compressive stresses.
‒ Microstructure is more continuous.
Image from: http://www.dansgrinding.com/Supporting‐Equipment.html
• Hole expansion:
‒ Internal pressure to ‘stretch’ pre‐drilled or punched hole.
• Grain size:
‒ More barriers to crack growth.
Image from: Figure 5.34 Lutjering, G. and J.C. Williams, 5.
Alpha+Beta Alloys, in Titanium. 2007, Springer: Berlin. p. 203‐258.
Designing with variability
• Material properties are not a sure thing:
‒ Fracture and fatigue behaviour is influenced by numerous factors.
‒ Some factors are unknown.
• How does this uncertainty affect design?
‒ Do we design so ?
‒ Design for an acceptable chance of failure.
‒ Introduce a margin for error  factor of safety.
• Factor of safety:
‒ Ratio of maximum allowable (eg. σy) to the maximum anticipated in
service.
safety
‒ Not always in terms of stress (cycles to failure, strain, speed).
‒ Nsafety has no units and must always be greater than unity.
Factor of safety
• Selecting a factor of safety:
Information Quality of Information Factor
F1
Actual material being used was tested 1.3
Material property data Representative material test data available 2

available from tests Fairly representative material test data available 3
Poorly representative material test data available 5+
F2
Are identical to material test conditions 1.3
Environmental conditions in Essentially room‐ambient environment 2

which it will be used Moderately challenging environment 3
Extremely challenging environment 5+
F3
Models have been tested and verified against experiments 1.3
Analytical models for Models accurately represent the system 2
loadings and stress Models approximately represent the system 3
Models are crude approximations 5+
≅ 1, 2, 3
≅2 1, 2, 3
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ENGG103

Image from: Budynas, R., Nisbett, K. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design. 8th ed. 2006, Hightstown, New Jersey: McGraw‐Hill.

Image from: Budynas, R., Nisbett, K. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design. 8th ed. 2006, Hightstown, New Jersey: McGraw‐Hill.

• Mean Stress:  min time

If R = ‐1 then σm = 0

Image from: Norton, R.L., Machine design : an integrated approach . 3rd ed., [International ed.] ed. 2006, Boston, Mass. ; Pearson.

Image from: Budynas, R., Nisbett, K. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design. 8th ed. 2006, Hightstown, New Jersey: McGraw‐Hill.

Image from: Budynas, R., Nisbett, K. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design. 8th ed. 2006, Hightstown, New Jersey: McGraw‐Hill.

Image from: Lutjering, G. and J.C. Williams, 5. Alpha+Beta Alloys, in Titanium. 2007, Springer: Berlin. p. 203‐258.

Image from: Norton, R.L., Machine design : an integrated approach . 3rd ed., [International ed.] ed. 2006, Boston, Mass. ; Pearson.

Image from: Budynas, R., Nisbett, K. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design. 8th ed. 2006, Hightstown, New Jersey: McGraw‐Hill.

Material property data Representative material test data available 2

Environmental conditions in Essentially room‐ambient environment 2

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