Professional Documents
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– Materials in Design
Week 5 – Lecture 1
CHAPTER 7 – Dislocations and strengthening mechanisms
29 March 2016
The Tensile Test
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 2
The Tensile Test
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 3
Definitions
• Elastic deformation
‒ Deformation is fully recovered after the load is removed.
‒ Object returns to its original dimensions.
• Plastic deformation
‒ Deformation is permanent and not recovered after the load is removed.
‒ Object dimensions are permanently altered.
ߪ
ߝ୮୪ୟୱ୲୧ୡ ൌ ߝ୲୭୲ୟ୪ െ
ܧ
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 4
Elastic Deformation
• Bonds between atoms act like springs: Hooke’s Law
࣌ ൌ ࡱࢿ
ܨൌ ݇ݔ
σ = stress
F = Force
E = Elastic modulus
k = stiffness constant
ε = strain (elastic)
x = displacement
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 5
Elastic Deformation
• Bonds between atoms act like springs: Hooke’s Law
࣌ ൌ ࡱࢿ
ܨൌ ݇ݔ
σ = stress
F = Force
k = stiffness constant E = Elastic modulus
x = displacement ε = strain (elastic)
• Bond stiffness is linked to cohesive energy of bonding between
atoms.
• On the atomic scale elastic deformation is related to stretching
bonds:
‒ Metals metallic bonds between atoms.
‒ Ceramics covalent or ionic bonds between atoms.
‒ Polymers covalent bonds between atoms, secondary bonds
between molecules (polymer chains).
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 6
Plastic Deformation
• On the atomic scale plastic deformation is related to breaking
bonds between atoms or molecules.
‒ Breaking bonds disrupts the atomic structure (e.g. crystal lattice/polymer
chain etc.).
‒ This produces a net change in shape plastic deformation.
‒ Many broken bonds gives macro scale permanent deformation.
Image from: http://www.hugequestions.com/Eric/TFC/Bridge‐Collapse.html
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 7
Yielding
• Elastic deformation does not stop at the yield point.
‒ Before yielding deformation is elastic.
‒ From the yield point onwards stresses are sufficient to break bonds.
‒ Stretching of unbroken bonds is still possible.
‒ Elastic deformation still takes place during plastic deformation.
• What if we re‐apply load?
‒ Again start with elastic
deformation.
‒ Yielding occurs at the stress
where deformation stopped
previously.
‒ Plastic + elastic continues.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 8
Why care about plasticity?
• Elastic limited design is common in engineering.
‒ Deformation of a component or structure is a design limit.
‒ Avoid yielding or permanent deformation.
‒ Modulus of elasticity (Young’s Modulus) describes the elastic deformation
of a material as a result of applied load.
• Why do we need to know about plastic deformation?
‒ Forming methods (rolling, forging, bending etc.).
‒ Plastic based design.
‒ Factors of safety.
‒ Failure analysis.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 9
Ideal Strength
• The ideal strength of a material is the force required to break
interatomic bonds.
‒ The maximum interatomic force is at
approximately 1.25ro.
‒ If this force is exceeded, the bond will break.
‒ In terms of ideal stress:
ா
ideal ൌ ଼
• More refined models suggest the
ideal strength should be about
one fifteenth the modulus of
elasticity:
ா
ideal ൌ ଵହ
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 10
Ideal Strength
• Real life is not ideal.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 11
Ideal Strength
• Why do materials deform plastically at stresses lower than those
needed to break bonds?
• Why are metals further from ideal
strength than ceramics?
• Defects!
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 12
Defects in Metallic Crystals
• Metallic crystals are not perfect.
• Point defects:
‒ Vacancies
‒ Self interstitials
‒ Solute atoms
• Line defects:
‒ Dislocations
• Area defects:
‒ Surfaces
‒ Grain boundaries
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 13
Vacancies
• A vacancy is a site where an atom is missing.
‒ Vacancies are important for diffusion, creep and sintering.
‒ Vacancies have some influence on strength.
Sulphur vacancies in a monolayer of
molybdenum disulphide
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 14
Self Interstitial
• An interstitial site is a location in the crystal lattice between the
normal atom locations.
• A self‐interstitial is an extra atom in an interstitial site.
‒ Distorts the crystal lattice.
‒ Can influence strength.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 15
Solute Atoms
• Substitutional:
‒ Solute (impurity) atom replaces a host atom.
• Interstitial:
‒ Solute (impurity) atom occupies an interstitial site in the lattice.
• Solute atoms are not the same size so distort the lattice.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 16
Dislocations
• Edge dislocation:
‒ Extra half plane of atoms in the crystal lattice.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 17
Dislocations
• Screw dislocation:
‒ Acts to distort atom planes into a helix.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 18
Area Defects
• Free surfaces:
‒ Atoms at the free surface are not fully bonded.
• Grain boundaries:
‒ Boundaries between crystals of different orientations.
‒ Individual crystals are called ‘grains’. Grain boundaries
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 19
Dislocations and Plastic Deformation
• Dislocations are the key to plastic deformation in crystals.
• Dislocations are the weakest ‘link’ in the lattice.
• Dislocations move under the influence of a shear stress.
‒ Dislocation movement results in plastic strain.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 20
Normal vs Shear Stress
ி
• Stress is force per unit area ߪൌ
• Normal stress, σ, is the stress perpendicular to a plane or surface.
‒ Due to components of force acting perpendicular (normal) to the plane.
F F
• Shear stress, τ, is the stress parallel to a plane/surface.
‒ Due to components of force acting parallel to the plane.
F
• Normal stress perpendicular to a plane induces a shear stress at a
45 angle.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 21
Dislocation Movement
• Dislocations move under the influence of a shear stress.
Shear plane in crystal lattice
F F
• Consider an inclined plane:
Normal Component
F
Shear Component
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 22
Dislocation Movement
• Edge Dislocation:
‒ The edge dislocation is made by cutting, slipping, and rejoining bonds
across a slip plane.
‒ The dislocation line separates the part of the plane that has slipped from
the part that has not.
‒ The material above the slip plane is displaced perpendicular to the
dislocation line.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 23
Dislocation Movement
• When a dislocation moves it makes the material above the slip
plane slide relative to the material below
(a) Initially perfect crystal.
(b)‐(d) Dislocation motion by breaking and
rejoining bonds.
(e) Final shear strain γ.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 24
Dislocation Movement
• Screw Dislocation
‒ The material above the slip plane is displaced parallel to the dislocation
line.
• All dislocations are either edge, screw or mixed.
• Mixed dislocations contain both edge and screw features.
• All dislocations distort (strain) the lattice.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 25
Dislocation Movement
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016
Dislocation Movement
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Dislocation Movement
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Dislocation Movement
• The slip distance of one dislocation is tiny.
• A huge number of dislocations move during plastic deformation
to give macroscopic changes in shape.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 29
Dislocation Movement
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared
lelastic plastic
l
+ plastic
F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
lplastic
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 30
Slip Systems
• Slip only takes place on certain crystallographic planes called slip
planes:
‒ These are the planes of highest packing density.
‒ i.e. they are the close packed planes.
• Slip only takes place in certain crystallographic directions on
these planes called slip directions:
‒ These are the directions of highest packing density.
‒ i.e. they are the close packed directions.
• The combination of a slip plane and a slip direction give a slip
system.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 31
Slip Systems
• Shaded planes are the close packed planes.
• Preferred slip directions for these planes are indicated with
arrows:
• For FCC materials the a slip system is {111} <110>
• Why?
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 32
Dislocation Movement
• For a dislocation to move, only bonds along the line it moves
must be broken.
‒ This is significantly easier than breaking all of the bonds in the plane.
• The shear force acting on the dislocation must be enough to
overcome resistance to its movement.
ܾ߬ ൌ ݂ where f is the resistance per unit length
• Movement of dislocations is easier on close packed planes and in
close packed directions.
‒ Requires less energy and lower shear force.
• Distortion of the lattice increases free energy, dislocations
minimise this by adopting the shortest length possible.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 33
Dislocation Movement
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 34
Dislocation Movement
Resistance to slip is
maximum at about
15° angular shearing
displacement
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 35
Dislocation Movement
All resistance to slip
is gone at 30°
angular shearing
displacement
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 36
Dislocation Movement
Final position of rest
at 60° shear
displacement
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 37
Dislocation Movement
A uniform tensile stress creates a shear stress on
planes that lie at an angle to the tensile axis – Maximum stress lies
dislocations will move on the slip plane on which this at an angle of
shear stress is the greatest. 45° when τ = σ/2
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 38
Single Crystal Slip
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 39
Multi Crystal Slip
• When the shear stress acts on an group of grains, some grains
will have their slip planes oriented favourably with respect to the
shear stress.
• In samples that have many grains, the tensile stress required to
cause yielding is approximately three times the shear strength to
a single crystal.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 40
Multi Crystal Slip
• Slip planes and slip directions change from one grain to another.
300 m
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 41
Lower than ideal strength?
When the
shear stress is Dislocations
high enough continue to
all bonds are move at the
broken and same stress
slip can occur leading to
plastic
deformation
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 42
Dislocation Movement
• Dislocation motion requires the successive ‘bumping’ of a half
plane of atoms (left to right below).
• Bonds across the slipping planes are broken and re‐formed in
succession.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 43
Influence of bond type
electron cloud
• Metals:
‒ Non‐directional bonding. + + + + + + + +
‒ Close packed directions for slip. + + + + + + + +
‒ Dislocation movement easy. + + + + + + + +
ion cores
• Covalent ceramics (Si, diamond):
‒ Directional (angular) bonding.
‒ Dislocation movement hard.
+ - + - + - +
• Ionic ceramics (NaCl): - + - + - + -
‒ Ions repel each other (++ and ‐‐).
+ - + - + - +
‒ Dislocation movement hard.
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 44
Next Time
• Strengthening mechanisms in metals:
‒ Work hardening
‒ Grain refinement
‒ Solid solution strengthening
‒ Precipitation hardening
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 45
Questions?
ENGG103 – Autumn Session 2016 46