PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING

MATERIALS
BY: ENGR. MARIZEN B. CONTRERAS
 MATERIALS PROPERTIES AND MATERIALS
ENGINEERING
• Engineers make things. They make them out
of materials. What do they need to know to
choose and use materials successfully?
– First, a perspective of the world of materials -
polymers, glasses, ceramics, composites and so
forth - and of processes that can shape, join and
finish them.
– Second, an understanding of the origins of these
properties and of the ways that they can be
manipulated.
– Third, they need methods for selecting from these
menus the materials and processes that best meet
the requirements of a design.
– Fourth, they need access to data for material
attributes and - since the quantity of data is large -
computer-based tools to enable their
implementation.
– And, of course, they need common sense: the
ability to use experience and knowledge of the
world at large to recognise inspired choices and to
reject those that are impractical.
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
• The characteristics of a material that relate to
its behavior in chemical reactions are called
chemical properties.
• The concern with chemical properties of
materials are connected with corrosion,
alloying, compound formation and so forth
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Those distinguishing qualities or
characteristics that are used to describe a
substance in the absence of external forces
are referred to as physical properties
• A description of the physical behavior of a
material would include such characteristics as
specific heat, thermal conductivity, coefficient
of expansion, color, refractive index, density,
and electrical resistivity.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Those properties which describe the behavior
of materials under the application of force are
called mechanical properties
• Such characteristics as strength, hardness,
machinability, ductility, elasticity, and plasticity
are included with this designation.
 MECHANICAL TEST
• A mechanical test may be defined as one in
which all of the variables affecting a given
property are controlled and the property in
question is measured under fixed conditions
 STRAIN
• Is the deformation caused by the application
of an external force

• When the material is said to be under a strain,

the material has undergone some
deformation as the result of the application of
an external force.
 STRESS
• When a material is placed in a state of strain
resulting from an external load, the atoms making
up the structure of the material are displaced
somewhat from their equilibrium positions.
• These internally distributed forces which tend to
resist deformation may be defined qualitatively as
stress.
• Quantitatively, stress is defined as force per unit
area.
 TYPES OF STRESS
• Tension
• Compression
• Shear
 ELASTICITY
• The property of regaining the original shape
upon removal of external load is known as
elasticity
 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR
• If a material exhibits true elastic behavior, it
must have an instantaneous response
(deformation) to load, and the material must
return to its original shape when the load is
removed.
• Young observed that different elastic materials
have different proportional constants between
stress and strain.
 YOUNG’S MODULUS
• The ratio of stress to strain within the limit of
proportionality is known as modulus of
elasticity or Young’s modulus

𝜎 𝑃𝐿
𝐸= =
𝜀 𝐴∆ 𝐿
 POISSON’S RATIO
• In the axial tension test, as the material is
elongated, there is a reduction of the cross
section in the lateral direction.
• In the axial compression test, the opposite is
true.
• The ratio of the lateral strain, ɛl , to the axial
strain, ɛg .
 HOOKE’S LAW
• States formally that within the elastic range of
materials, stress is proportional to strain
• The ratio of the stress to strain within the limit
of proportionality is known as the modulus of
elasticity, or Young’s modulus, which may be
written symbolically
Example:
• A cube made of an alloy with dimensions of 50
mm x 50 mm x 50 mm is placed into a
pressure chamber and subjected to a pressure
of 90 MPa. If the modulus of elasticity of the
alloy is 100 GPa and Poisson’s ratio is 0.28,
what will be the length of each side of the
cube, assuming that the material remains
within the elastic region?
Solution:
 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
• The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness
of the material, but it only applies in the linear region
of the curve.
• If a specimen is loaded within this linear region, the
material will return to its exact same condition if the
load is removed. At the point that the curve is no
longer linear and deviates from the straight-line
relationship, Hooke's Law no longer applies and some
permanent deformation occurs in the specimen. This
point is called the "elastic, or proportional, limit".
• From this point on in the tensile test, the
material reacts plastically to any further
increase in load or stress. It will not return to
its original, unstressed condition if the load
were removed.
 BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
• Also called the volume modulus
• It is the ratio of the uniform, triaxial stress to
the change in volume
 MODULUS OF RUPTURE
• The modulus of rupture of a material is
computed strength which does not bear a
specific relationship to the maximum stress
the material will sustain before fracture, but
provides a value from which the maximum
twisting moment in torsion or the maximum
bending moment in bending that a cylindrical
shaft or a beam can resist.
 PLASTICITY
• Is the property of a material by virtue of which
permanent deformation can occur.
• It is the opposite of elasticity
• A dislocation is an imperfection in the crystal
structure
• Twinning is a process that results in an
alteration of the orientation of one part of a
crystal in relation to the other part of the
same crystal.
• The plane that separates the parts of different
orientation is called the twinning plane.
 TENSION TEST
• It is probably the most fundamental type of
mechanical test you can perform on material.
Tensile tests are simple, relatively inexpensive,
and fully standardized. By pulling on
something, you will very quickly determine
how the material will react to forces being
applied in tension. As the material is being
pulled, you will find its strength along with
how much it will elongate.
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS IN TENSION
 PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
• The maximum stress to which a material can
be subjected without any deviation from the
proportionality of stress and strain is called
the proportional limit.
 ELASTIC LIMIT
• The maximum stress to which a material may
be subjected without the occurrence of any
permanent strain remaining upon complete
release of the stress is called the elastic limit.
 RESILIENCE
• The capacity of a material to absorb energy
within the elastic range is known as resilience.
• This is potential energy which can be
recovered upon removal of the stress
• Quantitatively, the amount of energy per unit
volume which the material will possess when
subjected to the elastic limit stress is called
the modulus of resilience
 YIELD POINT
• Stress at which strain increases without
accompanying increase in stress. Only a few
materials (notably steel) have a yield point,
and generally only under tension loading.
 YIELD STRENGTH
• A value called "yield strength" of a material is
defined as the stress applied to the material at
which plastic deformation starts to occur
while the material is loaded.
 ULTIMATE STRENGTH
• The maximum stress to which a material may
be subjected before failure occurs is called the
ultimate strength.
• If this property is determined in tension it is
known as the ultimate tensile strength.
• If this property is determined in compression
it is known as the ultimate compressive
strength
 ELASTOPLASTIC BEHAVIOR
• Materials that do not undergo plastic
deformation prior to failure are said to be
brittle.
• Materials that display appreciable plastic
deformation are ductile.
• Ductile materials are preferred for
construction.
• When a brittle material fails, the structure can
collapse in a catastrophic manner.
• On the other hand, overloading a ductile
material will result in distortions of the
structure, but the structure will not
necessarily collapse.
 DUCTILITY
• Extent to which a material can sustain plastic
deformation without rupture.
• Elongation and reduction of area are common
indices of ductility.
Example:
• A rod made of aluminum alloy, with a gauge
length of 100 mm, diameter of 10 mm, and
yield strength of 150 MPa, was subjected to a
tensile load of 5.85 kN. If the gauge length was
changed to 100.1 mm and the diameter was
changed to 9.9967 mm. calculate the modulus
of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio.
Solution:
P 5850 N
   74.5MPa
A  5 10 m 
 3 2

Since the applied stress is well below the yield strength,

the material is within th e elastic region.
L (100.1  100)
a    0.001
L 100
 74.5
E   74,500 MPa  74.5GPa
 a 0.001
change in diameter 9.9967  10
l    0.00033
diameter 10
  l 0.00033
v   0.33
a .001
 REDUCTION OF AREA
• Ductility may also be indicated by the
reduction of area of a specimen at the point of
fracture.
• The reduction of area is expressed as the ratio
of the decrease in area of the necked-down
section of the test specimen to the original
area on a percentage basis.
 TOUGHNESS
• The word toughness is a qualitative term
meaning difficult to break.
• It usually implies resistance to shock
• Modulus of toughness
– Is a measure of the total energy-absorbing
capacity of the material and includes the energy of
both the elastic and plastic deformation
FRACTURE IN BRITTLE AND DUCTILE
MATERIALS
• In ductile materials, fracture occurs through
the grains of the material. The failure is
therefore referred to as transcrystalline.
• If, however, the grains themselves are much
stronger than the material at the grain
boundaries, fracture may occur at the grain
boundary. Failure under this condition is called
intercrystalline failure and the material is said
to be brittle.
 BEND TESTING
• Bend testing measures the ductility of
materials. Terms associated with bend testing
apply to specific forms or types of materials.
• For example, materials specifications
sometimes require that a specimen be bent to
a specified inside diameter (ASTM A-360, steel
products).
• Bend testing provides a convenient method
for characterizing the strength of the
miniature components and specimens that are
typical of those found in microelectronics
applications.
 COMPRESSION TEST
• A compression test determines behavior of
materials under crushing loads. The specimen
is compressed and deformation at various
loads is recorded.
• Compressive stress and strain are calculated
and plotted as a stress-strain diagram which is
used to determine elastic limit, proportional
limit, yield point, yield strength and, for some
materials, compressive strength.
 MALLEABILITY
• If a material can be severely deformed
plastically in compression without fracture, the
material is said to be malleable
• It is that quality of a material by virtue of which
it may be plastically compressed
 HARDNESS
• Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not a
fundamental physical property.
• It is defined as the resistance to indentation,
and it is determined by measuring the
permanent depth of the indentation.
• More simply put, when using a fixed force
(load) and a given indenter, the smaller the
indentation, the harder the material.
• Indentation hardness value is obtained by
measuring the depth or the area of the
indentation using one of over 12 different test
methods.
 HARDNESS TESTING
CONSIDERATIONS
• The following sample characteristics should be
consider prior to selecting the hardness
testing method to use:
– Sample Size
– Cylindrical Samples
– Sample Thickness
– Scales
– Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility
BRINELL TEST
ROCKWELL TEST
DIAMOND PYRAMID HARDNESS
SCLEROSCOPE TEST
MICROHARDNESS TEST
• Microhardness testing is a method of determining
a material’s hardness or resistance to penetration
when test samples are very small or thin, or when
small regions in a composite sample or plating are
to be measured.
• The microhardness test can measure surface to
core hardness on carburized or case-hardened
parts (case depths), as well as surface conditions
such as grinding burns, carburization or
decarburization.
RELATION OF STRENGTH TO HARDNESS
• The difference between strength and hardness is
that the strength refers to the force that is present
between the bonds. Strength attributes to how
strong or weak the force between the bonds.
• Hardness refers to the nature of the force, which
basically is how rigid or flexible the bonds between
particles.
 STRAIN HARDENING
• Strain hardening is generally defined as
heating at a relatively low temperature after
cold-working. During strain hardening the
strength of the metal is increased and ductility
decreased.
• If a low-carbon steel is cold-worked, or
strained passed the yield point, then aged for
several days at room temperature, it will have
a higher yield stress after the aging. This
happens because during the aging carbon or
nitrogen atoms diffuse to dislocations,
reanchoring them.
• Not everything can be strain aged, or
recovered at low temperatures. The low
carbon steel is just an example. Different
materials will show different behaviors during
recovery.
RECRYSTALLIZATION
 FACTORS AFFECTING
RECRYSTALLIZATION
• The severity of plastic deformation
• The grain size prior to plastic deformation
• The temperature at which plastic deformation
occurs
• The time for which the plastically deformed
metal is heated to attain recrystallization
• The presence of dissolved or undissolved
elements
• Hot working
– Is defined as plastic deformation at temperatures
above recrystallization temperature
• Cold working
– Is defined as plastic deformation at temperatures
below recrystallization temperature
 FATIGUE
• Permanent structural change that occurs in a
material subjected to fluctuating stress and
strain. However, in the case of glass, fatigue is
determined by long-term static testing and is
analogous to stress rupture in other materials.
In general, fatigue failure can occur with stress
levels below the elastic limit.
 ENDURANCE LIMIT
• In fatigue testing, the maximum stress which
can be applied to a material for an infinite
number of stress cycles without resulting in
failure of the material.
 ENDURANCE STRENGTH
• A measure of the ability of a material or
structural element to carry a load without
failure when the loading is repeated a definite
number of times.
 FATIGUE FAILURE
• Failures which take place as a result of
repeated or alternating stresses
 FACTORS AFFECTING ENDURANCE
PROPERTIES
• Surface finish
• Size factor
• Reliability factor
• Temperature factor
• Load factor
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON PROPERTIES

• Loss of metal as a result of oxidation or

exposure to contaminating media
• The formation of surface cracks resulting from
cyclic thermal stresses
• The change in the properties of the material
with increasing temperature
 CREEP
• creep (sometimes called cold flow) is the tendency of
a solid material to move slowly or deform permanently
under the influence of mechanical stresses.
• It can occur as a result of long-term exposure to high
levels of stress that are still below the yield strength of
the material.
• Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to
heat for long periods, and generally increases as they
near their melting point.
• Creep always increases with temperature.
 STRESS RUPTURE
• A preliminary evaluation of the elevated
temperature properties of materials may be
secured by means of stress rupture test
• This test is satisfactory for many applications
where the intended operating life of the part
in which the material is to be used is limited or
for applications in which a considerable
amount of deformation may be tolerated.
 DYNAMIC LOADING
• A static load is the effect of gravity on an
object or structure.
• A dynamic load is the forces that move or
change when acting on a structure.
• Example of a dynamic load: Force of wind or
the weight of a truck
• Example of a static load: Weight of a bridge
 FACTOR OF SAFETY
• Allowable Stress
– Is that stress below which it is known that failure
will not take place
– Under static conditions, the allowable stress
would be the elastic limit; under repeated stress,
the allowable stress would be the endurance limit
• Working Stress
– Is the actual stress under which the material is
expected to operate
• Factor of Safety
– The ratio of allowable stress to working stress
– The choice of the factor of safety to be employed
depends upon the following variables:
• Variations of the properties of the materials
• The uncertainties of computations of stress, magnitude,
and stress contribution on the basis of assumptions
that have been necessary in the theory employed.
• Quality of the manufacturing operations
• Dangers of personal injury from failure of the part or of
undue financial loss
• The necessity of maintaining economy of material and
of minimizing weight
• The influence of uncertainties such as may be
experienced in corrosion and unforeseen types of
loading
• Extent of inspection
 NONMECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• It refers to characteristics of the material,
other than load response, that affect
selection, use and performance.
• Density- is the mass per unit volume of
material
• Unit Weight- is the weight per unit volume of
material
• Specific gravity- ratio of the mass of a
substance relative to the mass of an equal
volume of water at specified temperature.
• Coefficient of Thermal Expansion- the
amount of expansion per unit length due to
one unit of temperature increase is a material
constant   linear coefficien t of thermal expansion
L
L V  volumetric coefficent of thermal expansion
L  T
L  change in the length of the specimen
L T  change in tempera ture
V L  original length of the specimen
V  T
V  change in the volume of the specimen
V V  original volume of the specimen
Example:
• A steel bar with a length of 3 m, diameter of
25 mm, modulus of elasticity of 207 Gpa, and
linear coefficient of thermal expansion of
0.000009 m/m/C is fixed at both ends when
the ambient temperature is 40C. If the
ambient temperature is decreased to 15c,
what internal stress will develop due to this
temperature change? Is this stress or tension?
Solution:
L   L  T  L
 0.000009  (25)  3  0.000675m
  L L   0.000675 3  0.000225
  E
 0.000225  20700  46.575MPa
The stress will be tension: in effect, the length of
the bar at 15˚C without restraint would be
2.999325m and the stress would be zero.
Restraining the bar into longer condition requires a
tensile force.
 CORROSION AND DEGREDATION
• Crystalline materials deteriorate through a
corrosion process.
• Polymers deteriorate by degradation.
• The selection of material should consider both
how the material will react with the
environment and the cost of preventing the
resulting degradation.
 ABRASION AND WEAR
RESISTANCE
• Is of less importance than in other fields of
engineering.
• Resistance to abrasion and wear, is, therefore,
an important property of aggregates used in
pavements
 SURFACE TEXTURE
• Is of importance to engineers.
• A certain level of surface texture is needed in
the pavement surface to provide adequate
friction resistance and prevent skidding
 SELECTION OF MATERIALS
• The material must satisfy the strength
requirements
• The material must be capable of being
fabricated into the desired form
• The cost of the material must be low
• The material must be available for use at the
required time