ENGG 103

Materials in Design
A Few Notes on Learning
and the
Learning Experience
How quickly do we forget?
Does it help to review ?
 How much do we remember from
different learning techniques ?

It is therefore quite clear that my lectures benefit me

much more than it does you
Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognitive Levels
Judge the value of material

Put parts together to form a new

whole

Break down material into its

component parts

Use learned material

Grasp the meaning of learned

material

Recalling memorized information

 Some Other Guiding Principles

Ubiquitous access to technology has given teachers the

opportunity to shift from being
deliverers of content
to
orchestrators of learning

This means of course that students need to play their part

as well

Herbert von Karajan would not have been half famous had it not been for
the fact that every single musician in the Berlin Philharmonic played to their
level best
 “If you teach me the relevant skills and knowledge
of my time,
I will have a job today.
If you instil in me imagination, drive and the ability to adapt
to a future I cannot anticipate,
I will have relevant jobs for a lifetime”

“Tell me and I forget,

teach me and I may remember,
involve me and I learn.”
Benjamin Franklin

8
 Handwriting or typing?
Extracts from a recent article in New
Scientist

Many researchers have found that the handwriting is the best way to learn

Even typing of the text is inferior to getting a pen and writing the same text

The memory while hand-writing is retained much better by our brain

Our brain is wired to better understand the text when we use the pen

This seems to be related to how we learned to write when we were young

 Steps in the Learning Process
1 Memorize facts, formulae, information No regard to its meaning or relevance

2
Attempt to make sense of course material No regard to consolidating or restructuring course material
Reading through it
Develop personally comprehended theory

3
Reinforce personally comprehended theory by No regard to refining it beyond the content or structure presented in the
vocalizing, memorizing or summarizing course

4
Integrate the learning of theory and the development of problem-solving Appropriate problems are selected and worked on for the express purpose
skills of consolidating one’s grasp of the theory

5
Using refined tools such as restructuring, self-questioning, visualizing, Develop a personally refined grasp of disciplinary knowledge
concept maps, refined summarizing No regard to how it relates to real-world situations

6
Deepening personal mastery of discipline by relating course material to Develop practical know-how implicitly or explicitly
real-world situations
Brief Review and Conclusion
of the Previous Lecture

11
 Unit Cells
Face centred cubic (fcc)

Iron/Steel
(γ austenite [910 -1395C])

Al, Cu, Au, Pb, Ni, Pt, Ag

Body centred cubic (bcc)

Iron/Steel
α ferrite (below
[910C]

δ ferrite [1395 –
1538C]

Cr, Mo, W, V, Nb 12
 Z Directions in a unit cell

X=1
Y=1
Z=1

Direction is
[111]

X
Important
13
 Planes in Unit Cells
Miller indices

Miller indices are used to describe a plane or set of

planes within a unit cell

The Miller indices for a plane are

 The reciprocals of the intercepts the plane makes with the
three axes
 Reduced to the smallest integers

The only planes that we shall be dealing with are the

planes with Miller indices (111) and (110)

14
 Z
Important

X=1
Y=1
Z=1

1/X = 1
1/Y = 1
1/Z = 1

Y
Miller indices of
this blue plane is
(111)
X This is the most-densely packed plane in the
FCC-structure
15
 Z
Important

X=1
Y=1
Z=∞

1/X = 1
1/Y = 1
1/Z = 0

Y
Miller indices of
this blue plane is
(110)
X This is the most-densely packed plane in the
BCC-structure
16
 Atomic Arrangements on the
(111) Plane in the FCC Unit Cell

Note
The (111) plane is the most densely packed plane in the FCC unit cell
 Atomic Arrangements on the
[110] Direction in the FCC Unit Cell

Note
The [110] direction (XYZ) is the most densely packed
direction in the FCC unit cell

This direction lies in the (111) plane (AXZ) with B as origin

Formation of Crystals during Solidification

Growth of
Formation of Nuclei
nuclei

Final crystal
Nuclei structure as
impinge upon observed
each other under a
microscope

Upon solidification, solid crystals nucleate in the liquid and

grow until they impinge upon each other
 Single vs Polycrystals
Single Crystals E (diagonal) = 273 GPa

Properties vary with

direction: anisotropic.
Example: the modulus
of elasticity (E) in BCC iron
E (edge) = 125 GPa
Polycrystals
Properties may/may not 200 μm
vary with direction
If grains are randomly
oriented: isotropic
(Epoly iron = 210 GPa)

If grains are textured,

anisotropic
20
 Polycrystals
Most engineering materials are polycrystals.
Anisotropic

1 mm

Isotropic
Nb-Hf-W plate with an electron beam weld

Each "grain" is a single crystal - If grains are randomly oriented,

overall component properties are not directional

Grain sizes typically range from 1 nm to 2 cm

(i.e., from a few to millions of atomic layers)
21
 Crystals as Building Blocks

Some engineering applications require single crystals:

Diamond single
crystals for abrasives Turbine blades

Properties of crystalline materials

are often related to crystal structure.

Quartz fractures more easily

along some crystal planes than
others.

22
 Polymorphism

Two or more distinct crystal structures for the same

material (allotropy/polymorphism)
Iron

liquid
1538C
Examples BCC δ Fe
Iron 1394C
Titanium,
FCC γ Fe
Carbon
912C
BCC α-Fe

23
 Crystal Systems
Unit cell: smallest repetitive volume which contains
the complete lattice pattern of a crystal

7 crystal systems
14 crystal lattices

a, b, and c are the lattice constants

We shall only be dealing with the

cubic system

Face Centred Cubic (FCC)

Body Centred Cubic (BCC)
24
VMSE Screenshot – [101] Direction

25
VMSE Screenshot – Crystallographic Planes

Additional practice on indexing crystallographic planes

26
VMSE Screenshot – Atomic Packing –
(111) Plane for BCC

27
 Summary

Atoms may assemble into crystalline or amorphous structures

Common metallic crystal structures are FCC, BCC

We can predict the density of a material, provided we

know the atomic weight, atomic radius, and crystal
geometry (e.g., FCC, BCC).

Crystallographic points, directions and planes are

specified in terms of indexing schemes

28
 Summary

Materials can be single crystals or polycrystalline

Material properties generally vary with single crystal orientation

(i.e., they are anisotropic), but are generally non-directional
(i.e., they are isotropic) in polycrystals with randomly oriented
grains

Some materials can have more than one crystal

structure. This is referred to as
polymorphism (or allotropy).

29
 Home Assignments

Study Tutorial Videos

FCC Unit Cell Calculations, p. 55
BCC Unit Cell Calculations, p. 56

Study Example problems

3.1, 3.2, 3.4

Study Figures
3.12, 3.13, 3.15, 3.18, 3.20

Do Problems
3.2, 3.7, 3.9, 3.22
 ENGG 103
Materials in Design

Imperfection in Solids I
Callister Chapter 4

21 March 2016
 Imperfections in Solids

ISSUES TO ADDRESS

• What are the solidification mechanisms?

• What types of defects arise in solids?

• Can the number and type of defects be varied

and controlled?

• How do defects affect material properties?

• Are defects undesirable?

32
 Imperfections in Solids

• Solidification- result of casting of molten material

– 2 steps
• Nuclei form
• Nuclei grow to form crystals – grain structure

• Start with a molten material – all liquid

nuclei crystals growing grain structure

liquid

• Crystals grow until they meet each other

33
 Polycrystalline Materials
Atomic scale

Grain Boundaries
• regions between crystals

• transition from lattice of one

region to that of the other

• Atomic packing slightly disordered

• low atomic density in grain Microscopic scale

boundaries
– high mobility
– high diffusivity
– high chemical reactivity

34
 Solidification
Grains can be - equiaxed (roughly same size in all directions)
- columnar (elongated grains)
~ 8 cm

heat
flow

Shell of
Columnar in equiaxed grains
area with less due to rapid
undercooling cooling (greater
ΔT) near wall

Grain Refiner - added to make smaller, more uniform, equiaxed grains.

35
 Imperfections in Solids

There is no such thing as a perfect crystal

– What are these imperfections?

– Why are they important?

Many important properties of materials are due to the

presence of imperfections

36
 Types of Imperfections

• Vacancy atoms
• Interstitial atoms Point defects
• Substitutional atoms

• Dislocations Line defects

• Grain Boundaries Area defects

37
 Point Defects in Metals
• Vacancies
-vacant atomic sites in a structure

distortion Vacancy
of planes

• Self-Interstitials:
-"extra" atoms positioned between atomic sites
self-
interstitial
distortion
of planes

38
Schematic Illustration
Real Observation at Atomic Scale
Interstitial and Substitutional Impurity Atoms

41
 Location of Interstitial sites

FCC BCC
 Equilibrium Concentration:
Point Defects
• Equilibrium concentration varies with temperature!

No. of defects Activation energy

Nv
= exp − Qv
No. of potential
defect sites N kT
Temperature (K)
Boltzmann's constant
(1.38 x 10 -23 J/atom-K)
(8.62 x 10-5eV/atom-K)
Each lattice site
is a potential
vacancy site
43
 Measuring Activation Energy

We can obtain Qv from Nv - Qv

an experiment = exp
N kT
Measure this...
Replot it...
Nv
Nv slope
N
ln
N
exponential -Qv /k
dependence!
T
defect concentration
1/ T
44
 Estimating Vacancy Concentration
Find the equil. # of vacancies in 1 m3 of Cu at 1000°C
• Given:
ρ = 8.4 g /cm 3 A Cu = 63.5 g/mol
Qv = 0.9 eV/atom NA = 6.02 x 1023 atoms/mol
0.9 eV/atom
Nv = - Qv
exp -4
= 2.7 x 10
N kT
1273 K
8.62 x 10-5 eV/atom-K
NA
For 1 m3 , N= ρ x x 1 m3 = 8.0 x 1028 sites
A Cu
Answer

Nv = (2.7 x 10-4)(8.0 x 1028) sites = 2.2 x 1025 vacancies

45
 Imperfections in Metals
Two outcomes if impurity (B) added to host (A)

Solid solution of B in A (i.e., random dist. of point defects)

OR

Substitutional solid soln. Interstitial solid soln.

(e.g., Cu in Ni) (e.g., C in Fe)

Cu atoms substitute for Ni C atoms sit in

atoms interstitial positions
46
 The Hume Rothery Rules

The Hume Rothery rules have to be met for two metals to

form a substitutional solid solution

1. Δr (atomic radius) < 15%

2. Proximity in periodic table
• i.e., similar electro-negativities
3. Same crystal structure for pure metals
4. Valancy
All else being equal, a metal will have a greater tendency to
dissolve a metal of higher valancy than one of lower valancy

47
 Impurities in Solids

Specification of composition

m1
– weight percent C1 = x 100
m1 + m2
m1 = mass of component 1

n m1
– atom percent C =
'
x 100
n m1 + n m 2
1

nm1 = number of moles of component 1

48
 Home Assignment

Solid Solutions Element Atomic Crystal Electro- Valence

Radius Structure nega-
(nm) tivity
Cu 0.1278 FCC 1.9 +2
Would you predict C 0.071
more Al or Ag H 0.046
O 0.060
to dissolve in Zn? Ag 0.1445 FCC 1.9 +1
Al 0.1431 FCC 1.5 +3
Co 0.1253 HCP 1.8 +2
Cr 0.1249 BCC 1.6 +3
Would you predict Fe 0.1241 BCC 1.8 +2
More Zn or Al to Ni 0.1246 FCC 1.8 +2
Pd 0.1376 FCC 2.2 +2
dissolve in Cu? Zn 0.1332 HCP 1.6 +2

49
 Home assignments

Study tutorial videos pp. 107, 108,109, 113

Study Example Problems 4.1, 4.2, 4.3., 4.4

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