The system that transports required
substances around the body of an
organism
What is a transport system?
• High metabolic demands (need
lots of O2 and food & produce lots
of waste products) so diffusion
over long distances isn’t enough
to supply the quantities needed
What is an open circulatory straight from the heart into the
• SA:V ratio gets smaller as
multicellular organisms get bigger,
so the amount of surface area
available to absorb or remove
substances gets relatively smaller
place between the transport
Why are specialised transport
• Molecules e.g. hormones or
systems needed in enzymes may be made in one
multicellular animals? place but needed in another
heart through an open-ended
• Food will be digested in one organ
system, but needs to be
transported to every cell for use in
respiration and other aspects of
cell metabolism
• Insect blood = haemolymph; it
• Waste products of metabolism
need to be removed from the cells
and transported to excretory
organs
The transport system of an animal
Describe the circulatory and the heart extends along the
• Liquid transport medium that
circulates around the system
(blood)
steep diffusion gradient cannot be
What is a circulatory system?
• Vessels that carry the transport
medium
• Amount of haemolymph flowing
• Pumping mechanisms to move the
fluid around the system
A transport system where
substances are transported in a
mass of fluid
What is a mass transport
system?
A circulatory system with a heart but
few vessels to contain the transport
medium.
• Transport medium is pumped
system? body cavity (haemocoel) , then it
comes into direct contact with the
tissues and the cells
• This is where exchange takes
medium and the cells
• Transport medium returns to the
vessel
• Mainly found in invertebrate
animals inc. insects and molluscs
doesn’t carry O2 or CO2, it
transports food and nitrogenous
waste products & cells involved in
defence against disease
• Body cavity is split by membrane
system in insects length of the thorax and abdomen
• The haemolymph circulates, but
maintained for efficient diffusion
through a particular tissue can’t be
varied to meet changing demands
 A circulatory system where the • Low metabolic demands on their
blood is enclosed in blood vessels bodies and efficient gaseous
and does not come into direct exchange

contact with the cells of the body Explain how fish can be so • Body weight is supported by water
beyond the blood vessels
active with a single closed they live in and they don’t maintain
circulatory system their own body temperature

• Amount of blood flowing to a • Countercurrent gaseous exchange

particular tissue can be adjusted mechanism in their gills that allows
What is a closed circulatory
by widening or narrowing of blood them to take lots of O2 from water
system? vessels

• Contain a blood pigment that What is a double closed A circulatory system where the
carries the respiratory gases
circulatory system? blood travels twice through the heart
for each circulation of the body.
• Found in many different animal
phyla including: echinoderms, Most efficient system for
cephalopod molluscs, annelid transporting substances around the
worms and vertebrate groups body and involves 2 separate
(including mammals) circulations

A circulatory system where the • 1st: Blood is pumped from the

blood flows through the heart and is heart to the lungs to pick up O2
pumped out to travel all around the and unload CO2, and then returns
What is a single closed body before returning to the heart
to the heart

circulatory system? • 2nd: Blood flows through the heart

• Blood passes through 2 sets of and is pumped out to travel all
capillaries before it returns to the around the body before returning
heart
to the heart again

• 1st: Exchanges O2 and CO2

• 2nd: In the different organ Each circulate only passes through

systems, substances are one capillary network, meaning that
exchanged between the blood and a high pressure and fast flow of
the cells
blood can be maintained
• Due to passing though these 2
sets of very narrow vessels, blood
pressure in the system drops, and
so the blood returns back to the
heart slowly

• Limits efficiency of the exchange

processes, so the activity of
animals tends to be relatively low
 1. Composed of elastin and can Artery walls contain elastic fibres,
Describe the following stretch and recoil, providing smooth muscle and collagen. The
components found in some vessel walls with flexibility
outer layer of an artery (endothelium)
blood vessels: 2. Contracts or relaxes, which is smooth so the blood flows easily
1. Elastic fibres changes the size of the lumen
over it

2. Smooth muscle 3. Provides structural support to

3. Collagen maintain the shape and volume Wall consists of 3 layers:

of the vessel • Inner layer (tunica intima) consists

of a thin layer of elastic tissue
• Carry blood away from the heart to which allows the wall to stretch
the tissues of the body
(within limits maintained by
• Carry oxygenated blood
Describe the structure of
collagen) to take the larger blood
• EXCEPT in the pulmonary artery, arteries volume, and then recoil to help
which carries deoxygenated maintain blood pressure

blood from the heart to the lungs,

Describe the roles of arteries • Middle layer (tunica media)
and the umbilical artery (during consists of a thick layer of smooth
pregnancy) which carries muscle

deoxygenated blood form the

• Outer layer (tunica adventitia) is a
foetus to the placenta
relatively thick layer of collagen
• Blood in arteries is under higher and elastic tissue. This provides
pressure than blood in the veins strength to withstand the high
pressure, and recoil to maintain
the pressure
The elastic fibres recoil ad return to
their original length, helping to even
What happens to the elastic out the surges of blood pumped
fibres in between the from the heart to give a continuous
contractions of the heart? flow
 • Arterioles link the arteries and the • Provide a very large surface area
capillaries
for the dissuasion of substances
• Have more smooth muscle and into and out of the blood

less elastin in their walls than • Walls are 1 endothelial cell thick,
arteries, as they have little pulse giving a very thin layer for diffusion

surge
• Total cross sectional area of the
• Can constrict or dilate to control capillaries is always greater than
the flow of blood into individual the arteriole supplying them so the
Describe the structure of organs
rate of blood flow falls

arterioles • Vasoconstriction: when the • Slow movement of blood through

smooth muscle in the arteriole capillaries gives more time for
How are capillaries adapted for
contracts, it constricts the vessel exchange of materials by diffusion
and prevent blood flowing into a
their role? between the blood and the cells

capillary bed
• Lumen is very narrow so red blood
• Vasodilation: when the smooth cells squeeze against the walls as
muscle in the wall of an arteriole they pass through, helping the
relaxes, blood flows into the transfer of O2 as it reduces
capillary bed diffusion path to the tissues. Also
increases resistances and reduces
Microscopic blood vessels that link rate fo flow

the arterioles with the venues,

• Walls are leaky allowing blood
forming and extensive network plasma and dissolved substances
through all the tissues of the body. to leave the blood
What are capillaries? They have very thin walls and allow
the exchange of materials between • Carry blood away from the cells of
the bloc and tissue fluid.
the body towards the heart

• They carry deoxygenated blood

• EXCEPT pulmonary vein (carries

Describe the roles of veins oxygenated blood from the Lins to
the heart), and umbilical vein
(carries oxygenated blood from the
placenta to the foetus)

 • Walls have lots of collagen, • Most veins have one way valves at
relatively little elastic fibre and the intervals (flaps or inholdings of the
vessels have a wide lumen smooth inner lining of the vein) that only
endothelium to ease blood flow
open when blood flows in the
• Thinner layers of collagen, smooth direction of the heart

muscle and elastic tissue than in What are the adaptations of • Many of the bigger veins run
Describe the structure of veins artery walls (because they don’t
veins to overcome the problem
between the big active muscles in
need to stretch and recoil and are the body; when the muscles
not actively constricted in order to
of transporting blood under contract, they squeeze the veins,
reduce blood flow)
low pressure? forcing blood towards the heart

• Contain valves to help the blood • Breathing movements of the chest

flow back to the heart and prevent act as a pump. The pressure
it flowing in the opposite directions changes and squeezing actions
move blood in veins of the chest
• As walls are thin, veins can be and abdomen towards the heart
flattened by the action of
surrounding skeletal muscle
• Plasma (55%) - main component;
How is blood kept flowing in • Contraction of the surrounding yellow fluid containing many
the right direction in veins? skeletal muscle applies pressure dissolved substances and carrying
to the blood, forcing the blood to blood cells

move along in a direction • Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

determined by the valves • White blood cells (leucocytes)

What does blood consist of? • Platelets - fragments of large cells

No. The surges from the heart called megakaryocytes, and they
pumping are lost as the blood are involved in the clotting
passes through the narrow mechanism of the blood

Do veins have a pulse? capillaries.

• Dissolved glucose, amino acids,
mineral ions, hormones

• Large plasma proteins

• Albumin - important for maintain
• They link the capillaries with the the osmotic potential in the blood

veins
• Fibrinogen - important in blood
• They have very thin layers of Describe 3 plasma proteins clotting

Describe venules muscle and elastic tissue outside • Globulins - involved in transport
the endothelium, and a thin outer and the immune system
layer of collagen

• Several venules join to form a vein


What are the functions of the
blood?
What is oncotic pressure?
What is hydrostatic pressure?
What is lymph?
• Maintenance of a steady body The solution surrounding the cells of
temperature
multicellular animals. Similar to
• Acts as a buffer, minimising pH blood plasma, but doesn’t contain
changes
most of the cells found in blood, nor
What is tissue fluid? does it contain plasma proteins
Transport of:
• O2 to, and CO2 from, the respiring Diffusion takes places between the
cells
blood and the cells through the
• Digested food from the small tissue fluid
intestine
• At the arterial end, hydrostatic
• Nitrogenous waste products from
the cells to the excretory organs
pressure is higher than oncotic
pressure attracting water in by
• Hormones
Describe the formation of osmosis, so fluid is squeezed out
• Food molecules from storage tissue fluid
compounds to the cells that need of the capillaries
them
• This fluid fills the spaces between
the cells and is called tissue fluid
• Platelets to damaged areas
• Cells and antibodies involved in
the immune response • The balance of forces changes
• Hydrostatic pressure falls to
The tendency of water to move into 2.3kPa in the vessels, as fluid has
the blood in the capillaries from the moved out and the pulse is lost
surrounding fluid by osmosis as a What happens as blood moves • Oncotic pressure is now stronger
result of the plasma proteins (which through the capillaries towards than hydrostatic pressure, so
gibe the blood in the capillaries a the venous system? water moves back into the
low water potential)
capillaries by osmosis
• - 3.3 kPa • By the time blood returns to veins,
90% of the tissue fluid is back in
The pressure created by water in an the blood vessels
enclosed system. As blood flows
through the arterioles into the Modified tissue fluid that is collected
capillaries, it is still under pressure in the lymph system
every time the heart contacts. This is • 10% of the liquid that leaves the
hydrostatic pressure
blood vessels drains into lymph
capillaries
• 4.6 kPa at arterial end
• 2.3 kPa at venous end • Similar in composition to plasma
and tissue fluid, but has less O2
and fewer nutrients
• Contains fatty acids absorbed
from villi in the small intestine

How is fluid in lymph vessels
What is the reaction for oxygen
transported?
Describe the lymph nodes
What are enlarged lymph
nodes a sign of?
Describe haemoglobin (in
terms of transporting oxygen)
• Through the squeezing of body Hb + 4O2 ⇌ Hb(O2)4
muscles
haemoglobin + oxygen ⇌ oxyhaemoglobin
• One-way valves (like in veins)
prevent back flow
• Eventually lymph returns to the binding with haemoglobin?
blood, flowing into the right and
left subclavian veins
• Found along the lymph vessels
1. In the lungs, O2 moves into the
• Lymphocytes build up here when erythrocytes and binds with the
necessary and produce antibodies haemoglobin
which are then passed into the 2. Arrangement of haemoglobin
blood
molecule means that as soon as
• Also intercept bacteria and debris one O2 molecule binds to a
from the lymph, which are haem group, the molecule
ingested by phagocytes found in changes shape, making it easier
the nodes
for the next O2 molecules to bind
• Major sites: neck, armpits, (known as positive cooperativity)
stomach, groin 3. O2 is bound to the haemoglobin
so, free O2 concentration in the
That the body is fighting off an Describe how oxygen is
erythrocyte stays low and steep
invading pathogen carried by erythrocytes diffusion gradient is maintained
until all of the haemoglobin is
saturated with O2
4. When blood reaches body
tissues, O2 moves out of the
erythrocytes down a
concentration gradient
• Very larger globular conjugated 5. Once the first O2 molecule is
protein made up of 4 peptide released by the haemoglobin,
chain, each with a Fe2+ containing the molecule changes shape,
haem group which is said to have and it becomes easier to remove
a high affinity for oxygen
the remaining O2 molecules
• The Fe2+ ion can attract and hold a
single O2 molecule
• 300 million haemoglobin
molecules in each red blood cell,
and each can bind to 4 O2
molecules
 Graph showing the relationship
between oxygen and haemoglobin
at different partial pressures of
What is an oxygen dissociation oxygen (pO2)
effect
curve?
• They show the affinity of
haemoglobin for oxygen
• A very small change in the pO2 in
the surrounds makes a significant
difference to the saturation of the
haemoglobin with O2 because
once the first O2 is added, change
Describe the oxygen
in shape of molecule means other
dissociation curve graph O2 are added rapidly
of CO2 in the air is relatively low,
• Curve levels out at highest pO2s
because all the haem groups are
bound to O2 so the haemoglobin is
saturated
• High pO2 in the lungs means that
the haemoglobin in erythrocytes is
rapidly loaded with O2
• Relatively small drop in respiring
What is the effect of partial
tissues means O2 is released
pressure on the movement of rapidly from the haemoglobin to
oxygen in the body? diffuse into the cells
close to the deoxygenated fetal
• This effect is enhanced by
relatively low pH in tissues
compared with the lungs
• Only 25%
transferred to the blood of the
• The rest acts as a reservoir for
How much of the O2 carried in when the demands of the body
erythrocytes is released into
increase suddenly
the body cells when you’re not
very active?
At high partial pressures of CO2,
What is the effect of carbon
haemoglobin gives up oxygen more
dioxide?
easily. This is known as the Bohr
• Bohr shift on oxygen dissociation
curve = shift to the right
Important in the body because as a
result:
• In active tissues with high pCO2,
haemoglobin gives up its O2 more
readily
• In the lungs where the proportion
O2 bids to the haemoglobin
molecules easily
Fetal haemoglobin has a higher
affinity for oxygen than adult
What is the difference between haemoglobin at each point along the
dissociation curve
fetal and adult haemoglobin
and why?
• Foetus completely depends on its
mother to supply it with oxygen
• Mother’s oxygenated blood runs
blood in the placenta
• If fetal blood had the same affinity
for O2 as the blood of the mother,
the little or no O2 would be
foetus
• Fetal haemoglobin has a higher
affinity for O2, so it removes O2
from the maternal blood as they
move past each other
• Fetal haemoglobin on oxygen
dislocation curve = shift to the left
 • 5% is dissolved in the plasma
.
• 10-20% is combined with the main
groups in polypeptide chain of What is the benefit of
What are the 3 ways in which haemoglobin to form a compound converting the carbon dioxide
carbon dioxide is transported? called carbaminohaemoglobin
into hydrogencarbonate ions?
• 75-85% is converted into
hydrogencarbonate ions (HCO3-) in
the cytoplasm of red blood cells
• Relatively low concentration of
It combines with water to form a carbon dioxide

weak acid called carbonic acid. This

• Carbonic anhydrase catalyses the
reaction is catalysed the enzyme reverse reaction, breaking down
carbonic anhydrase
carbonic acid into CO2 and water

What happens when CO2 CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3

diffuses into red blood cells? • HCO3- ions diffuse back into the
erythrocytes and react with H+
What happens when the blood
The carbonic acid then dissociates ions to form more carbonic acid

reaches the lung tissue?

to release H+ and HCO3- ions
• When this is broken down by
H2CO3 ⇌ HCO3- + H+ carbonic anhydrase it releases free
CO2, which diffuses out of the
Hydrogencarbonate ions (HCO3-)
blood into the lungs

• Diffuse out of the red blood cell • Cl- ions diffuse out of the
What happens to the HCO3- into the plasma

and H+ ions next? erythrocytes back into the plasma

• Chloride shift - charge in the red down an electrochemical gradient
blood cell is maintained by the
movement of chloride ions (Cl-) Effect an increasing concentration of
from the plasma into the red blood CO2 has on haemoglobin

cell
• CO2 enters erythrocytes forming
carbonic acid, which dissociates
Hydrogen ions (H+)
to release H+ ions

• Build of of these could cause the • H+ ions make pH of cytoplasm

contents of the red blood cell to more acidic

become very acidic

Describe the Bohr effect • Acidity alters tertiary structure of
• Taken out of solution by haemoglobin and reduces the
associating with haemoglobin to affinity of it for O2

produce haemoglobinic acid (HHb)

• Haemoglobin is unable to hold as
• The haemoglobin is acting as a much O2, and O2 is released from
buffer (a compound that maintains the oxyhemoglobin to the tissues

a constant pH) • Respiring tissues = more CO2, so

more O2 will be released
 It results in more O2 being released Oxygenated blood

where more CO2 is produced in Describe the flow of blood 1. Enters the left atrium from the
respiration, which is what muscle through the left side of the heart pulmonary vein

Why is the Bohr effect need for aerobic respiration to 2. As pressure in the atrium builds,
important? continue the AV valve opens, so the
ventricle also fills with blood

3. When both the atrium and

ventricle are full, the atrium
Deoxygenated blood
contracts, forcing all the blood
1. Enters the right atrium from the into the left ventricle

superior and inferior vena cave 4. The left ventricle then contracts
at relatively low pressure
and pumps oxygenated blood
2. As blood flows in, slight pressure through semilunar valves into the
builds up until the AV valve aorta and around the body

Describe the flow of blood opens to let blood pass into the 5. As the ventricle contracts, the AV
through the right side of the heart right ventricle
valve closes, preventing any
3. When both the atrium and back flow of blood
ventricle are filled with blood, the
atrium contracts, forcing all the Atria

blood into the right ventricle and • Muscle of atrial walls is very thin

stretching the ventricle walls

• These chambers do not need to
4. As right ventricle starts to create much pressure

contract, AV valve closes, • Function is to receive blood from

preventing back-flow of blood
veins and push it into ventricles

5. Tendinous cords make sure that Right Ventricle

the valves are not turned inside How are the following • Thicker walls than atria

out by the pressures exerted chambers adapted for the • Needed to pump blood out heart

when the ventricle contracts

blood pressure they handle? • Pumps deoxygenated blood to the
6. Right ventricle contracts fully lungs, which are beside the heart,
1. Atria so blood doesn’t travel very far

and pumps oxygenated blood 2. Right ventricle

through the semilunar valves into • Alveoli in the lungs are very
3. Left ventricle delicate and could be damaged by
the pulmonary artery, which
transports it to the capillary beds very high blood pressure

of the lungs. Semilunar valves Left Ventricle

prevent back-flow of blood into • Walls 2 or 3 times thicker than RV

the heart. • Blood from LV pumped out aorta

so needs enough pressure to
overcome the resistance of
systemic circulation
 The events of a single heartbeat Aortic pressure (brown)

(which lasts about 0.8 seconds in a • Rises when ventricles contract as

human adult), composed of diastole blood is forced into the aorta

and systole • Then gradually falls but never below

What is the cardiac cycle? 12 kPa, as the elasticity of its wall
creates a recoil action

• Recoil produces a temporary rise in

pressure at the start of the relaxation
phase

• The heart relaxes

• The atria and then the ventricles fill Describe pressure changes Atrial pressure (pink)

with blood
• Always relatively low because thin
during the cardiac cycle walls of the atrium can’t create
What happens in diastole? • Volume and pressure of blood in
the heart builds as the heart fills, much force

but the pressure in the arteries is • Highest when they are contracting,
at a minimum but drops when the left AV valve
closes and its walls relax

• Atria then fill with blood leading to a

• The atria contract (atrial systole) gradual build-up of pressure

followed by the ventricles • Slight drop when left AV valve closes

(ventricular systole)
and some blood moves into the
• Pressure inside the heart increases ventricle

dramatically and blood is forced

out of the right side of the heart to Ventricular pressure (yellow)

What happens in systole? the lungs, and from the left side to • Low at first, but gradually increases
the main body circulation
as the ventricles fill with blood as
• Volume and pressure of the blood the atria contract

in the heart are low at the end of • Left AV valves close and pressure
rises dramatically as thick walls of
systole

ventricle contract

• Blood pressure in the arteries is at • As pressure rises above aortic

a maximum pressure, blood is forced into the
aorta past the semilunar valves

• Pressure falls as the ventricles

empty and the walls relax

Ventricular volume (green)

• Rises as atria contract and ventricles

fill with blood, then drops suddenly
as blood is forced out into the aorta
when the semilunar valve opens

• Volume increases again as the

ventricles fill with blood

Describe the sounds of the
heartbeat
Why is cardiac muscle said to
be ‘myogenic’?
• Made by blood pressure closing 1. A wave of electrical excitation
the heart valves
begins in the pacemaker area
• Two sounds of a heartbeat are called the SAN, causing atria to
described as “lub-dub”
contract and so initiating the
• 1st sound is when blood is forced heartbeat. Layer of non-
against the AV valves as ventricles conducting tissue prevents
contract
excitation passing directly to the
• 2nd sound is when a back flow of ventricles
blood closes the semilunar valves How is the basic rhythm of the 2. Electrical activity form the SAN
in the aorta and pulmonary artery heart maintained? is picked up the the AVN, which
as the ventricles relax imposes a slight delay before
stimulating the bundle of His ( a
It has its own intrinsic rhythm at bundle of conducting tissue
around 60 bpm.
made up of Purkyne fibres)
which penetrate through the
• Prevents the body wasting septum between the ventricles
resources to maintain basic heart 3. bundle of His splits into 2
rate
branches and conducts the
• Average resting heart rate of an wave of exception to the apex of
adult is 70 bpm because other the heart
factors also affect heart rate (e.g. 4. At the apex, the Purkyne fibres
exercise, excitement and stress)
spread out through the walls of
• Basic rhythm of the heart is the ventricles on both sides,
maintained by a wave of electrical Spread of excitation triggers
excitation contracting of ventricles, starting
at apex. Starting here allows
more efficient emptying of the
ventricles
Ensures that the atria have stopped
contracting before the ventricles
What is the importance of the start
delay is the spread of the
excitation from the SAN to the
AVN?
 What is an electrocardiogram A technique for measuring tiny
(ECG)? changes in the electrical
conductivity of the skin that result
from the electrical activity of the
heart. This produces a trace that can
be used to analyse the health of the
heart

What is tachycardia? • Heartbeat is very rapid; >100 bpm

• Normal during exercise, fever, fear

or anger

• If abnormal, may be caused by

problems in electrical control of
heart

• Treated by medication or surgery

What is bradycardia? • Heart rate slows down < 60 bpm

• Common in people who are fit -

training makes heart beat more
slowly and efficiently

• Severe bradycardia can be serious

and may need an artificial
pacemaker

What is ectopic heartbeat? • Extra heartbeats that are out of

normal rhythm

• Most people have at least 1 a day

• Usually normal but can be linked

to serious conditions when they
are frequent

What is atrial fibrillation (example of • Abnormal rhythm of the heart

arrythmia)? • Rapid electrical impulses generated

in atria so they contract very fast
and not properly

• Only some of impulses passed to

ventricles, which therefore contract
less often, so heart doesn’t pump
blood effectively