Title Frequency Control of Grid Small Hy

Frequency control of grid small hydro power system 2014
WELAITA SODO UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERNG
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
BSC.THESIS, POWER ENGNERING
TITLE: FREQUENCY CONTROL OF GRID SMALL HYDRO POWER SYSTEM
ADVISED BY:BAWEKE.A.
SUBMISSION DATE:16/6/201
1 BSC.THESIS, POWER ENGNERING

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are highly grateful to our advisor, BAWEKE A. as without his encouragement, insight,
guidance, and professional expertise, the completion of this work would not have been possible.
Our special thanks go to all instructors who thought us during our graduation study. We take this
opportunity to thank welaita sodo University for giving us the chance to continue our graduation
study in Electrical Engineering. Last but not least, our deepest thanks go to our electrical
department staff and other assisting persons for their affection, love and partnership during our
study. We also greatly thank our members of group with strength working without boring and
tire daily and night.

ABSTRACT
This thesis describes the application of a stepper motor in controlling the frequency of a grid
small hydropower plant. In Ethiopia, the frequencies of the existing small hydropower plants are
controlled by mechanical governors. Unfortunately, these governors are expensive, complex and
slow in response. Furthermore, the governors do not act fast enough during big load changes;
consequently, frequency spikes are created. In this thesis, a stepper motor which is cheap, fast,
easy to control and less complexes used to control the frequency of a small hydropower plant.
The stepper motor is used to rotate a spear valve which in turn controls the flow of water into the
turbine of a small hydropower plant. The position of the stepper motor is controlled by a
controller. Thus, a frequency control system using a stepper motor is modeled, designed and
simulated by matlab software. Simulation results for small hydropower plants with different
capacities demonstrate that transient and steady state performances are enhanced by replacing
mechanical governors with stepper motors. Moreover, frequency spikes are reduced.
Keywords: Frequency Controller, Flow Control Mode, PI Controller

ABBREVIATIONS
DC Direct Current
EEPCO Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation
FCM Frequency Control Mode
HPS Hydropower Systems
PI Proportional-Integral
PM Permanent Magnet
ZN Ziegler-Nichols

Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................................1
1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Back ground of the thesis.............................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem.............................................................................................................2
1.3 objectives of this thesis..................................................................................................................3
1.3.1 General objective of the thesis………………………………………………………………………….……………3
1.3.2 Specific objective of the thesis…………………………………………………….…………………………………3

1.4. Relevance of the Thesis Work.......................................................................................................3
1.5. Significant of the thesis.................................................................................................................4
1.6. Scope of the thesis........................................................................................................................4
1.7. Methodology................................................................................................................................5
CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................................6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................................................6
2.1. Head and Flow............................................................................................................................10
2.2. Potential of small hydro Systems................................................................................................10
2.3. Control systems of small hydropower systems...........................................................................12
2.4. Automatic generation control.....................................................................................................11
2.5. Control systems of existing small hydropower systems..............................................................12
CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................................................13
3. METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................................................13
3.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS.........................................................................................................13
3.2 Small Hydropower Systems Modeling.........................................................................................13
3.2.1. Modeling the Synchronous Generator………………………………………………………………………...13

3.2.2. Modeling the Hydraulic Turbine…………………………………………………………………………………………..19

3.2.2.1. Mathematical Modeling of Hydraulic Turbine………………………………………………………………..…19
3.2.3. Modeling the Load…………………………………………………………………………………………………………....24
3.2.4. Modeling the load controller (PI controller) …………………………………………………………...…25
3.2.5. Stepper motors and Principles of operation of a stepper motor …………………………..……26
3.2.6. Modeling the stepper motor ……………………………………………………………………………………28
CHAPTER FOUR..........................................................................................................................................31
4. Design and Analysis of the Control System........................................................................................31
4.1. Generator selection....................................................................................................................31
4.2. PI Controller................................................................................................................................32
4.3. Stepper motor selection.............................................................................................................35
4.4. The water starting time of turbine..............................................................................................35
4.5. The flow control mode with PI controller...................................................................................36
CHAPTER FIVE............................................................................................................................................37
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION...............................................................................................................37
5.1. Simulation Results of the FCM....................................................................................................38
5.2. Contributions of the thesis work................................................................................................47
CHAPTER SIX..............................................................................................................................................48
6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................................................48
6.1. Conclusions.................................................................................................................................48
6.2. Recommendations......................................................................................................................49
REFERENCES
APPENDICES………………………………...…………………………………………………A
Appendix A: Raw data for design, analysis and simulation ……….……………………………A
APPENDIX B: MATLAB CODES………………………………………………………………………..B
Appendix B.1: Matlab Code with and without Controller ………………………………………………B
Appendix B.2: Matlab Code of Power error ………………………………………………………………B
Appendix B.3: Matlab Code of low head Small Hydro Power …………………………………………....B

Appendix B.4: Matlab Code of three Head Small Hydropowers…………………………………………..B
LIST OF TABLE
Table 3.1: Phase sequence of a 4-pole unipolar stepper motor ..................……………...............27
Table 4.1: Tuning of PI controller parameter according to Z-N tuning…………………….........33
Table 4.2: Assumptions taken in calculating water starting time..................................................36
Table 5.1: With and without controller of low head small hydro power system...........................39
Table 5.2: Transient performances for different capacities of low head small HPs......................41
Table 5.3: Transient performances of small HPs with FCM for different heads...........................42
Table 5.4: Transient performances for different capacities of medium head small HPs ………..43
Table 5.5: Transient performances for different capacities of high head small HPs.....................44
Table 5.6: Transient performances for different types of loadings of a low head, small HPs…...45
Table 5.7Transient performances for different types of loadings of a medium head, small HPs..45
Table 5.8: Transient performances for different types of loadings of a high head, small HPs......46

List of Figure.
Figure Page number
Fig.2.1 components of small hydro power system………………………………………………8
Fig.2.2 Frequency control scheme small hydropower system…………………………………...12
Fig.3.1 Variation of load angle and speed in transient..................................................................15
Fig.3.2 Block diagram of a synchronous generator………………………………………...……19
Fig.3.3Show the essential parts of a typically small hydraulic plant ……………………………20
Fig.3.4 Block diagram of a hydraulic turbine and a generator…………………………………..23
Fig.3.5 Turbine, generator and load block diagram………………………………...……………25
Fig.3.6 Governor steady state speed characteristic…………………………………………...….25
Fig.3.7 Unipolar stepper motor……………………………………………………………..…....27
Fig.3.8 Flow control model of small hydropower system……………………….........................30
Fig4.1 Block diagram of generator…………………………………………………………..…..32
Fig4.2 Simplified model of small HPs system…………………………………………..………32
Fig 4.3 Step response for ZN PI controller design……………………………………………….34
Fig 4.4 Simplified of a small HPs system with PI controller…………………………………….34
Fig 4.5 Block diagram of low head small HPs plant with flow control…………………...……..36
Fig 5.1 Transient response characteristic of a control system……………………...……………37
Fig 5.2 Simulation result with and without controller low head small HPs………………..……38
Fig 5.3 Simulation result of power error for a low head small HPs………………………..……40

Fig 5.4 Frequency deviation step response of low head small HPs………………………...……41
Fig 5.5 Frequency deviation step response of low, medium and high head small HPs………….42

CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction
1.1. Back ground of the thesis

Small hydropower is the development of a scale serving a small community or industrial
plant. There is no universally accepted definition of the term “small hydro” which, depending on
local definitions can range in size from a few kilowatts to 50 megawatts or more of rated power
output. Internationally, “small” hydro power plant capacities typically range in size from 1 MW
to 50 MW. Most of the rural part of Ethiopia is not yet electrified. Unfortunately, it is not
feasible both technically and cost wise to extend the national grid to isolated rural communities.
As the current international trend in rural electrification is to utilize renewable energy resources,
because of their matured technology and reasonable construction costs of small hydropower
systems have become paramount. Ethiopia is naturally endowed with several small and medium
sized rivers which can be exploited for the development of small hydropower systems. However,
this vast renewable energy resource is not yet exploited sufficiently for electric generation.
One of the challenges in developing small hydropower systems is the control system. The
control system should be cost effective, less complex, and more reliable.
Similar to that of large power systems, the voltages and frequency of small hydropower systems
should be kept at scheduled values. To keep these parameters at the scheduled values, the small
hydropower systems should be controlled. In a power system, usually, voltage and frequency are
controlled separately. Voltage is maintained by development of a Frequency Controller of grid
small Hydropower Systems control of reactive power of the synchronous generator while
frequency is maintained by balancing generation and demand. Most commercial synchronous
generators have built-in automatic voltage regulators. Hence, there is no need for the design of
the voltage control system in grid small hydropower systems.
Thus, designing the control systems of grid small hydropower systems imply only the
designs of the frequency control systems. The frequency of a small hydropower system
exclusively depends on real power balance. The balance between generation and demand is
achieved in two different ways: by controlling either the mechanical input power or frequency.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Conventionally, governors are used in the automatic generation control of grid small
hydropower systems. Recently, because of their cost, complexity, slow response, heavy
maintenance, and problems in accepting big load changes, traditional governors are not
applicable to grid small hydropower systems. DC servo motors with spear valves are being used
in frequency control of grid small hydropower systems.
In this thesis, a stepper motor with spear valve is used to achieve automatic generation
control. Employing the stepper motor has made the control system less complex, less expensive
and more reliable. On the other hand, servo motor governors are not suited to the frequency
control of grid small hydropower systems. Generally, automatic load control is used in these
systems. Electrical loads change randomly. It is possible to compensate the change in the
electrical load, consequently the change in frequency, using system loads. If a load is increased
(or decreased) in the small hydropower system, the same amount of load will be removed (or
accepted) from the system load so that the total load connected to the synchronous generator
remains constant. This is known as automatic load control. In Ethiopia, there is some small
hydropower systems had been built by former EEPCO. The small hydropower systems use
conventional governor systems. Because of previously mentioned problems and others, only few
of the small hydropower systems are operational today. The frequency of the small hydropower
systems is controlled by a digital load controller manufactured by an Indian company. Thus, in
this thesis, a frequency controller that avoids the problems associated with conventional speed
governors and the imported digital load controllers is modeled, designed and simulated.
1.3 objectives of this thesis
1.3.1 General objective of the thesis

The primary objective of this thesis is to model, design and simulate a frequency controller of
grid small hydropower systems.
1.3.2 Specific objective of the thesis

• To study different frequency control mechanisms of small hydropower systems.
• To model grid small hydropower plants for frequency control.
• To design a frequency control system of grid small hydropower systems.
• To simulate the frequency control system using MATLAB.
•To design cost effective, reliable, and faster frequency controller
1.4. Relevance of the Thesis Work

Analysis of direct and indirect production costs have shown that the frequency controller costs
only 12% that of a commercial electronic load controller. Moreover, the controller handles not
only small hydropower systems but also three phase and single phase systems. It is also fast, less
complex, and more reliable. Therefore, the frequency controller is superior to ordinary electronic
load controllers.

1.5. Significant of the thesis

This study provides an important study results for cost effective, reliable, and faster
frequency controller. Thus, the result will have the following significances for frequency
controller in grid small hydropower system.
a) Foremost it will initiate for easy maintenance used by frequency controller.

b) It will serve the automatic generation control of grid small hydropower systems by
frequency controller in grid small hydropower system.
c) It will prove this project experiences for our country.
Moreover, frequency controller in grid small hydropower system could use for farther
advantages, applications and developments. At the end, when the study is valued it will have the
following out comes:
d) It will provide more stable power for the customers by using frequency controller in grid
small hydropower system.
e) It will reduce the cost, complexity, slow response, heavy maintenance, and problems in
accepting big load changes, traditional governors are not applicable to grid small
hydropower systems.
f) It will have use direct benefits if the frequency controller is easily using.
1.6. Scope of the thesis

The scopes of this thesis covers problem identification for design a controller that requires less
maintenance and accepts big load changes and propose solutions so as to provide low cost, easy
maintenance automatic frequency controller for small hydropower systems by implementing:
 Automatic generation control
 Automatic load control

1.7. Methodology
The methodology of this thesis employed to undertake the study includes:-
i) Analyzing recorded data on some projects of our country in small hydropower system
ii) To collect data by interviewing professional persons.
iii) Mathematical analysis and modeling.
iv) Simulating the thesis by using MATLAB soft ware

CHAPTER TWO
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter will review the basics of small hydropower systems development focusing on
the control systems and different mechanisms of frequency control will also be reviewed.
Different types of sources of Energy: In the nature there is having different types of energy
sources are available. These energy sources have different set of applications are there based up
on the utilization of energy. Coming to the electrical industry by using these sources we are
developing the electrical energy. In general we classified the energy sources in two types they
are Conventional and nonconventional.
· Conventional such as:-
a) solid fuels(Coal, Lignite)

b) Liquid fuels(Diesel petrol)
c) Gaseous Fuels(Natural &Petroleum gas)
d) Nuclear
· Nonconventional (Renewable energy sources) such as :
Sun, Ocean, Wind, Biomass, Ocean, Water (Hydro)
Hydropower is the one of renewable energy technology which is presently commercially

available on a large scale. It has four major advantages: it is renewable, it produces negligible
amounts of greenhouse gases, it is the least costly way of storing large amounts of electricity,
and it can easily adjust the amount of electricity produced to the amount demanded by
consumers. Additionally, from these sources of energy the term hydro power is referring to the
electricity generated by hydro power, i.e., the power produced by the use of gravitational force of
falling or flowing of water Hydropower, hydraulic power or water power is power that is derived
from the force or energy of moving water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes. Water is
going through a turbine which converts the water's energy into mechanical power. The rotation
of the water turbines is transferred to a generator which produces electricity.

Based on generating capacity or power rating hydropower can be classified into four such as
Small hydro plants (less than 50 M Watt), Medium capacity plants( 50 to 100 M Watt), High
capacity plants (100 to 1000 M Watt), Super plants(above 1000 M Watt).
The Small Hydro model based on capacity can be classified as shown below:-
· Small hydro;1-50MW
· Mini hydro; 100KW-1MW and
· Micro hydro.5KW-100KW
Small-scale hydropower is one of the most cost-effective and reliable energy technologies to
be considered for providing clean electricity generation. In the case of small hydropower systems
the flowing water is used to rotate the shaft of a turbine which in turn drives a synchronous
generator. Small hydropower systems often require small reservoirs.
Excellent reliability, proven technology, low maintenance costs and long life (20 to 30 years)
have proven that small hydropower systems are economical, renewable sources of electricity.
Especially, in Ethiopia small hydropower systems are inevitable renewable energy sources for
electrifying isolated rural communities.
Small hydropower systems are used to electrify residential homes, cottages, ranches, lodges,
camps, parks, factory, industries and small communities. They can also be connected to the grid
system.
Development of small hydropower systems requires the construction of diversion weirs,

power canals, fore bays, penstocks and tail races. It also requires selection of the proper turbines
and synchronous generators. Moreover, the control systems, the transmission lines, and the
distribution systems should be designed. The electrical loads are also studied. The diagram of
small hydro power is shown in fig. 2.1.
In general, the key advantages that small hydro has over wind, wave and solar power are:
i) A high efficiency (70 - 90%), by far the best of all energy technologies.
ii) A high capacity factor (typically >50%), compared with 10% for solar and 30% for
wind
iii) A high level of predictability, varying with annual rainfall patterns

iv) Slow rate of change; the output power varies only gradually from day to day (not
from minute to minute).
v) A good correlation with demand i.e. output is maximum in winter
Figure2.1: Components of a small hydropower system
The diversion weir is a small dam that diverts the required flow of water from the river into the
power canal of the small hydropower system. It is designed and located precisely to ensure that
the full design-flow rate goes to the power canal. Since many small hydropower systems are run-
of-river types, a low-head weir could be used to hold back the water to provide a steady flow of
water through the power canal. The power canal is a channel that extends from the diversion
weir to the fore-bay. Generally, the power canal runs parallel to the river at an ever-increasing
difference in elevation, which gives the small hydropower system its head. Different alternatives
can be used to carry the water from the diversion weir to the fore bay. For instance, plastic pipes
or an open channel can be used.

The fore-bay is a tank which is built at the mouth of the power canal. The tank allows fine
silt particles to settle before the water enters the penstock. The fore-bay consists of a trash rack
which is designed to settle suspended silt and flush the basin. Debris and silt may damage the
turbine and valves. The fore-bay may be constructed from different materials such as concrete,
stone and clay, and woods. The trash racks can also be constructed either from steel or wood
(bamboo). The cost of construction can be reduced by constructing the fore-bay from local
materials.
The penstock pipe transports water under pressure from the fore-bay tank to the turbine,
where the potential energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy in order to rotate the
turbine. The penstock is often the most expensive item in the small hydropower project, as much
as 40 percent is not uncommon in high-head installations. It is therefore advisable to optimize its
design in order to minimize the cost.
Hydraulic turbines convert the kinetic energy of flowing water into mechanical energy.
The hydraulic turbine consists of a runner connected to a shaft which may be connected directly
to the generator or connected by means of gears or belts and pulleys, depending on the speed
required by the synchronous generator.
Synchronous generators convert the mechanical energy produced to electrical energy; this is the
heart of any hydro electrical power system. Synchronous generators are standard in electrical
power generation and are used in most power plants.
However, in smaller systems less than 10 kW capacities, induction generators can be

considered. The synchronous generator must be driven at a constant speed to generate steady
power at 50 Hz frequency. The speed is determined by the number of poles in the generator. A
1500-rpm, four-pole synchronous generator is the most commonly used generator in small
hydropower systems. To match the speed of the generator to the low speed of the turbine, a drive
system such as belt or gearbox is used.
The drive system should transmit power from the turbine to the shaft of generator in the required
direction and at the required speed. Overhead transmission lines are used to transport the
generated power from the synchronous generator to the customers. The size and type of the
conductors required depends on the amount of electrical power to be transmitted and the length
of the lines to the customers. Either a single or a three phase system can be employed based on
the size of the hydropower plant. In small hydropower systems, the entire load on the system is
the consume load. The consumer load is the entire load connected to customers.
Ideally, neglecting the system failure, this load should get power 24 hours a day. In rural
communities, the common electrical loads prevalent are lighting, electronic devices,
refrigerators, small stoves, and simple motors.
2.1. Head and Flow

Hydraulic power can be captured wherever a flow of water falls from a higher level to a lower
level. This may occur where a stream runs down a hill side or a river passes over a waterfall or
man-made weir, or where a reservoir discharges water back into the main river. The vertical fall
of the water, known as the “head”, is essential for hydropower generation; fast-flowing water on
its own does not contain sufficient energy for useful power production except on a very large
scale, such as offshore marine currents. Hence two quantities are required: a Flow Rate of water
Q, and a Head H. It is generally better to have more head than more flow, since this keeps the
equipment smaller.
The Gross Head (H) is the maximum available vertical fall in the water, from the upstream
level to the downstream level. The actual head seen by a turbine will be slightly less than the
gross head due to losses incurred when transferring the water into and away from the machine.
This reduced head is known as the Net Head. Sites where the gross head is less than 10 m would
normally be classed as “low head”. From 10-50 m would typically be called “medium head”.
Above 50 m would be classed as “high head”.
The Flow Rate (Q) in the river is the volume of water passing per second, measured in m3/sec.
For small schemes, the flow rate may also be expressed in liters/second where 1000 liters/sec is
equal to 1 m3/sec.
2.2. Potential of small hydro Systems

Energy is an amount of work done, or a capacity to do work, measured in Joules.
Power is the energy converted per second, i.e. the rate of work being done, measured in watts
(where 1watt = 1 Joule/sec. and 1 kilowatt = 1000 watts).Hydro-turbines convert water pressure
into mechanical shaft power, which can be used to drive an electricity generator, or other

machinery. The power available is proportional to the product of head and flow rate. The general
formula for any hydro system’s power output is
P= rhQHg (kW) (2.1)
Where:
i) P is the mechanical power produced at the turbine shaft (Watts),

ii) is the hydraulic efficiency of the turbine, with the density of water (1000 kg/m3),
iii) g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2),
iv) Q is the volume flow rate passing through the turbine (m3/s),
v) H is the effective pressure head of water across the turbine (m).
vi) r is density of water
The best turbines can have hydraulic efficiencies in the range 80 to over 90% (higher than all
other prime movers), although this will reduce with size.
2.3. Control systems of small hydropower systems

Similar to large scale hydropower systems small hydropower systems should be controlled.
Customers require voltage and frequency at scheduled values. As most synchronous generators
are manufactured with built-in voltage regulators, a separate voltage control system is not
required. Since the frequency of a power system exclusively depends on the real power balance,
the frequency control system is not ready made. Therefore, it should be designed separately. To
keep the frequency at the nominal value, generation and demand should be balanced. This can be
achieved by automatic generation control.
2.4. Automatic generation control

Automatic generation control is achieved through different types of speed governors. The
most common ones are mechanical-hydraulic, electro-hydraulic, mechanical and servo motor
governors. [Approach for Control of Small Hydropower Plants, Centre for Energy Studies]
Mechanical-hydraulic governors are usually applicable to large hydropower systems. They

require heavy maintenance and are expensive to install, making their usage in small hydropower

systems complex and uneconomical. Electro-hydraulic governors are complex and expensive
devices which require accurate design whereas mechanical governors incorporate massive fly
ball arrangement and usually do not provide flow control.
Thus, conventional governor systems, because of their cost and complexity, are not suited for
small hydropower systems. Recently, servo motor governors are used in small hydropower
systems. Usually, DC servomotors are used. As the cost of the control system depends on the
type of servomotor, in this thesis, a low cost, permanent magnet stepper motor is used to operate
the spear valve of the turbine of a small hydropower system.
Figure 2.2 shows the water flow into the turbine is controlled by rotating the spear valve using a
servo motor
Figure 2.2: Frequency control scheme of small HPs
2.5. Control systems of existing small hydropower systems

The existing small hydropower systems use conventional governor systems for
frequency control. A spear valve with stepper motor could have been used, which could have
reduced the cost, been less complex and more reliable.
Spear Valves: A spear valve changes the nozzle size, without stopping the turbine.

CHAPTER THREE
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter deals with the materials and the methods used in accomplishing the thesis. The
materials used are digital computer and MATLAB Modeling, designing, and analyzing are the
methods used. The following sections present each of these in detail.
3.2 Small Hydropower Systems Modeling

The first step in the analysis and design of the control system of small hydropower
systems is mathematical modeling of the different components. The transfer function method is
widely used in designing control systems. After proper assumptions and approximations are
made to linear the mathematical equations describing the components, transfer functions are
obtained. Thus, using these transfer functions, the small hydropower systems are modeled for
load and flow control. A mode switch is used to switch between the two types of controls in the
control system.
The block diagram in Figure 2.2 shows the main components of a small hydropower system.
Before designing the frequency control system, the appropriate model for each component
should be obtained.
3.2.1. Modeling the Synchronous Generator

The model of the synchronous generator is derived from the swing equation. The swing
equation states that the net torque, which causes acceleration or deceleration of the rotor of the
synchronous generator, is the difference between the electromagnetic torque and mechanical
torque applied to the generator. The net torque is the product of the moment of inertia of the
rotor and its couples, and the angular acceleration of the rotor. And the swing equation dynamics
of synchronous generator is under normal condition the relative position of rotor axis and

resulting magnetic field axis is fixed. The angle between rotor axis and field axis is called power
angle/torque angle. During any disturbance the rotor may accelerate/decelerate with respect to
synchronously rotating machine. The equation describe this relative motion is known as Swing
equation. Under steady state operation and neglecting loss
T m= T e
The difference of the two gives acceleration torque (Ta)
T a=Tm−Te (3.1)
T
Where e=¿
Pe
ωe
¿
T Pm T 2
m=¿
ωm
¿ , a=¿J ddtθm ¿ 2
By substitution
d 2 θm P m Pe
J dt 2 = ω m -ω m
(3.2)
Multiply equation (3.2) by ω m
d 2 θm Pm P
Jω m dt 2
=ω m
ωm -ωm e
ωm (3.3)
d 2 θm
Jω m dt 2 =P -P m e (3.4)
d 2 θm
J dt 2 = T m- T e (3.5)

Where J is the combined moment of inertia of the generator and the prime-mover [kg m 2],
θm is the angular displacement of the rotor in mechanical radian, Tm is the mechanical torque in
N.m, Te is the electromagnetic torque in N.m, and t is time in seconds. The angular displacement
of the rotor of the synchronous generator and prime-mover of the turbine is given by:
Figure 3.1: variation of load angle and speed in transient
Thus,
w
here, ω sm is rated angular velocity of the rotor in mechanical radians per sec, and δm is the
angular displacement of the rotor with respect to the rotating magnetic field of the synchronous
generator.
Double derivation the above equation yields:

Where d 2δm/dt 2 is change in speed (Δɷ) and
d 2θm /dt 2 is the angular acceleration of the rotor
The equation above can be re written as
The angular momentum (M) = Jɷ
It is convenient to write swing equation in terms of electrical power.
Electrical power angle δ is related to mechanical power angle δm by:
Where p is number of pole
The swing equation can be
The per unit inertia (H) is defined as the kinetic energy in watt-seconds at rated speed divided by
the rated volt-ampere, S base (G). Thus, using ω mo denote rated angular velocity in mechanical
radians per second, the per unit inertia constant is mathematically,

Where, J=momentum of inertia and angular momentum (M) =Jɷ therefore,
Equation (3.13) is normalized in terms of the per unit inertia constant H and solving Equation
(3.9) and (3.13) together and rearranging, the expression in Equation (3.15) is obtained.
Equation (3.16) can be simplified to
Where Pm= ω mo* Tm is the mechanical input power to the synchronous generator and
Pe = ω mo*Te is the electrical power generated by the same generator.
Thus, the swing Equation in per unit is
From the network equation we have
Where ɷo = 0.5 pɷm is the synchronous angular velocity of the rotor in electrical rad/s, p is
number of poles and δ = 0.5 p δm is angular displacement in electrical radians.
When there is a load change in the small hydropower system, it is reflected as a change in
electrical torque output of the synchronous generator. This introduces a mismatch between the
mechanical and electrical torques and thus accelerating or decelerating the rotor of the

synchronous generator. This in turn results in the deviation of the frequency of the small
hydropower system from its nominal value.
For small deviations (denoted by Δ) from initial values, the mechanical power, the electrical
power, and the rotor angle are given by
Where δ - is rotor angle after perturbation
δo -is initial rotor angle and
Δδ - is change in rotor angle due to perturbation
Substituting the expressions in Equation (3.20) into the swing equation (3.17)
Applying the rules of calculus to Equation (3.21) and simplifying results in
Or in terms of small perturbations in speed,
With the speed expressed in per unit and without explicit per unit notation, the swing equation is
modified to Equation (3.24).
Taking the Laplace transform of Equation (3.25),

Figure 3.2.Shows the relationship of Equation (3.26) using a block diagram
Figure 3.2: Block diagram of a synchronous generator
3.2.2. Modeling the Hydraulic Turbine

In small hydropower systems, hydraulic turbines are used to drive synchronous generators. These
hydraulic turbines convert the energy of flowing water into mechanical energy which in turn is
converted into electrical energy.
3.2.2.1. Mathematical Modeling of Hydraulic Turbine

The representation of the hydraulic turbine and water column in stability studies is usually based
on the following assumptions:-
a) The hydraulic resistance is negligible.

b) The penstock pipe is inelastic and the water is incompressible.
c) The velocity of the water varies directly with the gate opening and with the square root of
the net head.
d) The turbine output power is proportional to the product of head and volume flow.
e) Figure 3.4: shows the essential parts of a typical small hydraulic plant.

Figure 3.3: shows the essential parts of a typical small hydraulic plant.
The turbine and penstock characteristic are determined by three basic equations relating to
the following:
a) Velocity of water in the penstock
b) Turbine mechanical power
c) Acceleration of water column
The velocity of water in the penstock is given by
Where
U=water velocity
G=gate position
H=hydraulic head at gate
Ku=a constant of proportionality

For small displacements about an operating point,
Substituting the appropriate expressions for the partial derivatives and dividing through by
or
Where, the subscript 0 denotes initial steady-state values, the prefix Δ denotes small deviation.
The turbine mechanical power is proportional to the product of pressure and flow; hence,
Linearizing by considering small displacements, and normalizing by dividing both sides by
we have
Substituting for ∆Ūfrom equation (3.29) yields

Alternatively, by substituting for ∆H from equation (3.30) we may write
The acceleration of water column due to change in head at the turbine, characterized by
Newton’s second law of motion, may be expressed as
Where,
L=length of conduit
A=pipe area
ρ=mass density
ag=acceleration due to gravity
ρLA=mass of water in the conduit
ρagΔH=incremental change in pressure at turbine gate

t=time in second
By dividing both side by agHoUo , the acceleration equation in normalized form becomes
Where by definition,

Here Tw is referred to as the water starting time. It represents the time required for a
head Ho to accelerate the water in the penstock from standstill to the velocity Uo . It should be
noted that Tw varies with load. Typically, Tw at full load lies between 0.5s and 4.0s.
Equation 3.31 represents an important characteristic of the hydraulic plant. A descriptive

explanation of the equation is that if back pressure is applied at the end of the penstock by
closing the gate, then the water in the penstock will decelerate. That is, if there is a positive
pressure change, there will be a negative acceleration change.
From equations 3.32 And 3.34 we can express the relationship between change in velocity and
change in gate position as
Replacing d ⁄dt with the Laplace operator s, we may write
or
Substituting for ΔŪ from equation 3.31 and rearranging, we obtain
Equation 3.34 represents the classical transfer function of a hydraulic turbine. It shows how the
turbine power output changes in response to a change in gate opening or an ideal lossless turbine.
Figure 3.4: Block diagram of a hydraulic turbine and a generator

3.2.3. Modeling the Load

As depicted in Figure 3 .4 the electrical load connected to the synchronous generator is of
consumer load. The change in the total electrical load is due to changes in the consumer load.
Where, ΔPCL is change in consumer load.
The consumer load on a small hydropower system consists of various types of electrical devices.
Generally, the consumer load can be divided into two: non-frequency sensitive and frequency
sensitive loads. Loads such as lighting and heating are independent of frequency whereas motor
loads are sensitive to changes in frequency. How a load is sensitive to frequency depends on the
composite of the speed-load characteristics of all the driven devices.
The speed load characteristic of a composite load is given by
Where Δ P L and DΔ ω are non-frequency-sensitive and frequency sensitive load changes in the
consumer load respectively. D is the load damping constant and is expressed as percent change
in load divided by percent change in frequency.
Substituting Equation (3.39) in Equation (3.40), we have
The simplified equation is

Figure 3.5: Turbine, generator and load block diagram
3.2.4. Modeling the load controller (PI controller)

The load controller is modeled in the same way the governors of medium and large scale
hydropower systems are modeled. Therefore, understanding the principle of operation of
mechanical or electronic hydraulic governors is crucial. In medium or large scale hydropower
systems, governors are designed to permit the speed to drop as the load is increased. The steady-
state characteristic of such a governor is shown in figure3.7 below
Figure 3.6: Governor steady-state speed characteristics
The slope of the curve represents the speed regulation R (usually 5 to 6%) and the input
of the governor action is

Where ∆Pref is the Load reference set point. In s-domain,
To eliminate frequency error, a reset action is given to the load reference setting through an
integral controller to change the speed set point
Thus, Equation (3.40) becomes
Where K1 is an integral constant.
The second term in Equation (3.45) is similar to a proportional controller. Hence, Equation
(3.42) is obtained.
Where K p = 1/R.
The governor action is similar to the switching, in binary and phase delay load configuration,
and the DC motor, in mechanical load configuration. Therefore, it is concluded that the load
controller is approximated by a PI controller
3.2.5. Stepper motors and Principles of operation of a

stepper motor
A stepper motor is a motor with a rotating, armature magnetic field. The field is made to
rotate through electronic switches. Stepping motors fill a unique niche in the motor control
world. These motors are commonly used in measurement and control applications. Sample
applications include ink jet printers, machines and volumetric pumps. A stepper motor
transforms digital pulses into mechanical shaft rotation. It is less expensive, more reliable, and

less complex. It operates in almost any environment and produces high torque at low speeds.
These advantages are exploited to control a spear valve that controls the flow of water into the
turbine of a small hydropower system.
Principles of operation of a stepper motor

A stepper motor moves in a series of steps. The rotor has a number of magnets mounted on it,
and the coils on the stator are alternately energized, creating rotating magnetic fields which
repulse or attract the magnets on the rotor, causing the rotor to move.
The stepper motor is controlled by applying voltage to each of the four coils in a specific phase
sequence. The phasing sequence for a 3-phase, unipolar stepper motor is shown
Figure3.7. Unipolar stepper motor
Only half of each winding is energized at a time in the above sequence. As above, the following
sequence will spin the motor clockwise 12 steps or one revolution.
Table 3.1: Phase sequence of a 4-pole unipolar stepper motor

3.2.6. Modeling the stepper motor

A permanent magnet stepper motor is used in controlling the spear valve of a small
hydropower system. The mechanical part of the permanent magnet stepper motor model can be
expressed by
This equation is the complete model of the permanent magnet stepping motor consists of the
rotor dynamic equation.
where J is the moment of rotor inertia (Kg.m2), D is the viscous damping coefficient
(N.m.s.rad1),C is the coulomb friction coefficient, iB, iA are the currents in windings A and B,
Nr is the number of the rotor teeth, nΦM is the flux linkage, Ө is the rotational angle of the rotor
and λ is the tooth pitch in radians and TL is the load torque. On the other hand, the electrical part
of a permanent magnet stepper motor model is described by voltage equations for the stator
windings.
These two equations are differential equations for current equation. Where V is the DC
terminal voltage supplied to the stator windings (volt), L denotes the self-inductance of each
stator phase (mH), M represents the mutual inductance between phases (mH) and r is stator
circuit resistance (ohm). Those equations are nonlinear differential equations. Since it is very
difficult to deal with nonlinear differential equations analytically, linearization is needed.
The equilibrium position of the stator is Ө=λ/2. When both motor windings will differentiate by
δӨ therefore, is Ө=λ/2+ δӨ. Then the nonlinearities expressed by sine and cosine functions in
equations of the above will be approximated with knowledge of trigonometric identities and
when NrδӨ is small angle:cos(NrδӨ)=1 and sin(NrδӨ)= NrδӨ. Then, the linearized model can
be expressed by

Where, cos(Nrλ\2) and sin(Nrλ\2) are constants.
The permanent magnet stepping motor transfer function is derived from equations of above are
with the aid of Laplace transform. The coulomb friction coefficient C is considered to be zero.
The resulting form of the transfer function in two-phase excitation is:
Where:
Neglecting the higher orders of the transfer function it can be simplified to the equation
shown below. The transfer function model of the PM stepper motor is required. The transfer
function between the desired and the output angle of a permanent magnet stepper motor is given
by
where Өo is the output angle, Өi is the desired angle, J is the moment of inertia of the rotor,
Km is the torque constant of the permanent magnet stepper motor, Ip is the phase current,
Nr is the number of rotor teeth, and ʙ is viscous friction coefficient. The stepper motor is
controlled by a controller. The controller calculates the deviation in the desired angle based on

the frequency deviation in the small hydropower system. In general, the block diagram in Figure
3.9 is obtained. Here again, the controller is assumed to be proportional integral controller
similar to the load controller.
Figure 3.8: Flow control model of a small hydropower system

CHAPTER FOUR
4. Design and Analysis of the Control System

The frequency controller system is flow control mode. The flow control mode is applied to
the frequency control of small hydropower systems. Thus, in this section we will see the flow
control mode.
4.1. Generator selection

A synchronous generator with the specifications in Table 4.1 Appendix A is selected. The
allowable speed variation at full load for the 1FC2-283-4 synchronous generator is shown in
Table 3. So, a 5% steady-state frequency variation is set to be the desired specification.
Furthermore, conventional governors should respond to changes in load within a minute.
Consequently, the specification for the settling time of the frequency in small hydropower
systems is set to be five minutes.
Based on the specifications, the inertia constant (H) of the rotor of the synchronous generator
and turbine coupled together is calculated. Assuming the overall efficiency of the turbine and
generator to be 80%, the moment of inertia of the rotor of the synchronous generator and its
couples is calculated. Since the mechanical power of the prime mover is 196 kW, the moment of
inertia becomes and Sbase=225KVA.
First to find synchronous speed (Ns) = 120f/p=120*50/4 =1500rpm

Hence, the additional moment of inertia required from the turbine is 12.24 kgm2, and the inertia
constant (H) is found to be
The block diagram of the generator is shown below:
Figure 4.1: Block diagram of generator
4.2. PI Controller
The simplified small hydropower system model for load control has been indicated in Figure 4.2
shows below the model of a simplified small hydropower system for flow control.
Figure 4.2: Simplified model of a small hydropower system
There are different techniques of tuning PI controller are tested for determining the parameters
of these controllers have been developed during past 60 years. Although most of these methods

provide acceptable performances for some transfer functions of the systems, there is not a
general method for tuning the parameters of these controllers, such as the refined Ziegler-Nichols
method, pole-zero cancellation method, and MOCM performance criteria have been proposed to
improve the performance of control systems which especially have a time delay. From these
methods the Ziegler-Nichols (ZN) method which is still widely used in industries for tuning
because it gives a high overshoot and a long settling time.
Ziegler-Nichols tuning rule:

Ziegler-Nichols tuning rule was the first such effort to provide a practical approach to tune
a PI controller. According to the rule, a PI controller is tuned by firstly setting it to the P-only
mode but Adjusting the gain to make the control system in continuous oscillation. The
corresponding gain is referred to as the ultimate gain (Ku) and the oscillation period is termed as
the ultimate period (Pu). Then, the PI controller parameters are determined from Ku and Pu the
Ziegler-Nichols tuning table.
Table 4.1: Tuning of PI controller Parameter according to Z-N Tuning
The most employed PI design technique used in the industry is the Ziegler–Nichols
method, which avoids the need for a model of the plant to be controlled and relies solely on the
step response of the plant. The parameter setting, according to the Ziegler–Nichols method, is
carried out in four steps.
1) Obtain the plant step response.
2) Draw the steepest straight-line tangent to the response.
3) Obtain the measurements
4) Set the parameters according to Table.4.2

The main features of PI controllers are the capacity to eliminate steady-state error of the
response to a step reference signal because of integral action and the ability to anticipate output
changes when derivative action is employed and it provides the steady state error to zero.
In Figure 4.3, the step response of the small HPs is shown. The parameter a is near to -1 and
L is near to zero. Therefore, the parameters are approximated as a = 0.9 and L = 0.042 so that the
proportional 1 and integral gain constant is 0.125 each.
Figure 4.3: Step response for ZN PI controller design
After plugging the values of the proportional and integral gains, the block diagram in Fig 4.3 is
obtained:
Figure 4.4. Simplified model of a small hydropower system with PI controllers

Assuming a step non-frequency sensitive consumer load change, the change in electrical power
in s-domain is given by
The final value theorem is applied to find the steady state power error,
The steady-state power error is zero, and simplifying Equation (4.2), an equation that relates
steady-state frequency error and change in non-frequency sensitive load becomes
Where ∆ ɷss is the steady-state angular frequency error.
4.3. Stepper motor selection

A stepper motor with the specifications in Table 4.3 is selected.
The transfer function between the input and output angles of the PM stepper motor is given by
From the table rated current 6.5A, steep angle 1.8 degree, number of rotor teeth
4.4. The water starting time of turbine

The water starting time is calculated by
Some assumptions should be taken to determine the water starting time. Table 4.2 shows the
assumptions taken.

Table 4.2: Assumptions taken in calculating water starting time
The water starting times are Tw= 1.0sec, Tw =2.5 sec and Tw= 4.0sec for low, medium and high
head small hydropower systems respectively.
4.5. The flow control mode with PI controller

The water starting time, the synchronous generator parameters and the PM stepper motor
parameters are illustrated in the small hydropower plant block diagram.
Figure 4.5: Block diagram of a low head small hydropower plant with flow
control
The block diagram in Fig 4.5 is checked for internal stability and is found to be well posed.
Based on the desired specifications of the plant, the PI parameters are determined using ZN
method are found to be Kp = 1 and KI = 0.125.

CHAPTER FIVE
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The frequency controller was modeled, designed and analyzed in the methods section of this
thesis. This chapter deals with the results and discussion of MATLAB simulations and
mathematical model. Besides, contributions of the thesis work are presented.
The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped oscillations before
reaching steady state.

Figure 5.1: Transient-response characteristics of a control system
5.1. Simulation Results of the FCM

The transfer function model of a small hydropower system with FCM is shown in Figure 4.5.
This model with and without the controller was simulated using a MATLAB code from appendix
B.1 presented below:-

Figure 5.2: Simulation result with and without controller low head, small hydro power
The step response of the frequency deviation of a 1492 kW, low head, and small hydropower
system for a 3% load change is shown in Fig 5.2. From the figure, it is seen that the small
hydropower system is stable and the steady-state frequency deviation is eliminated by the
controller. Therefore, the low head, small hydropower system with FCM is stable and shows
good transient and steady state performances.
Table 5.1: With and without controller low head small hydropower system
With controller Settling time Rise time Overshoot Steady state

69.1 0 - 0
Without controller 4.45 0.631 25.3 0.66
The graph below is shown the MATLAB code from appendix B.2 resented the simulation result
in the graph.
Figure 5.3: Simulation result of power error for a low head, small HPs
Figure 5.3 shows the step response of the power error for a 3% load change. As it is seen in
Figure 5.2 and Figure 5.3, both the steady-state frequency and power errors are zero

As it is observed from Figure 5.4 and Table 5.4, the frequency controller shows good transient
and steady-state performances during flow control mode for different heads. Beside this, the
controller was also tested for different capacities of small hydropower systems. The inertia
constants for small hydropower systems range from 2.8 seconds to 10 seconds. The steady state
frequency error is zero in all the cases and the transient performances for ranging capacities of
small hydropower systems are summarized in Table 5.2.
The graph of low head below is shown the MATLAB code from appendix B.3 resented the
simulation result in the graph.
Figure 5.4: Frequency deviation step responses of low head small HPs
Table5.2: Transient performances for different capacities of low head small HPs
Inertia Constant (H), D=1.5%, 3% Settling time
load change, low head
0.87 69.1
2.8 71.1

4 69.1
5 66.7
7 59.8
10 82.1
Generally, to test the effectiveness of the frequency controller, similar tests had been
done for low, medium and high head small hydropower systems. Figure5.4 shows the frequency
deviation step responses of the three types of small hydropower systems for a 3% load change
from appendix B.4ATLAB code of three head small hydro powers.
Figure 5.5: Frequency deviation step responses of low, medium and high head small
HPs
Table 5.3: Transient performances of small HPs with FCM for different heads
Parameter Low head small HPs Medium head small High head small HPs
For H=0.87,D=1.5% HPs
Settling time 69.1 56.6 54.7

As it is observed from Figure 5.5 and Table 5.3 the frequency controller shows good transient
and steady-state performances during flow control of different heads. Beside this, the controller
was also tested for different capacities of small hydropower systems.
The inertia constants for small hydropower systems range from 2.seconds to 10 seconds.
Generally, to test the effectiveness of the frequency controller, similar tests had been done for
low, medium and high head small hydropower systems. Figure 20 shows the frequency deviation
step responses of the three types of small hydropower systems for a 3% load change. The steady
state frequency error is zero in all the cases and the transient performances for ranging capacities
of small hydropower systems as shown above in table of low head small hydro power system.
Table 5.4: Transient performances for different capacities of medium head small HPs
load change, low head
0.87 56.6
2.8 61.8
4 60.5
5 58
7 50.3
10 81.4
Beside this, the controller was also tested for different capacities of small hydropower
systems. The inertia constants for small hydropower systems range from 2.8 seconds to 10
seconds at this time the overshoot is infinite since the input is 50 Hz cannot reaches 100% that’s
way the overshoot is infinite.
The steady state frequency error is zero in all the cases and the transient performances for
ranging capacities of small hydropower systems as shown above in table of medium head small
hydro power system.

Table 5.5: Transient performances for different capacities of high head small HPs
load change, high head
0.87 54.7
1 50.3
2.8 53.3
4 52.2
5 49.7
7 39.8
10 77.5
From Table 5.2, Table 5.4 and Table 5.5, it is seen that the small hydropower systems with the
same FCM have shown good transient performances and the steady state frequency errors were
found to be zero. Therefore, the designed frequency controller is applied to the whole range of
small hydropower systems by varying H and by constant D it is easy to control the system. On
the other hand, the frequency controller was also tested for different types of loadings.

Table 5.6: Transient performances for different types of loadings of a low head, small HPs
Load damping constant (D), H=5sec, 3% load Settling time

change, low head
0.48% 58.8
0.8% 51.5
1.2% 53.9
1.5% 66.7
2% 85.1
Table 5.7: Transient performances for different types of loadings of a medium head, small HPs

change, medium head
0.48% 64.8
0.8% 49.7
1.2% 44.9
1.5% 58
2% 76.2

Table 5.8: Transient performances for different types of loadings of a high head, small HPs

change, high head
0.48% 81.6
0.8% 57
1.2% 31.1
1.5% 49.7
2% 67.4
Tables 5.6, Table 5.7 and Table 5.8 show that the frequency controller is efficient for all the
three types of small hydropower systems for different types of load damping constants. The
transient performances are summarized in Table 5.6, Table 5.7 and Table 5.8. The steady state
frequency error is zero in all the cases. In general, from the FCM simulation results, it is
concluded that the controller performs well for different heads, capacities and types of loadings
of small hydropower system.
5.2. Contributions of the thesis work

The frequency controller for small hydropower systems has been developed in this thesis.
This work is new and original. Through several electronic flow controllers have been developed
flow controller is increased the flexibility of the controller and decreased the cost significantly.
The other contribution of this thesis is modeling and analysis of small hydropower system is the
analysis of the flow control model. A DC motor controlled spear valve is recently being used to
control the flow of water into the turbine. Different from related works, the flow control analysis
in this work was done by employing a permanent magnet stepper motor controlled spear valve
because a stepper motor is cheaper, more reliable and easy to control. This is a new approach.
CHAPTER SIX

6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1. Conclusions
In this thesis, the frequency controller for small hydropower systems has been developed.
Furthermore, simulation using MATLAB has shown that the developed controller is applicable
for different capacities, types of loadings and heads of small hydropower systems.
From Table 5.2, Table 5.4 and Table 5.5, it is seen that the small hydropower systems with the
same FCM have shown good transient performances and the steady state frequency errors were
found to be zero. Therefore, the designed frequency controller is applied to the whole range of
small hydropower systems by varying H and by constant D it is easy to control the system. On
the other hand, the frequency controller was also tested for different types of loadings, and also
for frequency controller is efficient for all the three types of small hydropower systems for
different types of load damping constants. The transient performances are summarized in Table
5.6, Table 5.7 and Table 5.8. The steady state frequency error is zero in all the cases.
This work is a significant contribution to the engineering capacity of our country to exploit the
large small hydro potential available. The controller accepts big load changes and requires less
maintenance. The recent frequency control for small hydropower system was controlled by
human operator manually, but we are controlling the small hydropower system by automatic
generation control method that are used to minimize cost and it’s the perfect one than before that
ware controlled by manually. To control this frequency by varying inertia constant and load
damping constant using mathematical modeling, transfer function and mat lab simulation
method.
6.2. Recommendations

We are recommending to our department it will provide hard ware materials to accomplish in
practically. But, now in this year it has not provided the practical materials that are very
expensive to buy it. For the future thesis that are similar to our thesis that are frequency control
for small hydro power system the department would as much as possible be provided the
electrical material used to hard ware implementation. In our thesis we cannot make hard ware
implementation because of the expensiveness of power generator, tribune, stepper motor and
other electrical materials that are used to implement the hard ware implementation of our thesis.
Generally, we are recommending to the department for the future thesis it must be providing the
electrical materials which are used to hard ware implementation.
REFERENCES

[1] NRC (A Buyer’s Guide), Small-Hydropower Systems, Canada, 2004.
[2] NRC, Introduction to Small-Hydropower Systems, Canada, 2005.
[3] P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, McGraw Hill, New York, 1994.
[4] H. Sadat, Power System Analysis, McGraw Hill Companies, 2002.
[5] A. Nigussie and M. Mammo, A Novel Scheme of Controlling the Frequency of a Standalone
Micro Hydropower Plant, ESEE 4th Conference, 2010.
[6] C. Erdal, Determination of the Optimum Parameter Tolerances for a Permanent Magnet -Step
Motor : A Sensitivity Approach, Department of Control and Computer Engineering, Istanbul
Technical University, Faculty of Electrical-Electronics Engineering, 80626 Maslak, Istanbul,
Turkey, 2003.
[7] Asia Commerce Import and Export Corporation, 1FC2 Brushless Three-Phase Synchronous
Generators, Shangai, 2009
[8] Motionking Motor Industry Co., Ltd, Stepper Motor, www.motionking.com, accessed in
February, 2010
[9] www.aguidetoukmini-hydrodevelopments.com
APPENDICES

Appendix A: Raw data for design, analysis and simulation
Table 2.1: Specifications of 1FC2-283-4 synchronous generator
Parameter Value
Current rating 888A
The moment of inertia 3 kgm2
Power factor 0.8
Load damping coefficient 1.5%
Power rating 225kvA
Voltage rating 400 v
Speed 1500rpm
Number of pole 4
Table 4.3: Stepper motor specifications
Parameter Value
Model 43HS2A165-654

Number of teeth (Nr) 50
Rated phase current 6.5A
Phase resistance 0.65ohm
Phase inductance 14mH
Lead wire 4
Weight 11kg
Holding torque 26.0Nm
Step angle 1.8o
Inertia constant 0.0013kg-m2
Torque constant 4 N-m/A
Viscous friction constant(assume) 0.5N-m/rad/sec
APPENDIX B: MATLAB CODES
Appendix B.1: Matlab Code with and without Controler

%programmer: power engineerers
% Date: 2016
%Program: This program plots the step response of frequency of small

%hydropower system with FCM for low heads
%load change = 3%
TI=8; % the integral time constant
kp=1; %proportional gain
ki=kp/TI; % integral gain
Gen=tf(1,[2*0.87 1.5]); % synchronous generator %transfer function
% H = 0.87 sec and D = 1.5%
%---------------with controller---------------
PMstepper=tf(162.5,[0.0013 0.5 162.5]); %transfer function of the stepper motor
PI=tf([kp ki],[1 0]); % PI controller
Hturbine=tf([-1 1],[0.5 1]); %turbine transfer function
Hs=PI*PMstepper*Hturbine; %feedback transfer function
Gc=feedback(Gen,Hs); %Closed loop transfer function
step(50*0.03*Gc) %Step response
hold on
%-------------without controller

Hs=PMstepper*Hturbine; %feedback transfer function
ylabel('Frequency Deviation [Hz]');
xlabel('time');
legend('with controller', 'without controller');
grid on
Appendix B.2: Matlab Code of Power error

%programmer: power engineers
% Date: 2016
%Program: This program plot the step response of power error
%of a low head small hydropower system with FCM
%load change = 3%
%capacity = 1492 kW
kp=1; % proportional gain
% H = 0.87sec and D = 1.5%

perr= 1/(Gen*Hs+1);
step(1492*0.03*perr,-1492*0.03*perr); %step response
ylabel('power error [kW]');
xlabel('time');
title('Power error of low head small hydropower system');
legend('delPL=-14.76 kW', 'delPL=14.76 kW');
grid on
Appendix B.3: Matlab Code of low head Small Hydro Power

%programmer: power engineers
% Date: 2016
%hydropower system with FCM for different heads
%load change = 3%

% H = 5 sec and D = 1.5%
%----------------- low head small hydropower system -----------------------
Appendix B.4: Matlab Code of three Head Small Hydropowers
%programmer: power engineering
% Date: 2016
%hydropower system with FCM for different heads
%load change = 3%
% H = 5 sec and D = 1.5%
%----------------- low head small hydropower system -----------------------

hold on
%----------------- medium head small hydropower system ---------------------
Hturbine=tf([-2.5 1],[1.25 1]); %turbine transfer function
hold on
%----------------- high head small hydropower system -----------------------
Hturbine=tf([-4 1],[2 1]); %turbine transfer function
holdon
ylabel('Frequency Deviation [Hz]');
xlabel('time');
legend('low head','mediumhead','high head');
grid on

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Frequency control of grid small hydro power system 2014

WELAITA SODO UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

BSC.THESIS, POWER ENGNERING

TITLE: FREQUENCY CONTROL OF GRID SMALL HYDRO POWER SYSTEM

1 BSC.THESIS, POWER ENGNERING

2 BSC.THESIS, POWER ENGNERING

Keywords: Frequency Controller, Flow Control Mode, PI Controller

3 BSC.THESIS, POWER ENGNERING

EEPCO Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation

FCM Frequency Control Mode

HPS Hydropower Systems

4 BSC.THESIS, POWER ENGNERING

1.3.1 General objective of the thesis………………………………………………………………………….……………3

1.3.2 Specific objective of the thesis…………………………………………………….…………………………………3

3.2.1. Modeling the Synchronous Generator………………………………………………………………………...13

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3.2.3. Modeling the Load…………………………………………………………………………………………………………....24

3.2.4. Modeling the load controller (PI controller) …………………………………………………………...…25

3.2.5. Stepper motors and Principles of operation of a stepper motor …………………………..……26

3.2.6. Modeling the stepper motor ……………………………………………………………………………………28

Appendix A: Raw data for design, analysis and simulation ……….……………………………A

APPENDIX B: MATLAB CODES………………………………………………………………………..B

Appendix B.1: Matlab Code with and without Controller ………………………………………………B

Appendix B.2: Matlab Code of Power error ………………………………………………………………B

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Table 4.1: Tuning of PI controller parameter according to Z-N tuning…………………….........33

Table 4.2: Assumptions taken in calculating water starting time..................................................36

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Fig.2.1 components of small hydro power system………………………………………………8

Fig.2.2 Frequency control scheme small hydropower system…………………………………...12

Fig.3.1 Variation of load angle and speed in transient..................................................................15

Fig.3.2 Block diagram of a synchronous generator………………………………………...……19

Fig.3.3Show the essential parts of a typically small hydraulic plant ……………………………20

Fig.3.4 Block diagram of a hydraulic turbine and a generator…………………………………..23

Fig.3.5 Turbine, generator and load block diagram………………………………...……………25

Fig.3.6 Governor steady state speed characteristic…………………………………………...….25

Fig.3.7 Unipolar stepper motor……………………………………………………………..…....27

Fig.3.8 Flow control model of small hydropower system……………………….........................30

Fig4.1 Block diagram of generator…………………………………………………………..…..32

Fig4.2 Simplified model of small HPs system…………………………………………..………32

Fig 4.3 Step response for ZN PI controller design……………………………………………….34

Fig 4.4 Simplified of a small HPs system with PI controller…………………………………….34

Fig 5.1 Transient response characteristic of a control system……………………...……………37

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1.1. Back ground of the thesis

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

1.3 objectives of this thesis

1.3.1 General objective of the thesis

1.3.2 Specific objective of the thesis

• To model grid small hydropower plants for frequency control.

• To design a frequency control system of grid small hydropower systems.

• To simulate the frequency control system using MATLAB.

•To design cost effective, reliable, and faster frequency controller

1.4. Relevance of the Thesis Work

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1.5. Significant of the thesis

a) Foremost it will initiate for easy maintenance used by frequency controller.

1.6. Scope of the thesis

 Automatic generation control

 Automatic load control

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