Microwave

Components

Passive
Termination
Attenuator
Filter
Coupler
Ferrites

Active
Passive and Active Microwave Components Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

8.4.2007

www.iapmw.unibe.ch
Microwave Physics

Institute of Applied Physics

Universitat Bern
1
Switzerland = Swiss Confedration
CH (Confoederatio Helvetic)
Population = 8.5 million
GDP (PPP) = $65,000 Microwave
Objective Components

Passive
Termination
Attenuator
Filter
Coupler
Ferrites

Active
I Basic overview of the microwave hardware that is used Detector
Multiplier
in our group (and in all modern communication and Mixer
Amplifier
navigation equipment). Oscillator

MW Instruments
I Practical introduction to fundamental test equipment, Spectrum Analyzer

with an invitation to a hands on experience for those

who are interested.
I Discussion of problems and possible error sources in
microwave remote sensing instruments.

2
 Microwave
Outline Components

Passive Microwave Components Passive

Termination
Termination Attenuator
Filter
Attenuator Coupler
Ferrites
Filter Active
Coupler Detector
Multiplier
Ferrite Devices Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

Active Components MW Instruments

Spectrum Analyzer
Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

Microwave Instrumentation
Spectrum Analyzer

Microwave
Topics already covered in WS2007 Lecture Components

”Introduction to Applied Electromagnetism”

Passive
Termination
Attenuator
Filter
Coupler
Ferrites

Active
Detector
Multiplier
I Electromagnetic waves Mixer
Amplifier
I Decibel scale for power ratios: 10 · log 10 (P1 /P2 ) [dB] Oscillator

MW Instruments
I Transmission lines: waveguides, cables, micro-strip lines Spectrum Analyzer

I Impedance, matching and standing waves

I Vector Network Analyzer

4
 Microwave
Introduction Components

Passive
Components in the 22 GHz receiver of the IAP Radiometer Termination

Praktikum: Attenuator
Filter
Coupler
Ferrites

Active
Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
Atmosphere Amplifier
H2O Oscillator
Antenna Coupler Amplifier Mixer Filter Amplifier Detector
MW Instruments
RF = 22.2 Spectrum Analyzer
+/− 0.5 GHz
DC
Attenuator

IF =0 to 0.5 GHz

Black Body Local Oscillator

Calibration LO
LO =22 GHz
Target
Noise
Diode
Power

IF = |RF +/− LO|

USB
LSB
Frequency

Microwave
Passive Microwave Components Components

Passive
Definitions Termination
Attenuator
Filter
Coupler
I Linear transfer characteristic Ferrites

Active
– S-parameters do not depend on the power Detector
– A continuous wave signal does not get distorted Multiplier
Mixer

Most passive components are reciprocal |S21|2 = |S12|2

Amplifier
I Oscillator

Ferrite isolators and circulators are an exception MW Instruments

Spectrum Analyzer
I For lossless two-port devices:
– Reflections at both ports are identical |S11|2 = |S22|2
– Energy conservation |S11|2 + |S21|2 = 1

Design depends on the frequency range, the required

performance and other aspects (e.g. costs, size, mass, power
handling).

6
 Microwave
Lumped Element Devices Components

I Discrete network of individual components, e.g. coils, Passive

capacitors, resistors. Termination
Attenuator
Filter
I Dimensions < λ, phase differences from the assembly Coupler
Ferrites
can be neglected. Active
I Usable up to ∼3GHz (and above), but parasitic effects Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
and radiation losses increase with frequency. Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

Example for a lumped element 100MHz bandpass filter of a

radio amateur receiver.
7

Microwave
Distributed Devices Components

I All components are connected by transmission lines Passive

with dimensions in the order of λ. Termination
Attenuator
Filter
I The connections are an integral part of the circuit, e.g. Coupler
Ferrites
for tuning or impedance matching.
Active
I Usable up to ∼100 GHz (and above). Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
I Dielectric and ohmic losses increase with frequency, and Amplifier
Oscillator
manufacturing becomes very demanding.
MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

Example of an integrated 24 GHz receiver module. 8

 Microwave
Quasi-Optics Components

I At Millimeter and submillimeter wavelengths free space Passive

Termination
propagation provides lowest losses. Attenuator
Filter
I Quasi-optical components with dimensions > λ are used Coupler
Ferrites
to guide, split or combine the beams. Active
Detector
Multiplier
FSP Sideband Filter Mixer
to Cryostat Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
300 mm

Spectrum Analyzer

Local Oscillator Image BBH Signal BBH

to Cold Sky to Antenna

Quasi-optical module characterized at IAP for the 660 GHz

receiver SMILES, a Japanese remote sensing instrument for
the International Space Station.
9

Microwave
Termination Components

Passive
I Terminates a transmission line (ideally S11= −∞ dB ). Termination
Attenuator
I Tapered absorbing dielectrics in waveguides (a), Filter
Coupler
resistive films in planar or coaxial devices (b). Ferrites

Active
I Standard coaxial 0-18 GHz terminations specified with Detector

return loss < -26dB (VSWR<1.1), expensive matched Multiplier

Mixer

termination for VNA calibration have ≥ -36 dB. Amplifier

Oscillator

I Free space terminations for anechoic chambers or MW Instruments

Spectrum Analyzer
radiometric calibration targets. Often made of lossy
foams with a pyramidal surface to improve the
matching.

10
 Microwave
Attenuator Components

I Lossy two-port device to reduce the signal level by -xx Passive

Termination
dB Attenuator
Filter
I Ideally well matched and frequency independent. Coupler
Ferrites

I Resistive networks in coaxial (a) and planar devices, Active

Detector
absorbing vane in waveguides. Multiplier
Mixer
I Often used to reduce standing waves caused by Amplifier
Oscillator

components with a bad matching. MW Instruments

Spectrum Analyzer

11

Microwave
Filter Components

Passive
I Used to reject certain frequency bands Termination
Attenuator
I Realized as low-, high or bandpass filter (and also Filter
Coupler
band-reject) Ferrites

Active
Detector
Bandpass Filter for a L−Band Radiometer Multiplier
10 Mixer
Insertion Loss −0.39 dB S11 Amplifier
0 S12 Oscillator
S21
FWHM
−10 S22 MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer
−20
Amplitude [dB]

−30
Center
Out−of−band Frequency
−40
Rejection
−50

−60

−70

−80
1.32 1.34 1.36 1.38 1.4 1.42 1.44 1.46 1.48 1.5
Frequency GHz

Measurement example of a cavity filter with four sections.

FWHM (full width at half maximum)
12
 Microwave
Filter Types and Specifications Components

Passive
Termination
Selection depends on frequency and relative bandwidth. Attenuator
Filter
Coupler
Ferrites

Active
Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

Online tool of the manufacturer K&L

http://www.klfilterwizard.com

13

Microwave
Cavity Filter Example Components

7.8 GHz high pass filter made out a series of iris coupled
Passive
waveguide resonators. Mesh of the finite element model and Termination
Attenuator
simulation results. Filter
Coupler
Ferrites

Active
Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

Simulated E-fields in the rejection and transmission band.

14
 Microwave
Software for Cavity Filter Design at IAP Components

I Finite Elements: COMSOL Multphysics, Agilent EMDS Passive

Termination
I Mode Matching: S&P (written by P. Füholz) Attenuator
Filter
Coupler
MICIAN ”Microwave Wizard” Ferrites

Active
Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

15

Microwave
Planar Filter Components

Passive
Steps to get from a lumped element lowpass filter (a) to an Termination
equivalent microstrip design (d). Attenuator
Filter
Coupler
Ferrites

Active
Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

Inductors and capacitors are replaced by microstrip ”stubs”.

Easy to integrate in a circuit, but degraded out of band
performance.

16
 Microwave
Planar Filter Design using ADS Components

Passive
Agilent Advanced Design System (ADS) is a powerful Termination
Attenuator
electronic design automation software, which includes Filter
Coupler
libraries and optimizers for planar filters. Ferrites

Active
Detector
Multiplier
Design flow for a bandpass filter Mixer
from the schematic to the layout Amplifier
Oscillator
and simulation result. MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

17

Microwave
Power Splitter Components

Passive
Termination
Used to distribute an input signal at port 1 equally and in Attenuator
Filter
phase between the two output ports 2 and 3. An example is Coupler
Ferrites
a simple waveguide or microstrip T-junction.
Active
Detector
Multiplier
It can be shown, however, that it is not possible to match all Mixer
Amplifier
ports of a symmetric, reciprocal and lossless device, i.e. the Oscillator

Sii parameters cannot be zero. MW Instruments

Spectrum Analyzer

18
 Microwave
Resistive Power Splitter Components

Passive
I A simple resistive power splitter is matched at all ports Termination
and has a wide bandwidth, but it has additional -3dB Attenuator
Filter

loss and ports 2 and 3 are not isolated. Coupler

Ferrites

I The Wilkinson power divider has a limited bandwidth, Active

Detector
but it is lossless for S21 and S31, and 
ports 2 and 3 are Multiplier
Mixer
0 1 1 Amplifier
−j Oscillator
isolated. For an ideal device [S] = √2  1 0 0  MW Instruments
1 0 0 Spectrum Analyzer

19

Microwave
Directional Coupler Components

I 4-port device, input port 1 is isolated from port 4. Passive

Termination
I Splits the power coming from port 1 equally or with a Attenuator
Filter

different coupling ratio between ports 2 and 3. Coupler

Ferrites

I Most important characteristics: Active

Detector
Directivity, bandwidth, phase and amplitude balance Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
I Very usefull to measure the return loss of a device. Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

Reflectometer setup with a directional coupler to measure

the return loss ρL of a device. which corresponds to the
power ration P4 /P3 .
20
Directional Coupler

10-dB 1.7-2.2 dB directional coupler. From left to right: input, coupled, isoated, and transmitted port

Coupling = - 10 log(P3/P1)

Insertion loss = - 10 log (P2/P1)

Coupling loss = -10 log (1-P3/P1)

Isolation = - 10 log (P4/P1)

Directivity = - 10 log (P4/P3)

 Microwave
Hybrid Coupler Components

I Input power is split equally between port 2 and 3. Passive

I For a matched and lossless device the phase difference Termination
Attenuator
has to be either 90 or 180 degrees. Filter
Coupler
Ferrites

Active
Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

180 degree ”rat-race” coupler 90 degree ”quadrature” coupler

   
0 1 1 0 0 1 j 0
 1 0 0 −1   1 0 0 j 
[S] = √12 
 1 0
 [S] = √12  
0 1   j 0 0 1 
0 −1 1 0 0 j 1 0
21

Microwave
Multihole Waveguide Coupler Components

Passive
I Coupling holes connect two parallel waveguides. Termination
Attenuator
I Bandwidth increases with number of holes. Filter
Coupler
Ferrites

Active
1 2 Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
4 3 Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

Submm devices tested at IAP:

micromachined 350 GHz hybrid
and etched 600 GHz hybrid

22
 Microwave
Examples of Microstrip Couplers Components

40 Passive
30 Termination
directivity Attenuator
20
Filter
10
Coupler
Ferrites

[dB]
insertion loss
0
Active
-10 coupling
Detector
-20 Multiplier
return loss Mixer
-30
Amplifier
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
frequency [GHz] Oscillator

Simple proximity coupler with wide bandwidth MW Instruments

Spectrum Analyzer

Optimized step-design with λ/4 matching sections.

23

Microwave
Ferrites Components

Passive
I Ferromagnetic ceramic (Fe2 O3 +impurities) with Termination
Attenuator
high resistivity, µr > 1000, εr < 10. Filter
Coupler
I Can be magnetized permanently by an external Ferrites

Active
magnetic field. Detector
Multiplier
I Electromagnetic waves interact with the magnetic Mixer
Amplifier
dipoles. Oscillator

→
− MW Instruments
I Propagation parallel to H results Spectrum Analyzer

in different effective permeability

µ+ −
r and µr for left- and right-
handed circular polarization, and
thus in different propagation con-
stants (Faraday
 rotation):

± γµ0 MS
µ = µ0 1 + ω0 ±ω
Larmor frequency ω0 = γB0
24
 Microwave
Faraday Isolator Components

I Non-reciprocal two-port device to reduce standing Passive

Termination
waves (ideally S21 = 1 and S12 = 0) Attenuator
Filter
I Resistive vanes at both ports of a circular waveguide are Coupler
Ferrites
oriented at an angle of 45◦ to each other and absorb Active
energy when they are parallel to the E field. Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
I Ferrite rod in the center rotates the polarization by Amplifier

±45◦ , depending on the propagation direction.

Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

25

Microwave
Circulator Components

I Non-reciprocal three-port device with a ferrite post at Passive

Termination
the junction. Attenuator
Filter
I Allows to use the same antenna for transmission and Coupler
Ferrites

reception (radar, communications). Active

Detector
I Absorbers for low frequencies. Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

Circulator example simulated with COMSOL Multiphysics

26
 Microwave
Isolator Example Components

I Measured performance of a high quality 1.4 GHz

Passive
isolator, which will be used in an L-band radiometer for Termination
Attenuator
SMOS validation Filter
Coupler
I Good performance only over a very narrow bandwidth Ferrites

Active
I Isolation, loss and matching degrade outside of the Detector
Multiplier
specified frequency band Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator
Measurement of a 1.4 GHz narrow−band isolator
MW Instruments
−0.07 dB Spectrum Analyzer
0

−10
Amplitude [dB]

−20

−30

−40

S11
−50 S12
S21
S22
−60
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
Frequency GHz

27

Microwave
Other Ferrite Devices Components

Passive
Termination
Attenuator
Filter
Coupler
Ferrites

Active
I Waveguide switch by reversing the magnetic field Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
of a circulator. Amplifier
Oscillator
I Variable phase shifters for electronic beam steering MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer
I Attenuator for low frequencies
I Tunable filters and oscillators

28
 Microwave
Common Symbols for Passive Devices Components

Passive
Termination
Attenuator
Filter
Coupler
Ferrites

Active
Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

29

Microwave
Active Components Components

Passive
I Nonlinear transfer characteristic leads to signal Termination
Attenuator
distortions and frequency conversion (b), which is not Filter
Coupler
the case on a linear curve (a). Ferrites

Active
I Nonlinear devices can still have an almost linear Detector
Multiplier
behavior for small scale signals (c) Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

30
 Microwave
Power Measurements Components

Passive
Termination
Attenuator
I Different ways to measure electric power, Filter
Coupler
depending on the frequency range: Ferrites

Active
DC −→ voltmeter + ampèremeter Detector
Multiplier
AC to ∼ GHz −→ oscilloscope Mixer
Amplifier
AC to ∼ 0.1 THz −→ diode detector Oscillator

AC to > THz −→ bolometer MW Instruments

Spectrum Analyzer

I Other selection criteria:

I Power range (nW or kW?)
I Accuracy (absolute or relative?)
I Linearity (required dynamic range?)
I Time constant (continuous wave or modulated?)

31

Microwave
Bolometric Detection Components

I Microwave energy is absorbed and heats the device, the Passive

Termination
temperature change ∆T = R · P is measured with a Attenuator
Filter
thermometer. Coupler
Ferrites

Active
Absorber T(P) Detector
Multiplier
P Mixer
Amplifier
Radiation Thermometer Oscillator

Thermal conductance R MW Instruments

Spectrum Analyzer

Heat sink
T0 = const

I Advantages: good power handling, no fundamental

frequency limit, possibility for absolute calibration.
I Disadvantages (which can be overcome):
relative slow, not very sensitive, thermal drift.
32
 Microwave
Cryogenic Bolometers Components

Most sensitive detectors used in radio astronomy:

Passive
I Cooled below 0.5 K Termination
Attenuator
I ”Spiderweb” geometry to minimize mass, heat capacity Filter
Coupler
and thermal conductivity Ferrites

Active
I Used in many cosmic background experiments Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

Complete bolometer array and close-up

views of the spiderweb bolometers.

33

Microwave
Diode Detector Components

Passive
I Junction betwee semiconductors with different doping Termination
Attenuator
(p-n diode) or metal-semiconductor (Schottky diode). Filter
Coupler
I Non-linear I/V curve rectifies the RF signal. Ferrites

Active
For small signals it can be approximated by a quadratic Detector
curve, and the DC output signal is linear with the input Multiplier
Mixer
power. Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer
reverse bias I forward bias
Forward direction

p I = I0 [exp(V/V0)−1]
_ _ _
+ + +
n 〈 I(t)〉 > 0
V
breakdown voltage

reverse current I0

V(t)

34
 Microwave
Characteristics of Diode Detectors Components

I Advantages: Passive
Termination
I Very fast (rise times < ns), relative sensitive Attenuator
Filter
Coupler
I Disadvantages: Ferrites

Active
I Easily destroyed by ESD (electrostatic discharge) Detector
I Moderate linearity and temperature stability Multiplier
Mixer
I Upper frequency cut-off given by the parasitic capacity Amplifier
Oscillator
of the junction MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

Response of a typical diode de-

tector. Only in the square-law
region the output signal is pro-
portional to the input power.

35

Microwave
Diode Layout Components

Passive
Termination
To use diodes at THz frequen- Attenuator
Filter
cies the junction area needs Coupler
Ferrites
to be as small as possible, Active
which is achieved by point-like Detector
Multiplier

whisker contacts or very small Mixer

Amplifier

planar devices. Oscillator

MW Instruments
 Spectrum Analyzer

F i g . 1 . S c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n m i c r o g r a p h o f a p l a n a r S c h o t t k y

b
a r r i e r d i o d e . C h i p d i m e n s i o n s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 8 0 x 8 0 x 4 0  m .

36
 Microwave
Frequency Multiplication Components

A nonlinear device generates harmonics of an input signal Passive

Termination
with the fundamental frequency f0 . Attenuator
Filter
Coupler
Ferrites

Active
Detector
Multiplier
Mixer

|V(t)|
V(t)

Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

Time Time

f0 0 0
Amplitude [dB]

0 Amplitude [dB] 2f0

−10 −10
−20 −20 4f0
6f0
−30 −30 8f0
−40 −40
Frequency Frequency

37

Microwave
Examples of Frequency Multipliers Components

Passive
Termination
Attenuator
Filter
Coupler
Ferrites

Active
Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

38
 Microwave
Heterodyne Principle Components

I Superposition of a strong local oscillator (LO) signal Passive

Termination
with a weaker radio frequency (RF ) signal on nonlinear Attenuator
Filter
device generates an intermediate frequency Coupler
Ferrites
IF = |LO ± RF |
Active
I Normal double sideband mixers (DSB) convert both Detector
Multiplier
sidebands, single sideband conversion (SSB) requires a Mixer
Amplifier

RF filter or a special mixer. Mixer

Oscillator

RF IF MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

LO
RF−LO RF + LO
LO
2 LO
Power

LO−RF
USB
LSB
IF

down−conversion up−conversion
Frequency
39

Microwave
Mixers Designs Components

I Single ended mixer (a): Common for mm wavelengths. Passive

No isolation between RF and LO. Termination

Attenuator
Filter
I Balanced mixer (b): Two mixing elements, 3dB hybrid Coupler
Ferrites
combines LO and RF. Good LO to RF isolation, LO Active
noise and spurious harmonics are rejected. Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
I Double balanced mixer (c): Also IF port is isolated, Amplifier
Oscillator
dynamic range is improved.
MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

40
 Microwave
Subharmonic Mixer Components

I Antiparallel diode pair down-converts with the second

Passive
LO harmonic IF = |RF − 2LO| Termination
Attenuator
I Advantages: Filter
Coupler
Lower LO frequency and good LO/RF isolation. Ferrites

Active
I Disadvantages: Detector
Multiplier
Higher conversion loss and LO power requirement. Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
RF Spectrum Analyzer

diode pair
RF filter
LO

IF Filter

IF
41

Microwave
SIS Mixer Components

Superconductor-Isolator-Superconductor tunnel junction: Passive

Termination
Attenuator
I Two Niobium layers at 4K (ρΩ = 0), Filter
Coupler
separated a 2 nm thick Al2 O3 barrier Ferrites

I Cooper-pairs (2e − ) tunnel through the barrier, Active

Detector
resulting in a sharp bend in the I/V curve Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer
400
a) b)
bias current I0 [µA]

superconductor 300

V0 insulator I0 200

superconductor 100

0
0 2 4 6
bias voltage V
U00 [mV]

42
 Microwave
SIS Mixer Components

Passive
Band structure and photoassisted tunneling in a SIS junction. Termination
Attenuator
Filter
Coupler
Ferrites

Active
S Detector
Multiplier
I S Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

unfilled energy states MW Instruments

energy Spectrum Analyzer

superconductor
"bandgap"
photon 2e
filled energy states

43

Microwave
SIS Mixer Characteristics Components

I Very low noise, close to the quantum limit hν/kB Passive

Termination
Attenuator
I Upper frequency limit from the bandgap voltage Filter
Coupler
Niobium: 1.4 THz Ferrites

Active
Detector
65 µm Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator
junction
1µm2 MW Instruments
(1) Spectrum Analyzer

O
(2)
48 µm O
Example of an SIS mixer for
Nb top-wiring
the HIFI instrument. The
junction has an area of only
NbTiN
1µm2 , most parts in the im-
(3)
SiO2 ground
dielectric plane
age are tuning elements for
feed point
the impedance matching.
44
 Microwave
HEB Mixer Components

I Hot Electron Bolometers (HEB) are extremely fast

Passive
bolometers, which can be used as mixing element. Termination
Attenuator
I Superconducting microbridge (d <10 nm) close to the Filter
Coupler
transition temperature. Ferrites

Active
I No fundamental RF frequency limit (>2THz) Detector
Multiplier
I Limited IF bandwidth (∼ 5 GHz) given by cooling rate Mixer
Amplifier
of the electrons. Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

45

Microwave
Amplifier Components

bias out
Passive
I Increase signal amplitude Termination
in Attenuator
I Made with bipolar or FET C
Filter
Coupler
B
transistors Ferrites
E
Active
I Tradeoff between low noise Detector
Multiplier
and high power Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator
emitter base source gate drain MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer
n AlGaAs
n p n+
quantum−well
with 2DEG
GaAs collector undoped GaAs

bipolar transistor HEMT−FET transistor

Schematic of a bipolar npn transistor and a High Electron

Mobility (HEMT) field effect transistor, which works with a
2D electron gas in a quantum well.
46
 Microwave
Amplifier Specifications Components

I Gain (amplification in dB) Passive

Termination
I Frequency range and gain flatness Attenuator
Filter
I Noise figure (how much noise is added) Coupler
Ferrites

I Maximum output power and 1dB compression point Active

Detector
Multiplier

Examples: Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Power amplifier Spectrum Analyzer
G=45dB (±2dB), NF=8dB
f=0.8-2 GHz, 1dB Gc = +36dBm
VSWR = 1.7dB Bias supply 24V, 2A

Lownoise amplifier
G=15dB (±1dB), NF=0.4dB
f=1-1.4 GHz, 1dB Gc = +12.5dBm
VSWR = 1.7dB
Bias supply 12V, 40mA
47

Microwave
Oscillator Components

Passive
Active element (1) with a resonant feedback (2) Termination
Attenuator
(1) Transistor, electrons in a vacuum tube (for high power), Filter
Coupler
Gunn diode (semiconductor with negative resistance), ... Ferrites

Active
(2) LC-circuit, microstrip and dielectric resonator, Detector
Multiplier
waveguide cavity, quartz crystal, ... Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer
L C

Schematic of a LC oscillator with ω0 = √1LC and

example of a dielectric oscillator in stripline technology.

48
 Microwave
Magnetron Components

I Microwave generator for high output power (>1MW) Passive

with good efficiency (>80%) Termination
Attenuator
I A high electric field accelerates electrons in a circular Filter
Coupler

cavity, a magnetic field forces them on a spiral path Ferrites

Active
which excites microwave resonances. Detector
Multiplier
I Standard for microwave ovens and radar systems Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

49

Microwave
Oscillator Specifications Components

I Frequency accuracy and stability Passive

I Phase noise (specified in dB below carrier [dBc]) Termination
Attenuator
Filter
I Harmonic and spurious signals Coupler
Ferrites
I Phase noise and short term accuracy depends on the Active
Detector
quality of the resonator (Q-factor). Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator
● Phase Noise
● Residual FM MW Instruments
● Spurious CW output Spectrum Analyzer

Residual FM is the integrated

phase noise over 300 Hz - 3 harmonic spur
kHz BW ~30dBc
phase non-harmonic spur
noise ~65dBc
sub-harmonics

0.5 f0 f0 2f0

50
 Microwave
Oscillator Types Components

I Atomic clocks (Cs or Rb) for absolute time standards Passive

with ∆f /f < 10−15 (e.g. at METAS, UniNE, NIST) Termination
Attenuator
Filter
I Quartz oscillators as reference signals up to 100 MHz Coupler
Ferrites
reach ∆f /f = 10−6 to 10−9 , depending on temperature Active
compensation or temperature stabilization. Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
I All higher frequencies are usually synchronized to a Amplifier
Oscillator
quartz crystal with a phase-locked loop (PLL).
MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

free running phase locked

Example of a 6 GHz cavity oscillator
51

Microwave
Modulation Analog Components

Passive
I Amplitude modulation (AM): VAM = A(t) sin(f0 · t) Termination
Attenuator
Filter
Carrier Coupler
Ferrites

Active
Detector
Time
Multiplier
Voltage

Mixer
Amplifier
Modulation
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer
I Frequency modulation (FM): VFM = A0 sin(f (t) · t)
Phase Modulation (PM): VPM = A0 sin(f0 · t + φ(t))
Voltage

Time

52
 Microwave
Modulation Digital Components

Passive
Termination
Attenuator
Amplitude Filter
Coupler
Ferrites
Frequency Active
Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
Phase Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

Quadrature
Digital Modulation phase-shift keying (QPSK):
Polar Display: Magnitude & Phase Represented Together

QPSK IQ Diagram
Q
01 00
M ag

Phase
0 deg

● Magnitude is an absolute value 11 10

● Phase is relative to a reference signal

53

Microwave
Spectrum Analysis: Components

From Time- to Frequency Domain

Passive
Termination
Attenuator
Filter
Coupler


Ferrites
: ; 

4 Active
Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
 
 Spectrum Analyzer

 
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To increase the frequency resolution a longer time series has

to be analyzed.

54
 Microwave
Spectrum Analyzer Components

Passive
I Realtime analyzer measures all channels simultaneously Termination
Attenuator

⇒ best signal-to-noise ratio for a given integration time Filter

Coupler
Ferrites
I Swept spectrum analyzer moves a filter over the Active
spectrum ⇒ flexible standard instrument for most Detector
Multiplier
measurement tasks Mixer
Amplifier
Oscillator

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55

Microwave
Realtime Spectrum Analyzer Components

Passive
Termination
Attenuator
Filter
Coupler
I Filterbank spectrometer Ferrites

Active
Size, cost and power consumption increase linear with Detector
number of channels. Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
I Acousto Optical Spectrometer (AOS) Oscillator

Bandwidth up to 1 GHz, typically 1-2k channels. MW Instruments

Spectrum Analyzer
I Digital autocorrelation and FFT spectrometer
1 GHz bandwidth with 16k channels in a small unit.
Cost effective and rapidly evolving because of the huge
marked for digital technology.

56
 Microwave
Acousto Optical Spectrometer (AOS) Components

I IF signal is converted to an acoustic wave in a crystal Passive

Termination
(Bragg-cell), which modulates its refractive index. Attenuator
Filter
I A collimated laser beam is diffracted by the resulting Coupler
Ferrites
phase grating. Active
Detector
I A linear CCD array detects the image, which represents Multiplier
Mixer
the IF spectrum. Amplifier
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer

57

Microwave
Digital FFT Spectrometer Components

Passive
I IF signal is sampled with a fast Analog/Digital Termination
Attenuator
Converter (ADC) with sampling rate fs . Filter
Coupler
I Time record of N samples is Fourier transformed in Ferrites

Active
realtime in a fast FPGA processor. Detector
Multiplier
I The averaged power spectra cover a bandwidth of fs /2 Mixer
Amplifier
with a frequency resolution of fs /N. Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer
Time Time records
record 1 2 ...n

Time record Spectrum display

Sampling
. ∆ t . .. ∆f
ADC .. ... . . . .. .. Window FFT
.. . ...
0 Samples N 0 Lines (N/2)
fs
0 T N/fs 0 Frequency range (fs/2)

fs = Sampling frequency N = Number of sample points n = Number of lines (or bins)

(sampling rate) (*powers of 2) = (N/2) + 1
t = 1/fs = Sample time T = Time record length f = Frequency step
= N x t = 1/ f = 1/T = fs/N

58
 Microwave
Swept Spectrum Analyzer Components

I LO of a heterodyne receiver is swept over the frequency Passive

Termination
range of interest Attenuator
Filter
I Resolution bandwidth (RBW) can be adjusted by Coupler
Ferrites

changing the IF filter Active

Detector
Multiplier
Mixer
Amplifier
& Oscillator
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59

Microwave
Effect of RBW and VBW Components

RBW determines the frequency resolution. Smaller RBW Passive

Termination
reduces the noise floor, but increases sweep time: Attenuator
Filter
Coupler
Ferrites
0"

" Active
0'
FF$/!.% Detector
536 Multiplier

F.
F$/!.% Mixer
*
" Amplifier

F.
$/!.%
Oscillator

MW Instruments
Spectrum Analyzer
Video Bandwidth (VBW) determines smoothing of the
spectrum:

60
 Microwave
Spectrum Analyzer: Filters and Detectors Components

Digital filters and FFT processing improve speed and Passive

channel selectivity at narrow bandwidths. Termination
Attenuator
Filter
0' Coupler
*0'' **

8A" '  Ferrites

'' Active
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Detector

Multiplier

"
@'' Mixer
*:" *0=0 :'0: 23
Amplifier
);
*; <'.%
FF/! '(,$/! Oscillator

MW Instruments
Different ways to analyze the detector output, depending on Spectrum Analyzer

the measurement task (e.g. RMS for noise measurements):

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61