Lecture Learning Objectives for BIO 210

Martini, Timmons & Tallitsch, 7th ed.

LECTURE LEARNING OBJECTIVES for UNIT 4

Respiratory, Circulatory, Urinary & Reproductive Systems

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
TEXT READING: Chapter 24
TOPICS COVERED INCLUDE: RESPIRATORY TRACT & VENTILATION

121. Draw the respiratory tract (from external nares to alveoli) and label the organs &/or macroscopic structures.
Briefly describe the function of each organ & structure in the tract. (Note: Refer to the lab study guide to see the
anatomical level of detail that we will be studying structurally.)

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122. Describe how the histology of the wall of the respiratory tract changes from one organ or region to the next.
Consider changes in the respiratory epithelium (epithelial lining), cartilage & smooth muscle layers. (Note:
Consider making a table or concept map to display the answers to objectives 1 & 2 combined.) Ultimately you
must learn to justify this organization based upon the functions served by each organ.

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123. Describe the respiratory (exchange) membrane where gases are actually exchanged between blood in
pulmonary capillaries and air inside the lungs. What tissues form this membrane and what tissue type are they?
What is lung surfactant, where is it located & what cell produces it?

The exchange between the blood and the lungs is done by the squamous epithelium. The lung surfactant is a
complex with a unique phospholipid and protein composition. Its function is to reduce surface tension at the
pulmonary air-liquid interface. It is secreted from the epithelial type II cells

124.. Describe anatomical changes associated with the following clinical conditions:
a) lung cancer: including increased risks and any anatomical changes associated with smoking
Almost all lung cancers are caused by smoking cigarettes. Lung cancer is a cancer that begins in
the cells of the lungs. The main symptoms involve the respiratory system but it can spread to other areas causing
headaches, shortness of breath, coughing, yellow skin lumps and bumps, chest pain and blood clots.

b) chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: asthma vs. bronchitis vs. emphysema

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 According to reports, airway changes in asthma patients include epithelial fragility, goblet cell
hyperplasia, submucosal mucous gland enlargement, angiogenesis, increased airway wall matrix deposition,
increased airway smooth muscle mass, wall thickening, and elastin abnormalities.

c) respiratory distress syndrome

A cursory examination revealed that the lungs of infants with RDS were dark red and liver-like.
Under the microscope, the lungs appear firm due to the countless areas where the alveoli have collapsed.
Pulmonary capillaries are congested and lymphatic vessels are dilated. Extensive interstitial and alveolar edema
and bleeding are evident.To counteract alveolar collapse, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and some
alveoli expand. As the disease progresses, the alveolar walls are lined with a dense corrugated hyaline
membrane, which is the same as the hyaline membrane that appears in adult patients with acute respiratory
distress syndrome (ARDS). The membrane contains fibrin and cell debris.

125. Describe noteworthy structural changes to the respiratory tract commonly associated with aging, and discuss
how these anatomical changes affect respiratory function and overall health.

A common sign of aging is a person’s inability to maintain a high level of physical activity as in the past.
One of the main reasons for this decrease in activity is the decreased ability of the respiratory organs to obtain
oxygen and transport it to the arterial blood. This is due to many structural changes in the respiratory system.
The cartilage in the walls of the trachea and bronchus will gradually become calcified, causing them to become
more and more stiff with age. These changes will cause a gradual decrease in maximum breathing capacity. In
addition, the alveolar walls will deteriorate. This reduces the alveolar surface area where gas exchange occurs.
Finally, as we age, the lung loses some elastic retraction, so there is less resistance to expansion.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM, the HEART

TEXT READING: Chapter 21
TOPICS COVERED INCLUDE: HEART, FLOW OF BLOOD THRU HEART, VASCULAR SUPPLY TO HEART &
CONDUCTING SYSTEM

126. Draw a coronal section of the heart (refer to Fig. 21.7) and label the four heart chambers, four heart valves & all
great vessels entering & leaving the heart. Describe the path of blood flow into and thru the heart. Also label the
three layers of the wall of the heart (refer to Fig. 21.3), and all special structures.

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127. Compare and contrast the atrioventricular valves (AV) and the semilunar valves (SL) in terms of both their
structure and their mechanism of function.

AV valves are the two valves of the heart that are between the atria and ventricles in the heart. They allow blood
to flow from the atria into the ventricles and prevent backflow of blood back into the atria.
Semilunar valves are between ventricles and arteries that emerge from the heart. They pump blood outward
through the pulmonary and aortic valves to the lungs and body and prevent backflow of blood from arteries to
the ventricles.

128. Describe OR draw a branching diagram of the coronary circulation (i.e. refers to arteries & veins which supply
the heart itself).

A part of the systemic circulatory system that supplies blood to and drains from the heart tissue. In the human
heart, there are two coronary arteries in addition to the two semilunar valves on the aorta. During diastole, the
pressure in the aorta above the valve increases, forcing blood to enter the coronary arteries and then into the
muscle tissue of the heart. The deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through the coronary veins. Most of them
come together to form coronary sinuses and drain into the right atrium.

129. Describe a myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease (CAD).

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 A heart attack occurs when one of the coronary arteries of the heart is suddenly blocked or blood flow is
extremely slow. Heart attack is also called myocardial infarction. A common cause of sudden blockage of
coronary arteries is the formation of blood clots (thrombosis). Blood clots usually form inside coronary arteries
that have been narrowed by atherosclerosis. In this case, fatty deposits (plaques) accumulate along the inner
walls of the blood vessels.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM, BLOOD VESSELS

TEXT READING: Chapter 22 (Note: Skim pages 578 & 592-598 in order to complete objectives #137-
138 below.)
TOPICS COVERED INCLUDE: ARTERIES, VEINS & CAPILLARIES; PULMONARY VS. SYSTEMIC CIRCUITS;
HEPATIC PORTAL SYSTEM; FETAL CIRCULATION

130. Define artery, vein, capillary, arteriole, venule and portal vein.

Atery: A blood vessel that carries blood from the heart to other parts of the body
Vein: System of branching blood vessels or tubes carrying blood from parts of the body to the heart
Capillary: Tiny blood vessels between terminations of arteries and the beginning of veins
Arteriole: Smallest branches of an artery that ends in capillaries
Venule: Small vein
Portal vein: Large vein conveying blood to the liver from the veins in the stomach intestines spleen and pancreas

131. Draw & label the generic structure of the wall of a blood vessel (Hint: Name the 3 layers and give the tissue
type of each layer). Now make a table that indicates how the generic structure differs in arteries vs. arterioles vs.
capillaries vs. venules vs. veins. Lastly, justify the organization of these tissues based upon their function on
location in the wall of each organ. (Note: This question corresponds to SLO #1)

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132. How do continuous capillaries, fenestrated capillaries and sinusoids differ from each other?

Continuous capillaries: As their name suggests, continuous capillaries have a continuous endothelial lining. They
have tight junctions between their endothelial cells along with intercellular clefts through which small molecules,
like ions, can pass.
Fenestrated capillaries: These capillaries can be found in tissues where a large amount of molecular exchange
occurs, such as the kidneys, endocrine glands, and small intestine. They are particularly important in the
glomeruli of the kidneys, as they are involved in filtration of the blood during the formation of urine.
Sinusoids: Sinusoidal capillaries, sometimes referred to as sinusoids, or discontinuous capillaries, have
endothelial linings with multiple fenestrations (openings), that are around 30 to 40 nm in diameter. These have
no diaphragm and either a discontinuous or non-existent basal lamina. This allows blood cells and serum
proteins to pass through the capillary wall as if it were a colander.

133. What mechanism causes blood to move through arteries? through veins?

The pumping force of the ventricles moved blood through the arteries. The breathing movements exert pressure
onto the chest veins the valves in the larger veins keep the blood from flowing backwardsand the skeletal
muscles contraction all help the blood to move through the veins.

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134. Draw and label both the vessels and the organs associated with the hepatic portal system. What is the purpose of
this system? Draw and explain blood flow into, through and out of the liver. Why does the liver have a dual
blood source?

135. Given the incompletely developed lungs and liver of a fetus, name three alternate pathways for blood flow in a
fetus vs. a newborn. What happens to these pathways after birth? Rename them in their new form (you know
two already: ligamentum arteriousum and fossa ovalis).

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LYMPHOID / LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
TEXT READING: Chapter 23 (Note: You may ignore the section on Lymphocytes, pages 612-614; you will
cover this in Human Physiology)
TOPICS COVERED INCLUDE: LYMPHOID ORGANS, LYMPHOID TISSUES, LYMPH VESSELS & LYMPH
CIRCULATION

136. List the specialized tissues and organs of the lymphatic system. Describe the specific structure and function of
each.

Lymph and lymph vessels: The human body produces about 2 liters of lymph every day. This is a cleanish
yellow fluid that is formed when blood plasma exits the capillary blood vessels and fills the small spaces
between an around body tissues and cells before they are collected through lymphatic vessels.
Lymph Nodes: Serve as the filter station for the lump ad a certain body region and contains special cells of the
immune system. The lymph nodes clean the lymph and free it from pathogens and infectious bodies.
Spleen: Located in the upper left abdomen. Its job is to process old damaged blood cells and microorganisms.
Thymus: Located behind the breastbone. Plays a vital role in building the immune system

URINARY SYSTEM
TEXT READING: Chapter 26
TOPICS COVERED INCLUDE: KIDNEY, URINARY TRACT, NEPHRON, BLOOD SUPPLY

137. Draw and label the organs of the urinary tract. Describe the specific structure (including histology) and the
function of each organ.

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138. Draw OR describe the gross anatomy of the kidneys, both external features (hilus, renal capsule, adipose
capsule (also known as: perinephric or perirenal fat), renal fascia) and internal features (renal cortex, renal
medulla, renal pyramids, renal papilla, renal columns, minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis)

The urinary system of the human body consists of two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder and a single
urethra.The kidneys are located on the posterior wall of the abdomen at waist level. Each kidney is roughly 10
cm long and 5 cm wide, and is encased in a fibrous outer capsule called the renal capsule.The main function of
the kidneys is to control blood volume and composition. They do this by filtering the blood to remove waste
products, salts and water. These are secreted in the form of urine.

139. Draw and label a complete nephron. Alongside each labeled structure of the nephron draw an individual cell
representing the type of epithelium that lines that portion of the renal tubule.

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140. Draw OR describe the pathway that brings blood to the kidneys, into & thru the cortex and medulla of the
kidneys, and back out of the organ to the inferior vena cava. Label all vessels including peritubular capillaries
and vasa recta.

Blood streams into your kidney through the renal supply route. This enormous vein branches into more modest
and more modest veins until the blood arrives at the nephrons. In the nephron, your blood is sifted by the little
veins of the glomeruli and afterward streams out of your kidney through the renal vein. Your blood circles
through your kidneys frequently. In a solitary day, your kidneys channel around 150 quarts of blood. The
majority of the water and different substances that channel through your glomeruli are gotten back to your
blood by the tubules. Simply 1 to 2 quarts become pee.

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REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
TEXT READING: Chapter 27
TOPICS COVERED INCLUDE: MALE vs. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT, OVARIAN vs. UTERINE CYCLE

Regarding the MALE reproductive tract:

141. Draw and label the male reproductive tract (i.e. the pathway that spermatozoa follow from formation to
ejaculation). Describe the specific function of each organ of the tract.

142. Locate and describe the following terms: dartos muscle, inguinal canal, spermatic cord, cremaster muscle,
tunica albuginea, seminiferous tubules, nurse (sustentacular / Sertoli) cells, interstitial cells (of Leydig),
epididymis, ejaculatory duct, glans penis, prepuce (foreskin).

143. Describe the three accessory glands that produce seminal fluid in the male. List the specific contribution of
each gland to the seminal fluid and the function it serves.

Seminal Vesicles: The paired seminal vesicles are saccular glands posterior to the urinary bladder. Each gland
has a short duct that joins with the ductus deferens at the ampulla to form an ejaculatory duct, which then
empties into the urethra. The fluid from the seminal vesicles is viscous and contains fructose, which provides
an energy source for the sperm; prostaglandins, which contribute to the mobility and viability of the sperm;
and proteins that cause slight coagulation reactions in the semen after ejaculation.

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Prostate: The prostate gland is a firm, dense structure that is located just inferior to the urinary bladder. It is
about the size of a walnut and encircles the urethra as it leaves the urinary bladder. Numerous short ducts from
the substance of the prostate gland empty into the prostatic urethra. The secretions of the prostate are thin,
milky colored, and alkaline. They function to enhance the motility of the sperm.
Bulbourethral Glands: The paired bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands are small, about the size of a pea, and
located near the base of the penis. A short duct from each gland enters the proximal end of the penile urethra.
In response to sexual stimulation, the bulbourethral glands secrete an alkaline mucus-like fluid. This fluid
neutralizes the acidity of the urine residue in the urethra, helps to neutralize the acidity of the vagina, and
provides some lubrication for the tip of the penis during intercourse.

Regarding the FEMALE reproductive tract:

144. Draw and label the female reproductive tract (i.e. the pathway that an ovum follows from formation to release
from body). Describe the specific function of each organ.

145. Locate and describe the following terms:

ovary: primordial follicle, mature/Graafian follicle, corpus luteum, corpus albicans
uterine tubes: infundibulum, ampulla, isthmus and fimbriae

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 uterus: fundus, body, isthmus, cervix, vesicouterine pouch, rectouterine pouch, endometrium (functional
vs. basilar layer/zone), myometrium, perimetrium
vagina: fornix & hymen
female external genitalia: vulva (pudendum), labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vestibule
perineum: anal triangle & urogenital triangle (in both sexes).

146. Describe the histology of each of the uterus.

The uterus has three layers: mucosa (endometrium), muscularis (myometrium) and serosa/adventitia
(perimetrium). The endometrium (uterine mucous membrane) is lined with simple columnar epithelium (lamina
epithelialis) and contains numerous tubular glands. It is followed by a cell-rich connective tissue layer (lamina
propria). There is a transition to squamous non-keratinized epithelium at the portio (squamocolumnar junction).
Physiologically the endometrium is divided into the functional layer (stratum functionale) and basal layer (stratum
basale). The myometrium (uterine musculature) comprises a complex of three smooth muscle layers which are
microscopically difficult to separate (from the inside to the outside):
The subvascular layer is rather thin and mainly participates in the sealing of the tubes and the separation of the
endometrium during the menstrual cycle.
The vascular layer is quite strong and well-perfused running around the uterus like a net. It plays a major role
during labor.
The supravascular layer is again a thin sheet of crossing muscle fibers stabilizing the uterine wall.
The perimetrium equals the peritoneum and is surrounded by a thin connective tissue layer (Tela subserosa). In
peritoneal free areas there is no serosa but adventitia.

147. Describe the ovarian cycle and contrast it with the uterine cycle. What structural changes occur in both the
ovaries and uterus during these respective cycles? Which cycle corresponds with the menstrual cycle?
(Note: You will not be held responsible for knowing the intricate cycling of the female hormones that drives
both the ovarian cycle and the uterine cycle.)

The ovarian cycle governs the preparation of endocrine tissues and release of eggs, while the menstrual cycle
governs the preparation and maintenance of the uterine lining. These cycles occur concurrently and are
coordinated over a 22–32 day cycle, with an average length of 28 days.The first half of the ovarian cycle is the
follicular phase shown in Figure 1. Slowly rising levels of FSH and LH cause the growth of follicles on the
surface of the ovary. This process prepares the egg for ovulation. As the follicles grow, they begin releasing
estrogens and a low level of progesterone. Progesterone maintains the endometrium to help ensure pregnancy.
The trip through the fallopian tube takes about seven days. At this stage of development, called the morula,
there are 30-60 cells. If pregnancy implantation does not occur, the lining is sloughed off.

Regarding SEXUAL DIMORPHISM in the human reproductive tract:

148. Briefly (a list is acceptable) compare and contrast the organs of reproduction in the male versus female
systems. Consider their names, functions and then briefly discuss their gross anatomy &/or histology as it
accommodates function. Also, compare and contrast the external genitalia of males vs. females and note
which structures are homologous.

The male has reproductive organs, or genitals, that are both inside and outside the pelvis, while the female has
reproductive organs entirely within the pelvis.

That’s it in its entirety - the complex human body.

There are no more organ-systems. Congrats on making it through to the end!

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