WHAT IS INCLUSIVE EDUCATION?

Inclusive Education refers to the placement of students with special educational

needs in mainstream settings, along with other students without disabilities (Article,

Dorn, & Christensen, 2006 as cited in Al-Shammari, Faulkner & Forlin, 2019). According

to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),

inclusive education is not a marginal issue but is central to the achievement of high-

quality education for all learners and also determines appropriate educational practices

used in general education schools by offering a variety of educational services to help

all students with special needs best learn according to their abilities and needs

(McLeskey, Hoppey, Williamson, & Rentz, 2004) in order to develop a more inclusive

societies. Inclusive education is essential to achieve social equity and is a constituent

element of Lifelong learning. Salend (2011) defines inclusive education as a philosophy

that brings stakeholders together to create a school environment based on acceptance

and belonging within the school and the community.

Inclusive education means that all students attend and are welcomed by their

neighbourhood schools in age-appropriate, regular classes and are supported to learn,

contribute and participate in all aspects of the life of the school. It is also about how

teachers develop and design schools, classrooms, programs and activities so that all

students learn and participating together (http://inclusiveeducaton.ca/about/what-is-ie/).

Inclusive education is intended to create a learning environment in different schools that

is center of learning and educational systems as caring, nurturing, and supportive

educational communities where the needs of all students are met in accordance with

their needs.

In addition, inclusive education in carried out in a common learning environment;

that is, an educational setting where students from different backgrounds and with

different abilities learn together in an inclusive environment. Common learning

environments are used for the majority of the students’ regular instruction hours and

may include classrooms, Libraries, gyms performance theatres, music rooms,

cafeterias, playgrounds and the local community. A common learning environment is

not a place where students with intellectual disabilities or other special needs learn in

isolation from their peers. The following are the benefits of effective common learning

environments (1) enable each student to fully participate in the learning environment

that is designed for all students and is shared with peers in the chosen educational

setting; (2) provide a positive climate, promote a sense of belonging and ensure student

progress toward appropriate personal, social, emotional and academic goals; (3)

responsive to individual learning needs by providing sufficient levels of support and

applying student-centred teaching practices and principles; and (4) designed to be

delivered to students of mixed ability and with their peer group in the community school,

while being responsive to their individual needs as a learner, and used for the majority

of the student’s regular instruction hours.

Therefore, inclusion and participation are essential to human dignity and to the

enjoyment and exercise of human rights” (Salamanca Framework for Action, 1994).

This “involves changing culture of contemporary schools with emphasis on active

learning, applied curriculum, appropriate assessment methods, multi-levels instructional

approaches, and increased attention to diverse student needs and individualization”.

BENEFITS ON INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

Effective inclusive education practices as stated by Al-Shammari, Faulkner &

Forlin, (2019) should incorporate ideas from different theories so that teachers can

successfully make curricular and instructional decisions for each student.

“Behaviourism-based inclusive education practices include the application of

behaviourism in inclusive education settings, which clearly appears in the emphasis on

student behaviour and performance in manipulating stimulus materials” (Ertmer &

Newby, 2013as cited in Al-Shammari, Faulkner & Forlin, 2019).

According, cognitivist focuses on the attributes of one’s thinking, memory self-

reflection, and motivation to teach (Piaget, n.d.) Cognitivism-based inclusive education

practices are implemented by applying different instructional approaches focused on

learning activities, such as note-taking (Boyle & Rivera, 2012), underling (Swanson,

Orosco, & Lussier, 2014), summarizing (Wittrock & Alesandrini, 1990, writing to learn,

outlining and mapping, and use of the PQ4R method (slavin, 2009). Lastly, in the same

study by AI-Shammari, Faulkner & Forlin (2019), constructivism-based inclusive

education practices are the applications of constructivism in inclusive education

settings, which would involve instructional methods and strategies to assist learners to

explore complex topics actively.

 TIES (Increasing Time, Instructional Effectiveness, Engagement, and State

Support) Center (2018) enumerated different benefits of inclusive education:

1. Support to Civil Rights. Teachers believe that inclusion is a civil rights. Like all

students, those with disabilities have the right to attend regular schools and

general education classes.

2. Integration in Community Life. Special education students need to belong in a

certain group of people.

3. Sense of Belonging and Acceptance of Differences. “An inclusive approach to

education challenges practices of separating students and their underlying

assumptions. As educators become more successful implementing inclusive

practices, fewer students are at risk for experiencing segregation and its

potentially devastating effects on learning” TIES, 2018.

4. Varied Learning Opportunities. Like other students, children should also enjoy

varied learning opportunities that fit their learning needs. All children should

grow encountering varied opportunities and challenges.

5. Use of Best Practices in Instructions. Teachers are trained with varied

strategies, modalities and individualized instruction approaches. The children

should have the best teacher with experiences.

6. Individualized Education in a Supportive Context. The teachers are well-

trained in IEP making. “The natural flow of productive interactions and

learning in general education environments make them ideal places in which

to expect active student participation and high levels of student accountability

for their performance, TIES (2018).

 7. Relationship with Peers. Inclusive learning environments provide

opportunities for all children, teachers, parents, community and other

stakeholders to have a very smooth relationship for the improvement of

teaching practices.

8. Increased Instructional Support for All Students. Inclusion benefits the

students because when student with disabilities are educated in general

education classes, special educators and specialized instructional support

personnel provide support in those settings. This results in general education

teachers and students having additional expertise more available, TIES

(2018).

9. Improving Schools through Team Building. Team effort and collaboration of

all students is essential in an inclusive learning environment.

10. Parental Involvement. The parents are greatly involved in all students’

activities. Parent conferences are regularly conducted.

MAINSTREAMING IN SPECIAL EDUCATION

Another important concept in special education is mainstreaming. ‘Mainstreaming

has been used to refer to the selective placement of special education students in one

or more “regular” education classes. Rogers (1993) assume that a student must “earn”

his or her opportunity to be placed in regular classes by demonstrating an ability to

“keep up” with the work assigned by the regular classroom teacher. Mainstreaming is

closely linked to traditional forms of special education service delivery”, (Rogers, 1993).

Mainstreaming refers to children with an Individualized Education Program (IEP)

attending a regular classroom for their social and academic benefit. Mainstreaming
involves placing students with disabilities in general education settings only when they

can meet traditional academic expectations with minimal assistance or when those

expectations are not relevant (for example, participation only in recess or school

assemblies for access to social interactions with peers).

LODEN’S DIVERSITY WHEEL

Loden’s first piece of advice to people using the model is to open up the diversity

conversation so that everyone at the table can identify with some dimensions. “The goal

for an organization is to create an environment where, regardless of one’s diversity

profiles, everyone feels welcome and where everyone’s skills are leveraged. The

Diversity Wheel is useful in explaining how group-based differences contribute to

individual identities”.

Four (4) Layers of Diversity according to Gardenswartz & Rowe (2003):

1. The Personality is how we think and communicate. This also includes likes and

dislikes of an individual.

2. Internal Dimensions are largely out of our control but have a powerful impact on

behaviors and attitudes.

3. External Dimensions are largely within our control and are choices formed by

environmental, social and cultural factors and experiences. This includes factors

such as “income, personal and recreational habits, religion, education, work

experience, appearance, marital status, and geographic location”, Velasco, Villar,

unar and Velasco (2016).

4. Organizational Dimensions are largely defined and influenced by the group or

organization in which we work.

Velasco, et al. (2016) mention in their study that a “person’s dimensions of

diversity are the core because they exert an important impact on early socialized and a
powerful, sustained impact through every state of life”. Age, ethnicity, gender,

mental/physical abilities and characteristics, race, and sexual orientation are the core of

diverse identities of an individual. In addition to these dimensions, we also have

communication style, education, family status, work experience, organizational role and

level, religion, first language, geographic location, income, and work style. Similarly,

with the core dimension, these secondary dimensions share certain characteristics

(Velasco et al, 2016). In the same study, they added that many of these secondary

dimensions contain an element of control choice. The synergistic and integrated whole

of a person is defined by the primary and secondary dimensions.

Loden (1991) mention that in order to understand better these dimensions, an

individual must have respect, inclusion, cooperation and responsibility. This can be

used by teachers to understand the different perspective of the students even if they

belong to the same race, gender and even socio-economic status. further, this

dimension can also be utilized during the student internship program and even in

conducting a research.
ABILITY AND DISABILITY AS DIMENSION OF DIVERSITY

People with special needs are considered as the nation>s largest minority where

some people treat them differently. The concept of diversity encompasses acceptance,

collaboration and respect. People with special needs vary in race, gender, educational

background, socioeconomic status, organizational lines and even global understanding.

This can be understood that each individual is unique, and recognizing our individual

differences. It is the exploration of these differences in a safe, positive, and nurturing

environment. It is about understanding each other and moving beyond simple tolerance

to embracing and celebrating the rich dimensions of diversity contained within each

individual (http://www.disabled-world.com/disability/diversity.php). The disability of the

individual hinders them to be employed.

Here are some factors that help to perpetuate the high unemployment rates of

persons with disabilities from culturally diverse backgrounds (https://www.disabled-

world.com/disability/diversity.php):

1. People with disabilities from culturally diverse background experience twice

the discrimination experienced by non-disabled people in the minority

community. Both disability and race complicate the situation.

2. There is disparity in rehabilitation services provided to minority persons with

disabilities.

3. Educational opportunities are less available and affordable to individuals with

disabilities from culturally diverse backgrounds.

4. Inadequate transportation and housing in disadvantaged communities

intensify the employment barriers for minority people with disabilities.

 5. There is a lack of mentors and role models for minority individuals with

disabilities in the workplace.

6. Mainstream job coaching and mentoring, on the job training and internships

are often not readily available to minority individuals with disabilities.

7. Both mainstream and minority communities and religious organizations tend

to overlook their capability to support the employment of minority individuals

with disabilities.

8. Cultural differences are not clearly understood by individuals or organizations

designing programs to support the employment of minority persons with

disabilities.

TEACHING STRATEGIES AND TOOLS FOR DIVERSE LEARNERS

Cole (2008) mention that “teachers promote critical thinking when they make the

rules of the classroom culture explicit and enable students to compare and contrast

them with other cultures”. It is very important that teachers should be aware of the

different strategies to be utilized for diverse learners.

Zeichner (1992) as cited in Cole (2008) has suggested different successful teaching

approaches for diverse learners. This includes (1) “teachers have a clear sense of their

own ethnic and cultural identities; (2) teachers communicate high expectations for the

success of all students and a belief that all students can succeed; (3) teachers are

personally committed to achieving equity for all students and believe that they are

capable of making a difference in their students’ learning; (4) teachers have developed

a bond with their students and cease seeing their students as ‘the other’; (5) schools
provide academically challenging curriculum that includes attention to the development

of higher-level cognitive skills; (6) instruction focuses on students’ creation of meaning

about content in an interactive and collaborative learning environment; (7) teachers help

students see learning tasks as meaningful; (8) curricula include the contributions and

perspectives of the different ethno cultural groups that compose the society; (9)

teachers provide a “scaffolding” that links the academically challenging curriculum to the

cultural resources that students bring to school; (10) teachers explicitly teach students

the culture of the school and seek to maintain students’ sense of ethnocultural pride and

identify; (11) community members and parents or guardians are encouraged to become

involved in students’ education and are given a significant voice in making important

school decisions related to programs (such as resources and staffing); and (12)

teachers are involved in political struggles outside the classroom that are aimed at

achieving a more just and humane society.

Shade, Kelly, and Oberg (1997) advocate “that culturally responsive instruction is

not just the educational soup du jour and cannot be dismissed as just good teaching.”

The following strategies are recommended:

1. Cooperative or collaborative learning;

2. Capitalize on the Funds of knowledge in families and the community;

3. Instructional dialogues/conversations;

4. Cognitively guided instruction; and

5. Technology-enriched instruction/computer-based learning.

HISTORICAL, PHILOSOPHICAL, LEGAL, AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF

SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Cite the philosophical and the legal bases of special education programs;

2. Give insights on the historical development of special and inclusive education;

3. Construct arguments on the theoretical underpinnings of special and inclusive

education; and

4. Formulate a reference chart on the historical, philosophical, legal and theoretical

foundations of special and inclusive education.

OVERVIEW

This unit focuses on the history of special and inclusive education including its

philosophical foundations and legal bases. Theoretical underpinnings supporting the

advancement of the special education agenda have also been analysed and arguments

have been developed for or against the teaching practices that special education

teachers have utilized inside the 21st century classroom.

INTRODUCTION

The historical and philosophical foundations of special and inclusive education

could be traced back to the 18th century as an offshoot of the period of enlightenment.
from then on, the move of the proponents for the empowerment of individuals with

special needs have undergone different phases from its inception until reaching this far

where their rights to education have been recognized in the international level.

Promoters of these rights from different sectors have vowed to protect these individuals

primarily through legal means in order to stop the violence and discrimination hurled

against them. Instead of using curse, violence, indictment and exclusion, the champions

of these individuals have called for social integration then to inclusion through the

means of open access to education and equal protection. This initiative is reflected in

the dictum, “no child left behind”, which has been very popular among countries among

countries embracing learner-centered education.

On a similar note, educationist like Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

spearheaded the recognition of the nature of the person while other’s pointed out the

need to check on how the person has been nurtured. Any teacher then preparing for

instruction should take into consideration the individuals’ capability or natural

tendencies, his or her cognitive speed and background experiences. These factors have

long been considered essential in the promotion of the 21 st century education. The aim

to maximize the development of the potential of individuals with special needs has set

the new direction of special education. The teachers specializing in this area must be

keen of the movement of parents, organizations, advocates, government officials and

other stakeholders for the improvement of the educational services towards these

individuals. Rapid changes on placement, assessment, implementation of curricular

standards, training of teachers and many others steps have been put forward in order to

have proper implementation of the special education system that recognizes their rights
and opportunities. Overall, the present special education’s innovations have created

waves that permeated through our society and it is essential that we must keep its

anchor on historical, philosophical and legal foundations of education in order to get a

clear view of where the journey is heading, making the most important passengers, the

individuals with special needs, safe, engaged, and happy.

From a deeply religious stance on individuals with disability, the Europeans,

through the dynamic leadership of France in the 18 th century had turned the tide in their

moves as they set the direction in dealing with deafness, blindness and mental illness in

their journey to special education. So many people at that time started to raise a lot of

issues regarding the welfare of individuals with disabilities such as opening of more

opportunities for independent living, development of self-respect, self-worth, and self-

management. Making them feel dignified became the primary goal of the different

movements spearheaded by Rousseau, Voltaire and many others. The call to consider

the nature of the child as the starting principle in teaching individuals with special needs

started to become popular for its humanitarian implications. However, the people

became more enthusiastic when John Locke (1632-1704) introduced the power of

environment or nurture in educating the individuals with disabilities. The introduction of

tabula rasa had gained wide acceptance from people of various social classes. The idea

that knowledge from the environment could be acquired through the senses became

more popular than the postulate about the nature of the child especially those with

disabilities. It was understandable because improvement could be elusive if one would

just rely on natural tendencies orientation. So many followers of the tabula rasa were
convinced of the idea on the great influence of environment to stimulate the senses of

individuals with disabilities.

One great priest in France, Abbe Charles Michel de l’Epee (1712-1789), initiated

the use of sign language as an alternative to oralism, the approach in teaching the deaf

where speech became central to their education. Attention to the blind was not forgotten

and was given focus by Molyneux, Berkeley, Locke, Diderot, and those who conducted

a research on varied aspects of visual impairment. The talk about Epee’s works and the

ideals of Enlightenment such as equality of all persons, the development of special

education became phenomenal. Eventually, this led to the abolition of social classes

and opened access to education, promotion and development of just society and the

recognition of the human rights of individuals with disabilities. It was at this time wherein

special education was accepted as a branch of education and multiple instructional

experimentations were done in order to make advancement in the teaching of the

individuals with special needs. More schools were established for them, and more

charitable institutions were opened to accommodate them, paving the way for the

improvement of their lives.

By the close of the eighteenth century special education was accepted as a

branch of education, although often charity, not education, served as the underlying

motive. Schooling did not become a social norm for exceptional youngsters any more

than it did for other children of the period, but the advances resulted in wide-ranging

pedagogical experimentation, broadly based educational enterprises, the establishment

of charitable foundations and state-administered schools, and the emergence of

professional teachers. Varied philosophical thoughts provided an avenue for teachers to

develop different approaches, methods and techniques in teaching children with special

needs. From tabula rasa of John Locke to behaviourism of Watson, there is no doubt

the environment exerts a great influence on the improvement of the functionalities of an

individual with disabilities through stimulations. At present, it is behaviourism that

supports the use of rewards and reinforcement by Skinner, the principle of natural and

neutral conditioning, and other principles postulated by Ivan Pavlov, Thorndike and

other behaviourists. Other philosophies include existentialism for a highly individualized

instruction, and essentialism for learning the foundational competencies in life. Western

countries today like the United States of America promoted child centered education

through progressivism and develop constructivism as the modern teaching approach in

the 21st century. This modern teaching approach popularized by John Dewey, Jerome

Bruner and other educationists highlighting the role of experience in learning serves as

the theoretical underpinning of the educational framework, outcomes-based education

(OBE) which is widely used today. It is through an educational philosophy then wherein

any educator can find the direction on how to start making the child learn and where

does education lead him or her.