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Handbook of Research
on Industrial Informatics
and Manufacturing
Intelligence:
Innovations and Solutions
Mohammad Ayoub Khan
Ministry of Communications and Information Technology, India

Abdul Quaiyum Ansari

Jamia Millia Islamia, India
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Handbook of research on industrial informatics and manufacturing intelligence: innovations and solutions / Mohammad
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Summary: “This book is the best source for the most current, relevant, cutting edge research in the field of industrial
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ISBN 978-1-4666-0294-6 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-0295-3 (ebook) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-0296-0 (print & perpetual
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 33

Chapter 3
Fuzzy Logic:
Concepts, System Design, and
Applications to Industrial Informatics

Siddhartha Bhattacharyya
The University of Burdwan, India

Paramartha Dutta
Visva-Bharati University, India

ABSTRACT
The field of industrial informatics has emerged as one of the key disciplines for the purpose of intelligent
management and dissemination of information in today’s world. With the advent of newer technical
know-how, the subject of informative intelligence has assumed increasing importance in the industrial
arena, thanks to the evolution of data intensive industry. Real world data exhibit varied amount of un-
quantifiable uncertainty in the information content. Conventional logic is often unable to explain the
associated uncertainty and imprecision therein due to the principles of finiteness of observations and
quantifying propositions employed. Fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic provide a logical framework for descrip-
tion of the varied amount of ambiguity, uncertainty and imprecision exhibited in real world data under
consideration. The resultant fuzzy inference engine and the fuzzy logic control theory supplement the
power of the framework in design of robust failsafe real life systems.

INTRODUCTION technology, there has been a stupendous increase

Industrial informatics (Acciani, 2011; Gomperts,
2011) has assumed importance of late thanks
to intelligent management and dissemination
of information. With the rapid advancement of
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-0294-6.ch003
in the exchange of data based information leading
to data explosion. As a result, for keeping pace
with this ever-increasing data and knowledge
base, new subjects like informative intelligence
and intelligent informatics have come to the fore.
Information is manifested in several different
forms. It may be either in the form of raw data,

Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

images, video content, speech signals or in any
other electronic form. Any form of consumed real
world data contains a varied amount of ambiguity
and imprecision, which cannot always be measured
in practice. As such, classical computing systems
seldom account for the associated uncertainty and
imprecision in the principles of finiteness of ob-
servations and quantifying propositions employed.
Fuzzy sets (Zadeh, 1965; Cox, 1994; Dubois
1980; Kosko, 1997; Ross, 2003; Ross, 2004; Ber-
kan, 2000) evolved by Professor Lotfi Zadeh of the
University of California at Berkley are capable of
describing the vagueness and ambiguity inherent
in real world data. Professor Zadeh reasoned on
the intelligence in human reasoning to pave the
way for foundation of fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic.
He was motivated by the fact that human beings
more often communicate via natural language
terms or linguistic expressions, which cannot be
always quantified by numeric values (Zadeh65,
Zadeh73, Cox94, Dubois80, Zadeh78, Zadeh94).
Typical human expressions include either one or
several linguistic phrases, viz., very, very tall boy,
very fast car, quite a few people, etc. These phrases,
though aptly describe human feelings, cannot be
numerically quantified in the strict sense of the
term. Thus, even in the absence of any precise,
numerical input information, human beings are
capable of highly adaptive control. Moreover, as
the complexity of a system increases, it becomes
more difficult and eventually impossible to make
a precise statement about its behavior, culminat-
ing in a point of complexity, which cannot be
adjudged by means of a value. Zadeh coined the
term “fuzzy” (standing for something which is
vague, obscure and imprecise) to replicate the
notion of non-measurable human understanding
and logic. Thus, fuzzy sets form the backbone
of more efficient and robust systems, which are
immune to all sorts of uncertainties and impreci-
sions prevalent in the real world. Hence, fuzzy
systems operate in a linguistic framework and their
strength lies in their capability to handle linguistic
information and perform approximate reasoning
34
Fuzzy Logic
(Ross2003, Ross2004) through the assignment of
non-measurable logical qualities.
This chapter is devoted to develop an under-
standing of the essence of fuzzy set theoretic
concepts, the embodied logic and their appli-
cation to fuzzy system design as it applies to
different fields of science, engineering, finance
and industry. One of the important tenets of
fuzzy system design is proper appraisal of fuzzy
based inference system design and fuzzy control
theory, which lead to the development of robust
and failsafe systems. A part of the chapter would
deal with the intricacies of fuzzy control with
reference to its application to industrial system
design. Case studies of the applications of fuzzy
sets, fuzzy logic and fuzzy inference system to
information management are also highlighted
in this chapter. Due to the ability of handling
uncertainties in real world data, fuzzy sets and
fuzzy logic have made a huge impact on virtually
every sphere of science, engineering and finance.
The application perspectives of fuzzy sets and
fuzzy logic is also touched upon with special
emphasis on the fields of industrial informatics
and resource management (Chaudhari2010),
machine intelligence (Kyoomarsi2009), process
modeling and quality control (Berkan2000), ro-
botics, image processing and pattern recognition
in industry (Simpson92), financial engineering
domains (Shipley2009, Meng2008), to name
a few.
The chapter is organized as follows. The
limitations of the conventional crisp sets and
crisp logic are highlighted in the section titled
FUZZY SET THEORY: CONCEPTS AND TER-
MINOLOGIES with three real life observations.
The foundations and efficacy of fuzzy set theory
in dealing with the stated problems are discussed.
The concept of partial membership assignment
in fuzzy sets is also presented in this section.
The section titled TYPES OF MEMBERSHIP
FUNCTIONS introduces some of the standard
membership functions used to model fuzzy sets.
Any fuzzy system operates on linguistic inputs.
Fuzzy Logic
Hence, the first and foremost phase in design-
ing a fuzzy system is to obtain a set of fuzzified
inputs suitable for the system to be designed.
The section on FUZZIFICATION elucidates an
example of application of a membership function
to illustrate this step of fuzzification procedure.
This section also justifies the effectiveness of the
assignment of fuzzy memberships in qualifying
uncertain propositions in real life observations.
Even though fuzzy systems operate on and gen-
erate fuzzy data, human beings are comfortable
with crisp data. Hence, some means of revert-
ing to the tangible crisp form of the fuzzified
output is required for usability in the real world.
The section on DEFUZZIFICATION discusses
the different techniques of the reverse process
of fuzzification, i.e. defuzzification. The next
section on FUZZY OPERATORS illustrates
the collection of several operators, which are
applied for modifying the degree of fuzziness
of the constituent elements of a fuzzy set. The
different measures of the degree of fuzziness
of the elements of a fuzzy set are dealt with in
the section titled FUZZY MEASURES. The
subsequent section on FUZZY LOGIC eluci-
dates the fuzzy logical paradigm based upon the
fuzzy set theoretic concepts. Typical examples
of the representative rule forms are presented
there. A detailed analysis of the operation of the
fuzzy inference system based on fuzzy logic is
illustrated in this section as it applies to the man-
agement of uncertain and inexact information.
A comparative study of the different graphical
fuzzy inference models is also made in this
section. The section on FUZZY CONTROL
presents a broad overview of the fundamentals
of fuzzy control theory and its applications.
The general application areas of fuzzy only and
hybrid neuro-fuzzy, neuro-genetic, neuro-fuzzy-
genetic systems are discussed in the penultimate
section on APPLICATIONS OF FUZZY SETS
AND FUZZY LOGIC BASED SYSTEMS. The
DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION section
concludes the chapter.
FUZZY SET THEORY: CONCEPTS
AND TERMINOLOGIES
This section discusses the limitations of the con-
ventional crisp set theory and crisp logic so far as
describing real world uncertainties is concerned,
thereby delineating the basis for development of
the fuzzy set theoretic paradigm. The mathemati-
cal requisites in the buildup of fuzzy set theory
are also elucidated in this section. In addition,
the cardinality of a fuzzy set and different forms
of set theoretic operations on fuzzy sets are also
discussed in this section.
Notion of a Fuzzy Set
Before going into the details regarding the funda-
mentals of fuzzy set theory, let us ponder on the
following real world observations.
Observation 1
Consider the image pattern as presented in Figure 1.
Either of the following options would possibly
describe the exact nature of the pattern.
(i) Black, (ii) White, (iii) Half Black, (iv)
Half White.
A sizable portion of the human population would
conclude the observation as being the options (iii) i.e.
Half Black while some would opt for (iv) i.e. Half
White. Based on these options, it may be surmised
that the pattern is either a Half Black or a Half
White perspective. Assuming an intelligent and
rational population, the mathematical conclusion is
Figure 1. Image pattern
35

Half Black = Half White (1)
1 1
i.e. Black= White (2)
2 2
1
Eliminating the common factor from both sides,
2
Black=White (3)
Isn’t the result in equation 3 astounding?
Making the impossible possible, i.e., equating
unequal quantities. Now, let us look into the next
observation.
Observation 2
Consider a glass containing water as shown in
Figure 2.
If the status of the glass is to be quantified, two
of the most striking conclusions would be (i) Half
Full and (ii) Half Empty. Thinking on similar
lines as in observation 1, it can be written as
Half Full = Half Empty (4)
1 1
i.e. Full= Empty (5)
2 2
1 information is more often expressed in quantify-
Again, eliminating the common factor from
2 ing propositions, which is not always able to
both sides, it comes out to be
Figure 2. Glass containing water
36
Fuzzy Logic
Full = Empty (6)
Again we have reached to an unreachable con-
clusion in an attempt to quantify this observation.
Ok. Let’s try to adjudge another one.
Observation 3
Here, we would consider two real life-eluding
paradoxes, which cannot always be answered
correctly.
1. A liar says, “I am lying”. Is what he says
true or false?
2. If you have a heap of sand and remove one
grain at a time, when does it cease to be a
heap?
Learning from the observations 1, 2 and 3, it
is evident that neither the conventional number
system nor the conventional logic (crisp logic) is
always able to interpret happenings around us and
that most of the real world observations exhibit
a certain amount of vagueness and imprecision.
Thus, it can be inferred that the conventional
crisp sets and logic are incapable of handling the
varied amount of imprecision, uncertainty and
vagueness exhibited by real life observations.
This is because of the fact that in crisp sets/logic,
describe the underlying uncertainty in real life
observations. To be more precise, crisp logic is
a bivalent logic, which entails only one of two
possible outcomes (TRUE or FALSE) of any
observation. Bivalence works fine at extremes
but fails everywhere else. In fact, crisp logic/
bivalence is guided by two main core principles,
viz., (i) law of excluded middle, which obviates
any possible outcome other than the extremes and
(ii) principle of non-contradiction, which stresses
only on an outcome and its negation.
On the other hand, fuzzy logic is a multi-
valued logic (Kosko97), which incorporates all
Fuzzy Logic
possible outcomes in an observation. Plato laid
the foundation for what would become fuzzy
logic, indicating that there was a third region
beyond TRUE and FALSE. It was Lukasiewicz
who first proposed a systematic alternative to
the bivalued logic of Aristotle. The third value
proposed by Lukasiewicz can be best translated
as possible, and he assigned to it a numeric value
between TRUE and FALSE. Later, he explored
four-valued logic and five-valued logic, and then
he declared that, in principle, there was nothing
to prevent the derivation of infinite-valued logic
(Kosko97). Fuzzy logic provides the opportunity
for modeling conditions that are inherently impre-
cisely defined. Fuzzy techniques in the form of
approximate reasoning provide decision support
and expert systems with powerful reasoning ca-
pabilities. The permissiveness of fuzziness in the
human thought process suggests that much of the
logic behind thought processing is not traditional
two-valued logic or even multivalued logic, but
logic with fuzzy truths, fuzzy connectiveness
(Yager80) and fuzzy rules of inference. Hence, in
a fuzzy set (Zadeh65), each and every observation
exists with a varied degree of containment in the
universe of discourse. This degree of containment
is referred to as the membership value of the ob-
servation. A fuzzy set is a mapping from an input
universe of discourse into the interval (0, 1) that
describes the membership of the input variable.
This mapping is referred to as fuzzification. The
reverse mechanism to revert to the bivalent crisp
logic is termed as defuzzification.
Now, let us see whether the observations 1, 2
and 3 listed above can be interpreted in terms of
the concept of fuzzy sets and memberships.
Observation 1 Revisited
Instead of quantifying the blackness and whiteness
in the image pattern in Figure 1, if the pattern is
considered as a fuzzy set of darkness/brightness,
then the following conclusions aptly explain the
image pattern.
1. The image pattern is partly Black and partly
White, with the linguistic term partly be-
ing the membership degree of blackness/
whiteness.
2. The image pattern contains Black with a
membership of 0.5.
3. The image pattern contains White with a
membership of 0.5.
Thus, the fallacy regarding the blackness/
whiteness of the image pattern can be addressed.
Observation 2 Revisited
On similar lines, if the glass of water is considered
as a fuzzy set, it can be readily stated that the
glass is partly filled with water and partly empty.
As before, the linguistic term partly implies the
membership of the water content in the glass.
Observation 3 Revisited
The paradoxes in observation 3 are typical ex-
amples of the limitations of bivalent logic. As far
as the first paradox is concerned, it is definitely
difficult to surmise the attitude of the liar in terms
of only two outcomes, viz., not lying (truth) and
lying (falsity). This is because a liar always lies
and whatever he speaks out is a lie. But there is a
subtle difference between this particular statement
and any other statements he makes, since here he
is testifying the fact that he is a liar. Thus, he is
both speaking a lie and a truth.
However, if the attitude and behavior of the liar
are considered as fuzzy sets, it can be surmised
without any dispute that he is partly true and
partly false, where the linguistic term partly, as
stated before, implies a membership value of the
nature of his uttered statement.
The second paradox can be similarly dealt with
by considering the heap of sand to be a fuzzy set.
This analogy enables one to define a member-
ship value for the quantity of sand in the heap to
qualify/fail as a heap.
37

After having an initial impression about the
power of fuzzy logic, it would be wise enough
to consider the famous Russell’s barber paradox
mentioned below.
A barber claims to shave all and only those who
do not shave themselves.
Does the barber shave himself?
From the crisp logic (Aristotelian logic) point
of view, the obvious conclusion comes out to be
that if the barber shaves himself then he does not,
and if he does not shave himself, he does. This
again boils down to a contradiction of facts.
Kosko illustrated the awesome power of multi-
valued logic by applying it to solve Russell’s barber
paradox. According to the solution proposed by
Kosko (Kosko91, Kosko92, Kosko94), the bar-
ber’s claim is literally a half-truth lying exactly
midway between the limiting cases, midway
between 100% truth and 100% falsity.
In precise it is an established fact that
Whereas crisp sets quantify quantities, fuzzy sets
qualify qualities.
Fuzzy Set Theoretic Concepts
A fuzzy set is an extension of a crisp set. Where-
as crisp sets allow only full membership or no
membership at all to the constituent elements,
fuzzy sets allow partial memberships. In a crisp
set, membership or nonmembership of an element
x in a set A is described by a characteristic func-
tion χA(x), where χA(x)=1 if x∈A and χA(x)=0 if
x∉A. Fuzzy set theory extends this concept by
defining partial memberships allowing all the
elements to exist in the universe of discourse U
with varying degrees of membership. A fuzzy set
A on a universe of discourse U is characterized
by a membership function mA (x ) Î [0, 1]. Closer
38
Fuzzy Logic
the membership value of an element to unity,
stronger is the containment of the element within
the fuzzy set. Similarly, a lower membership
value implies a weaker containment of the element
within the set. A fuzzy set A, characterized by a
membership function mA (x i ) and comprising ele-
ments xi, i = 1, 2, 3, …, n, is mathematically ex-
pressed as (Zadeh65, Ross2004, Kaufmann85)
= mA (x i )
A å xi
; i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n (7)
i
where, å represents a collection of elements.
i
 on U may also be represented
A fuzzy set A
as a set of ordered pairs. Each pair consists of a
generic element x and its grade of membership
 = {(x , m (x )) | x Î U }.
function mA (x ), i.e., A

A
The support S Î [0, 1] , of such a fuzzy set A  is

A
defined as (Zadeh65, Ross2004, Kaufmann85)
n mA (x i )
SA = {å : x i Î X "mA (x i ) > 0}
i= 1 xi
(8)
 represents all
The core (C A ) of a fuzzy set A
those constituent elements, whose membership
values are equal to unity, i.e.
C A = {x i Î U | mA (x i ) = 1} (9)
 is
The bandwidth ( BWA ) of a fuzzy set A
expressed as (Zadeh65, Ross2004, Kaufmann85)
BWA = {x i Î U | mA (x i ) ³ 0.5} (10)
The resolution of a fuzzy set A  is determined
by the α-cut (or α-level set) of the fuzzy set. It is
a crisp set Aα containing all the elements of the
universal set U, that have a membership in A 
greater than or equal to α, i.e.
Fuzzy Logic

Aa = {x i Î U | mA (x i ) ³ a}, a Î [0, 1] (11) Figure 3. Representation of fuzzy set parameters

If Aa = {x i Î U | mA (x i ) ³ a}, then Aα is

referred to as strong α-cut. The set of all levels α
∈ (0, 1) that represents distinct α-cuts of a given
, is called a level set of A
fuzzy set A , i.e.

L A = {a | mA (x ) = a, x Î U } (12)

Figure 3 provides a graphical representation of the

core, bandwidth, support and α-level of a fuzzy set.
Since fuzzy sets are characterized by multi-
valued linguistic variables, a typical linguistic
variable x in a fuzzy set A  on the universe of
 s (x )
A
discourse U is represented by NormA s (x ) = (13)
TA (x ) = {Tx1 ,Tx2 ,Tx3 , ...,Txk } a n d hgtA s
mA (x ) = {mx1 , mx2 , mx3 , ..., mxk }, w h e r e
T ; i = 1, 2, 3, ..., k are fuzzy numbers with mem-
x
i The corresponding denormalization opera-
bership values mxi ; i = 1, 2, 3, ..., k . If x represents tion is given by (Bhattacharyya2006, Bhattacha-
the fuzzy variable speed, then TA (x ) may refer ryya2007)
to various degrees of speed like slow, medium or DeNormA s (x ) = hgtA s (x ) ´ NormA s (x ) (14)
fast speed. It may be noted that the adjectives
viz., slow, medium or fast are often referred to as
linguistic hedges in that they are used to indicate In general, for a subnormal fuzzy subset with
the fuzziness in the fuzzy set speed. These lin- support, SA s Î [L,U ], the normalization and the
guistic hedges are also fuzzy sets like the set denormalization operators are expressed as (Bhat-
speed. tacharyya2006, Bhattacharyya2007)
The maximum of all the membership values
 is referred to as the height (hgt )
in a fuzzy set A  s (x ) - L
 A
A
NormA s (x ) = ;
of the fuzzy set. If hgtA = 1, then the fuzzy set U-L (15)
is referred to as a normal fuzzy set. For a fuzzy DeNormA s (x ) = L + (U - L) ´ NormA s (x )
set where there is only one element with a mem-
bership value of 1, the element is referred to as
the prototype of the set. If however, hgtA < 1,
Fuzzy Cardinality
then it is referred to as a subnormal fuzzy set. A
normal fuzzy set is a superset of several non- The scalar cardinality of a fuzzy set A  is the
empty subnormal fuzzy subsets. summation of the membership grades of all ele-
A subnormal fuzzy subset ( A  s ) can be con-  . It is given by (Zadeh65, Ross2004)
ments of x in A
verted to its normalized equivalent by means of
the normalization operator given by (Bhattacha-
ryya2006, Bhattacharyya2007)
| A |= å
x ÎU
mA (x ) (16)

39

where, U is the universe of discourse. When a
fuzzy set A has a finite support, its cardinality
can be defined as a fuzzy set. This fuzzy cardinal-
 f | and is defined by Zadeh
ity is denoted by | A
as (Zadeh65, Ross2004)
 f |= a
|A å | A
(17)

aÎL A a |
where, α is the cut-off value, Aα is the α-level set of
the fuzzy set and L A is the corresponding level set.
Fuzzy Set Theoretic Operations
Fuzzy set theoretic operations are analogous to
crisp set operations, which lead to only the extreme
values of TRUE and FALSE. The fuzzy set op-
erations, however, yield all the possible outcomes
of an observation. The most elementary crisp set
operations are union, intersection and complement
operations, which essentially imply the OR, AND,
and NOT operators, respectively. In the fuzzy
domain, the respective logical operators are the
max, min and complement operators. Therefore,
the fuzzy logical union, intersection and comple-
ment operations (Ross2004) on two fuzzy sets
, B
 for an element x on the universe of discourse
A  and B cannot produce an increase in the
X, are defined as
Union : mA È B (x ) = max[mA (x ), mB (x )] (18)
Inter sec tion : mA Ç B (x ) = min[mA (x ), mB (x )] enables us to take the intersection of any number
(19)
Complement : mA (x ) = 1 - mA (x ) (20)
Zadeh also defined fuzzy union and fuzzy inter-
section as (Zadeh65)
Union : mA È B (x ) = mA (x ) + mB (x ) - mA (x )mB (x ) A collection of these fuzzy union operators
(21)
40
Fuzzy Logic
Inter sec tion : mA Ç B (x ) = mA (x )mB (x )
(22)
In more general terms, the intersection of two
fuzzy sets A and B
 is specified by a binary map-
ping T that aggregates two membership functions
as
mA Ç B (x ) = T (mA (x ), mB (x )) (23)
For example, the binary operator T may rep-
resent the multiplication of mA (x ) and mB (x ). A
collection of these fuzzy intersection operators is
referred to as T-norm (triangular norm) operators
(Yager80, Dubois80, Schweizer63), and they meet
the following basic requirements.
boundary : T (0, 0) = 0;T (1, a ) = T (a, 1) = a
monotonicity : T (a, b) £ T (c, d ) if a £ c; b £ d
commutativity : T (a, b) = T (b, a )
associativity : T (a,T (b, c)) = T (T (a, b), c)
(24)
The first requirement ensures the correct gen-
eralization of crisp sets. The second requirement
implies that a decrease in the membership values
in A

membership value of the intersection of sets A

and B . The third requirement specifies that the
operation is insensitive to the order in which fuzzy
sets are combined, and the fourth requirement
of fuzzy sets and any order of pair-wise groupings.
Similar to fuzzy intersection, the fuzzy union
operator is specified by the following binary map-
ping S (Yager80, Dubois80, Schweizer63).
mA È B (x ) = S (mA (x ), mB (x )) (25)
is known as T-conorm or S-norm operators, and
they satisfy the following requirements.
Fuzzy Logic
boundary : S (1, 1) = 1; S (a, 0) = S (0, a ) = a
monotonicity : S (a, b) £ S (c, d ) if a £ c; b £ d
commutativity : S (a, b) = S (b, a )
associativity : S (a, S (b, c)) = S (S (a, b), c)
(26)
Several T-norms and S-norms have been
suggested in the literature (Yager80, Dubois80,
Schweizer63, Sugeno77). One example of a pair
of S-norm and T-norm operators is the bounded
sum and bounded product operators given by
(Yager80, Dubois80, Schweizer63, Sugeno77)
x Å y = min(1, x + y ) (27)
x Ä y = max(0, x + y - 1)
TYPES OF MEMBERSHIP
FUNCTIONS
A membership function describes a fuzzy set
(Zadeh65, Ross2004, Bezdek92, Bezdek93). If
the membership function for a fuzzy set is defined
in such a way that the membership values of the
elements are either strictly monotonically increas-
ing or strictly monotonically decreasing or firstly
strictly monotonically increasing followed by a
strictly monotonically decreasing nature with an
increase in the values of constituent elements, then
the fuzzy set is referred to as a convex fuzzy set.
Although normal and convex membership
functions (both symmetrical and asymmetrical)
are commonly used in the fuzzification process,
subnormal and nonconvex membership functions
are also used to deal with subnormal and nonconvex
fuzzy sets. The membership functions are generally
defined as one-dimensional curves. When they are
defined in higher dimensions, these curves become
surfaces or hypersurfaces. Typical membership
functions include triangular, trapezoidal, gener-
alized bell shaped, Gaussian curves, polynomial
curves, and sigmoid membership functions. These
membership functions are often referred to as
ordinary membership functions since they assign
a specific membership value to each element in
the universe of discourse. Klir and Yuan (Giar-
ratano, 1993) proposed generalized membership
functions for specifying the fuzziness in those situ-
ations where ordinary membership functions fail
to precisely determine membership values due to
lack of adequate information. A typical generalized
membership function is the interval-valued mem-
bership function, which is constructed based on
the upper and lower bounds of membership grades
for each element of the universe. The correspond-
ing fuzzy sets are referred to as interval-valued
fuzzy sets. Thus, the membership of an element
x in an interval-valued fuzzy set is represented by
the membership interval (α1, α2). In addition, the
interval (α1, α2) can also be treated as a fuzzy set.
The resulting membership function is then referred
to as a type-2 fuzzy set. It may be noted that the
choice of a particular membership function depends
on the system behavior under consideration. Some
of the standard membership functions are described
in the following subsections.
Triangular Membership Function
Triangular curves depend on three parameters a,
b and c. It is given by (Berkan, 2000)
ì
ï0 for x < a
ï
ï
ï
ïx-a
ï
ï for a £ x < b
b-a
f (x ; a, b, c, d ) = ï
í (28)
ï
ïc -x
ï for b £ x £ c
ï
ïc-b
ï
ï
ï0
î for x > c
Trapezoidal Membership Function
The trapezoidal membership functions depend on
four parameters, which decide the four corners of
the trapezoid. The general form of a trapezoidal
membership function is given by (Berkan, 2000)
41
 Fuzzy Logic

ì
ï0 for x < a Two-Sided Gaussian
ï
ï
ï
ïx-a Membership Function
ï
ï for a £ x < b
ïb-a
ï
ï The two-sided Gaussian membership function
f (x ; a, b, c, d ) = í1 for b £ x < c (29)
ï
ï is a combination of two Gaussian membership
ï
ïd-x
ï for c £ x < d functions characterized by means (c1, c2) and
ï
ïd-c
ï standard deviations (σ1, σ2) (Berkan, 2000). The
ï
ï
î0 for d £ x
first Gaussian function with mean c1 and standard
deviation σ1, determines the shape of the leftmost
π Membership Function curve, while the second Gaussian function with
mean c2 and standard deviation σ2 determines the
The π-shaped membership function is given by shape of the rightmost curve. The function attains
(Giarratano, 1993; Berkan, 2000) a maximum value of 1 if c1<c2.

ì
ï b Sigmoid Membership Function
ï
ïS (x ; c - b, c - , c) for x £ c
ï
ï 2
f (x ; b, c) = í
ï
ï b The sigmoid membership function is repre-
ï1 - S (x ; c, c + , c + b) for x > c sented by an asymptotic curve, which depends
ï
ï
î 2
(30) on two parameters λ andθ. It is given by (Ber-
kan, 2000)
where, S(x; a, b. c) is a membership function
defined by 1
S (x ) = (33)
1 + e - l(x - q)
ì
ï0 for x < a
ï
ï
ï
ï x-a 2 λ decides the slope of the function and θ is the
ï
ï2( ) for a £ x < b
S (x ; a, b, c) = ï b-a
function threshold.
í
ï
ï x-c 2
ï1 - 2( ) for b £ x £ c
ï
ï c-a Difference of Sigmoid
ï
ï
î1
ï or x > c
fo Membership Functions
(31)
This membership function results from the
where, a, b, and c are adjusted to fit the desired difference between two sigmoid membership
membership data. The parameter b is referred to as functions, characterized by the parameters (λ1,
the half width of the curve at the crossover point. λ2) and (θ1, θ2). Hence, the function depends on
four parameters, viz., λ1, λ2, θ1 and θ2. It is given
Gaussian Membership Function by (Berkan, 2000)

The Gaussian membership function depends on é 1 1 ù

S (x ) = ê - ú (34)
two parameters, viz., the mean c and the standard ê
ë1 + e
- l1 (x - q1 )
1+ e - l2 (x - q2 )
ú
û
deviation σ. It is given by (Berkan, 2000)

(x - c )2
-
S (x ; s, c) = e 2 s2
(32)

42
Fuzzy Logic

Product of Sigmoid S-Shaped Curve

Membership Functions Membership Function

This membership function results from the product The S-shaped membership function, as the name
of two sigmoid membership functions, character- suggests, is an S-shaped curve characterized by
ized by the parameters (λ1, λ2) and (θ1, θ2). It is two parameters a and b which determine the break
given by (Berkan, 2000) points of this membership function (Berkan, 2000).
This function is a smooth curve initiating from 0
é 1 1 ù at a to 1 at b for a<b. However, it becomes a step
S (x ) = ê ´ ú (35)
ê1 + e
ë
- l1 (x - q1 )
1+ e - l2 (x - q2 )
ú
û æa + b ö
÷
function with a jump from 0 to 1 at çç ÷when
è 2 ÷
ç ø
a≥b.
Generalized Bell Curve
Membership Function Z-Shaped Curve
Membership Function
The generalized bell curve membership func-
tion is an extension of the continuous Cau- The Z-shaped membership function is the reverse
chy–Lorentz probability distribution function of the S-shaped membership function. It is also
with the probability density function given by characterized by two parameters a and b which
(Berkan, 2000) determine its break points (Berkan, 2000). This
function is a smooth curve initiating from 1 at b
1 to 0 at a for b<a. However, it becomes a reverse
S (x ) = 2ù
(36) æa + b ö
é æx - c ö step function with a jump from 1 to 0 at ç ÷
÷
ç
pb ê
ê1 +
ç
ç ÷ú
÷ è 2 ÷
ç ø
ê è b ÷
ç øúú
ë û when b≥a.
These and score of other membership func-
tions discussed in the literature are used to model
where, c is a location parameter and β is a scale fuzzy sets depending on their characteristics.
parameter. c specifies the location of the peak of Thus, the choice of a membership function is not
the distribution while β specifies the half-width always heuristic. Several methods based on either
at half-maximum (HWHM). intuition or artificial intelligent tools like neural
The generalized bell curve membership networks or genetic algorithms (Yager, 1994;
function is characterized by three parameters Takagi, 1991; Karr, 1993) are commonly used in
a, b and c, which determine the shape and posi- designing membership functions appropriate for
tion of this membership function. It is given by describing the uncertainty in a system.
(Berkan, 2000)
Fuzzification
1
S (x ) = (37)
æ ö
2b As already stated, the process of converting a
ç x-c÷
ç1+ ÷
÷ crisp quantity to a fuzzy quantity by assigning a
ç
è a ÷
ø
suitable membership value to it is referred to as
fuzzification. The task of membership value as-
signment to a crisp variable is done by means of

43

Figure 4. Fuzzy membership functions for the speed of a car
a membership function. A membership function
is essentially a curve that defines how each point
in the input crisp space is mapped to a member-
ship value (or degree of membership) between
0 and 1. The idea of a membership function can
be further clarified by considering a universe of
discourse comprising the speed values of a car
ranging from 30mph to 120mph, with 30mph
and 120mph being the extreme possibilities. As
stated earlier, this wide range of speed values of
the car can only be adjudged if the speed of car
is treated as a fuzzy set with the linguistic terms
slow, medium and fast representing sub-ranges of
the car’s speed. Figure 4 shows three trapezoidal
fuzzy membership functions for representing these
three fuzzy sets of slow, medium and fast speed.
The figure shows that a car with a speed of
35mph possesses a membership value μ=1 for
the set slow speed, that having a speed of 75mph
has μ=1 for the set medium speed and that with
a speed of 115mph exists with μ=1 for the set fast
speed. However, a car with a speed of 55mph is
a member of both the sets slow speed and me-
44
Fuzzy Logic
dium speed but with different degrees of member-
ship. Similar reasoning applies for a car with a
speed of 95mph. Moreover, if one observes the
membership curves in Figure 4, speeds of 54mph
and 56mph also possess memberships in both the
sets slow speed and medium speed. However, μ54
is lower in the set medium speed as compared to
μ55 in the set medium speed. On the contrary μ54
is higher in the set lower speed as compared to
μ55 in the set lower speed. This implies that a
speed of 54mph is slower than a 55mph speed
which, on the other hand, is more medium.
Similarly, μ56 is lower in the set slow speed as
compared to μ55 in the same set, thereby indicat-
ing that a 56mph speed is less slow compared to
a 55mph speed. On similar lines, as far as the set
fast speed is concerned, μ94<μ95<μ96 means that a
96mph speed is faster compared to a 95mph
speed, which again is faster than a 94mph speed.
Therefore, a fuzzy description of the speed of a
car is able to qualify the relative values of the
different possible speeds of the car, which is
otherwise not clearly differentiable in terms of
Fuzzy Logic

meager values only. It may however be noted that A1 = {x 1 }; A0.75 = {x 1 , x 2 }; A0.5 = {x 1 , x 2 , x 3 }

the fuzzy modeling of the speed of the car may
also be carried out by any other suitable fuzzy
membership function.
Defuzzification
Given the inherent power of fuzzy sets to represent
vagueness and ambiguity of real world informa-
tion, it is imperative to state that conventional
computing relies essentially on precise crisp
values to perform a decision-making process.
Hence, a fuzzy variable must be converted to
its crisp counterpart for arriving at a precisely
quantified decision. The process of conversion
of variables from the fuzzy to the crisp domain
is referred to as defuzzification (Ross, 2004). The
input to the defuzzification process is a fuzzy
set and the output of the defuzzification process
is either a crisp set or a single scalar value. The
following subsections describe the different de-
fuzzification processes.
Defuzzification into Crisp Sets
According to equation 11, any fuzzy set A  can
A0.25 = {x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 }; A0+ = {x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 , x 6 } A0 = U
(39)
The sets A1, A0.75, A0.5, A0.25 and A0+ follow di-
rectly from equation 11. A0 yields the universe of
discourse U since all elements in U must have at
least a 0 membership value in any set of the universe.
Defuzzification into Scalar Values
Before going into the details of this method, it is
worth mentioning that a fuzzy system generates
a fuzzy output from the fuzzy inputs, which are
essentially obtained by means of the application
of appropriate membership functions on crisp
inputs. Hence the fuzzy output is obtained as a
logical operation of the membership functions of
the participating fuzzy inputs.
As an example, the union of the fuzzy inputs
  2, A
A1 , A  3 , shown in Figures 5a, 5b and 5c, char-
acterized by trapezoidal membership functions,
is given by a max operation by
3
=
A ∪ A
i= 1
i (40)

be resolved into an α-cut set Aα having elements

with a membership in A  greater than or equal to
The result of the union is also a fuzzy set
α ∈ (0, 1). An infinite number of such α-cut crisp represented in Figure 5d. Several defuzzification
equivalent sets are possible with an infinite num- techniques have been proposed in the literature
ber of possible α values. This is best illustrated (Ross2004). These include the centroid method,
by the following example. the max membership method, the weighted aver-
Consider the fuzzy set A  ={x , x , x , x , x , x } age method, the mean max membership method,
1 2 3 4 5 6
represented by Zadeh’s notation as (Zadeh65) the center of sums method, the center of largest
area method, the first (or last) of maxima method
ì1 0ü
= ï
A ï
í +
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
+ + + + ï
ï
ý
etc. These methods are described in the following
ï x6 ï subsections with reference to the input and output
îx 1
ï x2 x3 x4 x5 ï
þ
(38) membership functions of Figure 5.

The different α-cut sets derived using equa- Centroid Method

tion 11, for the six values of α, viz., 1, 0.75, 0.5,
0.25, 0+ (a value slightly greater than 0) and 0 This is the most commonly used defuzzification
are given by method (Takagi85, Lee90, Ross2004). In this

45
 Fuzzy Logic

Figure 5. Fuzzy membership functions (a) (b) (c) input memberships (d) output fuzzy membership result-
ing out of union of (a) (b) (c)

defuzzification method, the center of gravity/ The centroid defuzzification method pro-
centroid of the union A (shown in Figure 5d) is duces a defuzzified value, which maintains a
determined and this value resembles the crisp balance in the union of fuzzy memberships due
output. For a continuous aggregated fuzzy set, to its weighted mean behavior. Figure 6a depicts
the centroid is given by  ) of Figure
the crisp output of the fuzzy union ( A
5d obtained by the centroid defuzzification
method.
òxm 
A
(x )dx
SA
xc = (41) Height/Max Membership Method
ò m  (x )dx
A
SA
This defuzzification method is generally used for
determining crisp output values of fuzzy union
 . The expression
where, SA is the support of A of participating membership functions with at
given in equation 41 reduces to most one of the membership exhibiting the
maximum membership value. Thus, this method
n is applicable in situations where a unique maxi-
å x i m  (x i ) mum membership unimodal peak exists in the
 ). In fact, the value of the fuzzy
A

xc = i= 1
n
(42) fuzzy union ( A
å m  (x i )
A
variable at this maximum membership is the
i= 1 defuzzified output. It is given by

xc = x i if mA (x i ) ³ mA (x j ) "i ¹ j (43)

for a discretized fuzzy set of n elements.

46
Fuzzy Logic

Figure 6b depicts the determination of the
defuzzified output by the height/max member-
ship method.
Mean Max Membership Method
This method is also referred to as the middle-of-
maxima method (Takagi, 1985; Lee, 1990; Ross,
2004). It is similar to the height method except
that it is applicable in those situations where the
fuzzy union ( A  ) does not contain a unique peak
where, xi and xj are two extreme points of the
maximum membership plateau shown in Figure 6c.
Weighted Average Method
It is a computationally efficient defuzzification
method (Ross2004), which is applicable for
symmetrical fuzzy membership functions. It is
given by
m

membership value. The fuzzy union shown in å x ci mA (x ci )

i

Figure 5d is a typical example of such a situation xc = i= 1

m
(45)
as it contains a plateau of highest membership å mA (x ci )
i
values rather than a single point membership i= 1

multimodal peak. The defuzzified value is obtained

by determining the mean of the maximum mem- where, m is the number of participating fuzzy
bership points. It is given by membership functions, x ci is the centroid of each
participating memberships.
xi + x j
xc = (44)
2

Figure 6. Defuzzification methods (a) centroid method (b) max membership method (c) mean max mem-
bership method (d) center of sums method (e) center of largest area (f) first (last) of maxima method

47
 Fuzzy Logic

Center of Sums Method First (or Last) of Maxima Method

This defuzzification method is a faster method
and is applicable to both symmetrical and asym-
metrical participating fuzzy membership functions
(Ross2004). The notable feature of this method is that
the algebraic sum of the participating memberships
is used instead of their union. Hence, the common
and overlapping areas are added twice. It is given by
This defuzzification method (Ross2004) deter-
mines the smallest value of the domain with
maximized membership degree in the union of
all the m participating fuzzy membership functions
A, i = 1, 2, 3, ..., m. This is achieved by first
i
determining the largest height in the fuzzy union
(hgtA ) by
i

n
hgtA = sup[mA (x )] (48)
ò xci å mA (x )dx i
i
x ÎU i

xc = n
i= 1
(46)
òå i= 1
mA (x )dx
i
Subsequently, the defuzzified output is the first
of maxima of the possible membership degrees,
i.e. it is determined by the greatest lower bound
where, x ci is the distance of each fuzzy variable of fuzzy variables, which possess a membership
from the centroid of its representative fuzzy degree equal to hgtA . The expression for the crisp
membership function. Figure 6d shows the deter-
i

output thus obtained is given by

mination of the defuzzified output by the center
of sums method. x c = inf{x | x Î U , mA (x ) = hgtA } (49)
x ÎU i i

Center of Largest Area Method

Alternatively, the last of maxima is defined by
The defuzzified output of this defuzzification the least upper bound of fuzzy variables, which
method (Ross2004) is the center of gravity of possess a membership degree equal to hgtA . It is
i
the participating convex fuzzy membership func- given by
tion having the largest area. It uses the centroid
method for finding the requisite center of gravity. x c = sup{x | x Î U , mA (x ) = hgtA } (50)
It is given by x ÎU i i

ò xm 
(x )dx Figure 6f shows the determination of the de-
fuzzified output value with this defuzzification
Av
SA
xc = v
(47) method.
òm 
Av
(x )dx
It is worth mentioning at this point that the
SA
defuzzification methods presented in the previ-
v

ous subsections lead to a tangible crisp output to

where, mA v is a participating convex fuzzy mem-
bership function. The essential condition for the
application of this defuzzification method is that
the output fuzzy union should contain at least two
convex membership regions. The procedure of
finding the crisp output value with this defuzzi-
fication method is shown in Figure 6e.
be consumed in the real world. No matter what
uncertainty prevails in real life, human beings are
accustomed to playing with values and numbers.
Hence, a final crisp output is the obvious neces-
sity for arriving at a decision. The defuzzification
methods help in one way or other to reduce the
fuzziness in observations and derive a hard (crisp)

48
Fuzzy Logic

numeric value representative of the solution to the Dilator

problem at hand.
This operator dilates or stretches a fuzzy set
by increasing the membership of elements that
FUZZY OPERATORS are partly in the set. Typical examples include
somewhat, rather, quite etc. It is expressed as
As mentioned before in section on FUZZIFICA- (Ross2004)
TION, a fuzzy linguistic hedge modifies a fuzzy
set. To be precise, hedges are fuzzy operators, 1
mA (x ) = mA n (x ) for 0 £ mA (x ) £ 1 (52)
which act upon the membership function of a
fuzzy set to modify it. Considering the example
illustrated in the section, slow, medium and fast are Figure 7 also shows the operation of a rather
examples of fuzzy hedges that are applied to the dilator hedge on a fuzzy set temperature character-
fuzzy set speed to categorize the different degrees ized by a fuzzy membership function hot.
of speed. Several operators are used to form the lin-
guistic hedges in fuzzy logic. These either intensify Intensifier
the characteristics of a fuzzy membership (very,
extremely), or dilute it (somewhat, rather, quite), This operator acts as a combination of the con-
or complement it (not), or approximate a scalar to centration and dilation operators. It increases the
a fuzzy set (about, close to, approximately). Based contrast between the elements, which have more
upon the operation, these operators are classified than half-membership, and those elements, which
as (i) Concentrator (ii) Dilator, (iii) Intensifier and have less than half-membership. It is expressed
(iv) Diffuser (Ross2004, Bhattacharyya2006). The as (Ross2004)
following subsections describe these operators and
the implication of their operations on fuzzy sets. ì
) = ï
INT(A ï
í
2mA 2 (x ) for 0 £ mA (x ) £ 0.5

ï
î1 - 2[1 - mA (x )] for 0.5 < mA (x ) £ 1
2
ï
Concentrator (53)

This operator tends to concentrate the elements of

a fuzzy set by reducing the degree of membership Figure 7. Fuzzy operators concentrator and dilator
of those elements that are partly in the set. It is
generally expressed as (Ross2004)

mA (x ) = mA n (x ) for 0 £ mA (x ) £ 1 (51)

for n≥1. For example, the hedge slightly is repre-

sented by mA 1.3 (x ) . Zadeh defined the hedge very
as mA 2 (x ). Figure 7 shows the effect of application
of a very concentrator on a fuzzy set temperature
characterized by a fuzzy membership function
hot.

49
 Fuzzy Logic

Figure 8. Fuzzy operators intensifier and diffuser

Typical examples include positively, definitely,
absolutely etc. Figure 8 shows the operation of
the positively intensifier operator on a fuzzy set
temperature characterized by a fuzzy membership
function hot.

Diffuser

This operator is the reverse of the intensifier

operator. It is given by (Ross, 2004)

ì
ï 1 12
ï
ï m  (x ) for 0 £ mA (x ) £ 0.5
ï 2 A
DIF(A) = ï
 í
ï
ï 1 1
ï
ï1- [1 - mA (x )]2 for 0.5 < mA (x ) £ 1
ï
î 2
(54)

One important representative example of the
diffuser operator is the generally hedge. Figure 8
also shows the effect of application of the generally
diffuser on a fuzzy set temperature characterized
by a fuzzy membership function hot.
Information can often be better expressed in
the form of images rather than discrete fuzzy
variables like temperature as in the previous
examples. Images represent a map of different
values intensity levels of objects of interest.
Thus, there is a wide range of intensity levels in
an image. For example, in a gray-level image,
there are 256 different levels of gray intensity
levels ranging from 0 (perfect black) to 255
(perfect white). In such a scenario, a gray-level
of 1 or 10 or 50 or 100 or 150 or 200 cannot be
correctly classified as perfectly black or perfectly
white. The situation is, however, trivial in case of
a binary level image which comprises only two
levels – 0 (perfect black) and 1 (perfect white).
It is the crisp case and we are not interested in
that in our discussion in this chapter. Similarly,
in a true-color image that we come across in our
daily life, there are 16777216 colors in total with 0
(perfect black) and 16777215 (perfect white) and
all other possible colors in between. Therefore,
it is evident that both gray-level and true-color
images exhibit a varied range of uncertainty in
the information contained therein. This is due to
the fact that there is no sharp demarcation as to
which level can be designated to be belonging
to perfect black or perfect white.
Thus, an image can be visualized as a fuzzy
set of brightness/darkness with the intensity levels
of the pixels representing the fuzzy membership
values of brightness/darkness in the set. Given
this notion of an image in the background, the
results of application of these operators on the
fuzzy intensity attribute of an image are shown
in Figure 9.
FUZZY MEASURES
The degree of fuzziness in a fuzzy set is deter-
mined by several measures referred to as the
measures of a fuzzy set (Sugeno77, Ghosh93).
These measures include:
Index of Fuzziness
The index of fuzziness n(A ) of a fuzzy set A
 hav-
ing n elements is a distance metric between the
set and its nearest ordinary set A, defined as

50
Fuzzy Logic

Figure 9. Application of fuzzy operators (a) Original Lena image (b) Concentrator (c) Dilator (d) Intensifier

ì
ï0 if mA (x ) £ 0.5  , characterized
The entropy E A of a fuzzy set A
mA (x ) = ï
í (55)
ï mA (x ) > 0.5
î1 if
ï by the membership function mA (x i ) , is a measure
of the degree of fuzziness in the fuzzy set. For a
 ) (Ghosh93)
The linear index of fuzziness nl (A fuzzy set comprising n elements, De Luca pro-
 is the Hamming distance version posed the fuzzy entropy function based on the
of a fuzzy set A
Shannon’s functional form as (DeLuca72, De-
of the index of fuzziness distance metric. It is
Luca74, DeLuca88a, DeLuca88b)
given by
n
1
å
n
) = 2 E A = - mA (x i ) ln(mA (x i ))
nl (A å [min{mA (x i ), 1 - mA (x i )}]
n i= 1
n ln 2 i = 1 (58)
(56) - {1 - mA (x i )} ln{1 - mA (x i )}

s )
Similarly, the linear index of fuzziness, nl (A The fuzzy entropy measure reflects the degree
for a subnormal fuzzy set A  s is defined as (Bhat- of ambiguity that corresponds to the randomness/
tacharyya2006, Bhattacharyya2007) disorder in an observation. In 1993, Bhandari and
Pal (Bhandari93) extended De Luca and Termini’s
s ) = 2
n
formula by introducing the α-order fuzzy entropy,
nl (A å [min{mAs (x i ) - L,U - mAs (x i )}]
n i= 1 which used the α-order probability entropy form. A
(57) plethora of literature is available on different forms
of evolved fuzzy entropy measures. Interested
where, L and U are the lower and upper bounds readers may refer to the literature (Fan, 2002) for
of the set. details regarding the latest forms of fuzzy entropy
measures proposed in this direction.
Fuzzy Entropy

The entropy of a fuzzy set is another measure of FUZZY LOGIC

the fuzziness of a fuzzy set. Ebanks (Ebanks83)
suggested that fuzzy entropy should satisfy five
properties. A good survey of fuzzy entropy for
finite universal sets can be found in the literature
(Pal94, Pal2000a).
Human intelligence is manifested in ways in hu-
man beings communicate. Human beings are more
inclined to express and disseminate ideas using
non-measurable phrases. These phrases are often-

51

times modulated by means of several adjectives/
adverbs, which reflect the degree of importance
of the expressed ideas. As such, human beings are
more amenable to linguistic expressions, which
know no bounds of numeric precision.
Fuzzy logic is a collection of conditional
statements or fuzzy rules based on a linguistic
reasoning framework, which embodies represen-
tation of shallow knowledge. As already stated,
the fundamental atomic terms in this linguistic or
natural language-reasoning framework are often
modified with adjectives or linguistic hedges.
These linguistic hedges have the effect of modi-
fying the membership function of a basic atom.
The general form of a fuzzy rule (Zadeh, 1965),
that is similar to natural language expressions,
can be written as
IF premise (antecedent) THEN conclusion
(consequent)
It is generally referred to as the IF-THEN rule
based form. It typically expresses an inference
such that if a fact (premise, hypothesis or anteced-
ent) is known, then another fact (conclusion or
consequent) can be derived. It is worth noting at
this point that both the premise and the conclusion
are fuzzy entities and the collection of rules to
describe the premise-conclusion relationship is
referred to as a fuzzy rule base. These if–then rules
specify a relationship between the input and out-
put fuzzy entities. Similar to crisp sets, these fuzzy
relations indicate the degree of association be-
tween the elements of two or more sets. For two
universes of discourse U and V, a fuzzy relation
R(U ,V ) is defined as a set in the product space
(U×V) characterized by a membership function
mR (x , y ) , where x∈U and y∈V. Thus, a fuzzy rule
of the form “if x is A , then y is B  ” where, x∈U
and y∈V, can be represented by a membership
function of the relation R = A
® B
,
mR (x , y ) = mA ® B (x , y ) .
52
Fuzzy Logic
The interpretation of an if–then fuzzy rule
in a fuzzy rule base is carried out in two steps.
The first step evaluates the antecedent part of the
rule, where the input x is fuzzifed and the neces-
sary fuzzy operators (discussed in the section on
FUZZY OPERATORS) are applied on x. The
second step involves the application of the result
of the antecedent to the consequent. This step
is also referred to as the implication, where the
membership function of the resultant consequent
is evaluated. In fuzzy logic, a rule is fired so long
as there is a nonzero degree of similarity between
the premise and the antecedent of the rule. This
is in sharp contrast to that in crisp logic where a
rule is fired if the premise is exactly the same as
the antecedent of the rule, and the result of such
rule firing is the rule’s actual consequent.
For most applications, the fuzzy membership
® B
function mA ® B (x , y ) for a given relation A 
is obtained with the minimum or product implica-
tion as
mA Ç B (x ) = mA (x )mB (x ) (59)
mA Ç B (x ) = min[mA (x ), mB (x )] (60)
Mamdani (Mamdani, 1977) first proposed the
minimum implication. Later, Larsen (Larsen80)
proposed the product implication in 1980. Inter-
ested readers are advised to refer to the literature
(Mendel95) for details of implication methods.
Thus, the underlying logic behind the inferenc-
ing mechanism in human beings is aptly replicated
by a fuzzy inference system comprising a fuzzy
rule base characterized by a shallow knowledge
base of linguistic hedges.
This section is devoted to enable the readers to
gain an insight into the fuzzy logical paradigm, a
fuzzy inference system (FIS), its building blocks
and the guiding fuzzy rule base. The different
fuzzy inferencing approaches in vogue would
be touched upon with a comparative study of
Fuzzy Logic
the merits and demerits of each approach. The
concepts presented in this section would also be
supported with examples to illustrate the effective-
ness of the fuzzy logical paradigm in developing
information systems.
Rule Forms
As already stated, fuzzy logic comprises a col-
lection of fuzzy conditional statements/rules in
a linguistic framework, which form the basic
building block of a fuzzy inference system. The
knowledge base in an FIS is populated with rules
either by the experts or from experience of the
system at hand (Wang91). The rules in an FIS can
be broadly classified into three canonical forms
of rule-based forms. These include (Ross2004):
Assignment statements: These rule based
statements restrict the value of a variable by
means of an assigned value. Typical examples
are as follows (Ross2004):
x=large; color=yellow
x=x
Conditional statements: These rule based
statements restrict the value of a variable based
on a condition. Examples include (Ross2004):
IF x is large THEN color=yellow
Unconditional statements: These rule based
statements restrict the value of a variable based on
any condition. Some examples are (Ross2004):
x is large
Stop
Compound Rules
Depending on the complexity of the fuzzy infer-
ence system, the underlying fuzzy rule base may
house both simple and compound rules formed by
combining several linguistic connectives. Typical
examples include (Ross, 2004):
IF price is high THEN buying capacity (bc) is
very low
IF price is high And quality is good THEN bc
is high
IF price is low and quality is good THEN bc is
medium
ELSE
IF price is medium and quality is bad THEN bc
is low
Decomposition of Compound Rules
The basic properties and operations defined for
fuzzy sets in the previous sections can be used to
decompose any compound rule into a number of
simple canonical rules. These operations involve
the fuzzy logical AND (which is equivalent to
fuzzy intersection) and OR (which is equivalent
to fuzzy union) operations between fuzzy subsets.
The following four possibilities are of pedagogical
importance as far as the manifestations of com-
pound fuzzy rule forms are concerned.
Multiple Conjunctive Antecedents
A compound rule can be formed by combining
1 , A
several antecedents A 2 ,A
 3 , …, A
 L such that
the conjunctive rule form takes the form
(Ross2004)
 1AND A
IF x is A  2 AND A
 3 AND
¼ . AND A  L THEN y is B
S
(a subset of rules)
Assuming a new fuzzy subset A  S and recalling
the equivalence of fuzzy logical AND operation
53
 Fuzzy Logic

with the fuzzy intersection operation from section single antecedent based on a conditional ELSE
on FUZZY SET THEORETIC CONCEPTS, it statement in a compound rule form.
can be written as
 1 THEN (B
IF A  1 ELSE B
2)
 = A
A
S
 ÇA
 ÇA
 Ç ... Ç A
1 2
 3 L

Separating the conditional parts, this can be

Hence, the compound rule can be rewritten as decomposed into
(Ross2004)
 1THEN B
IF A  1OR IF NOT A
 1THEN B
2
 THEN B
IF A
S
 S

Nested IF-THEN Rules

Multiple Disjunctive Antecedents
These rules are also similarly dealt with as in
Similarly, for a disjunctive set of rules combined classical logic (Ross2004). The nested parts are
to form a compound rule of the form (Ross2004) interpreted separately to result in simpler forms
of the compound rules. The following example
 1OR A
IF x is A  2OR A
 3OR illustrates the decomposition of a compound nested
 L THEN y is B
S IF-THEN rule into a simpler rule.
¼ . OR A

the corresponding fuzzy superset is a fuzzy union

 1THEN æ
IF A ç
ç
è
IF A 1 ö
 2 THEN B ÷
÷
ø ( )
1 , A
of the participating fuzzy antecedents A  2 , …,
 L , i.e.
A It can be put in the form

S = A
1 È A
2 È A
 3 È ... È A
L  1AND A
IF A  2 THEN B
1
A

Thus, the compound rule is decomposed to a

simpler form as Fuzzy Inference System

 S THEN B
S
IF A
Conditional ELSE Statements
Similar to classical logic, a conditional ELSE state-
ment can be interpreted in fuzzy logic by treating
the conditional parts separately (Ross2004). This
is illustrated by the following example, where two
consequents are being exhibited pertaining to a
A fuzzy inference system (FIS), as the name
implies, is commonly used to quantify the ambi-
guity/imprecision prevalent in real world situa-
tions through qualification and modeling of the
fuzziness of real world data by appropriate rule
bases. The inference system, as such, accepts
and analyzes fuzzy data sets to derive a fuzzy
conclusion or consequent. In general, an FIS ap-
plies a nonlinear mapping of the crisp input data
vectors into crisp outputs using a set of fuzzy
rules resident in a rule base to infer on the system
behavior. For this purpose, FIS needs to convert

54
Fuzzy Logic
the crisp inputs to their fuzzy counterparts. This is
because the nonlinear mapping process is guided
by the characteristic membership functions of
the participating inputs and generated outputs,
the applied fuzzy operators and the underlying
fuzzy if–then rules. In case of a multiple output
scenario, an aggregation of the output sets is re-
quired to achieve the target objective. It may be
noted that the fuzzy output generated by the FIS
needs to be reverted to the crisp domain for proper
usability in the real world. Hence, a defuzzification
mechanism follows all the foregoing steps of the
FIS system procedure.
Figure 10 shows the block diagram of a multi-
input FIS comprising five inputs (x1, x2, x3, x4 x5)
generating a single aggregated output y. Figure
10 also shows the essential components of an FIS,
viz., the fuzzifier, which fuzzifies the crisp inputs
to the system by means of characteristic fuzzy
membership functions, the inference engine which
infers on the possible system outputs based on the
underlying rules in the fuzzy rule base, and the
defuzzifier, which ultimately generates the crisp
output to be used up by the real world. In addition,
Figure 10 also shows another component marked
as “Σ”. This component aggregates multiple rule
consequents resulting in a multiple output sce-
nario. This happens when one or more rules in
the rule base stand equally strong for the same
antecedent at the same time. In such a situation,
the consequents/ outputs for all the fired rules are
Figure 10. Block diagram of a fuzzy inference system
aggregated and the fuzzy sets representing each
rule are combined into a single fuzzy set.
The utility of an FIS can be further appreci-
ated by taking recourse to a real life example,
which cannot be generally solved from the con-
ventional crisp logical point of view. Though the
example to be put forward is a trivial one, yet
the implications reiterate the flexibility of the
fuzzy logic on one hand and the incapability of
the crisp logic in dealing with imprecision on
the other.
Consider a weekend party (a regular affair)
hosted by the head of a family in a restaurant.
Obviously, the first consideration comes in the
choice of a restaurant befitting the occasion. So,
what parameters guide the process of selection
of a proper restaurant? This may be either its
ambience or hygiene or publicity or efficiency
of service or quality of food or affordability.
It is evident that neither of these parameters is
measurable or precise to any extent. These are
fuzzy or imprecise, hence uncertain. Even then
the head of the family is intelligent enough to
choose one from a list of probable restaurants in
his locality and goes for the dinner with his fam-
ily members. This selection mechanism is thus
guided by an inference mechanism, which elicits
some exact responses out of inexact/imprecise
fuzzy information. Moreover, after having dinner
at the restaurant, the head of the family, being a
sensible person, ought to offer some tips (also
fuzzy) to the bearer of the restaurant for the service
55

offered by him in terms of serving food, water,
beverages and the like. The fuzzy tips the head
offers is also dependent on different factors which
guided him in the restaurant selection process.
However, for the sake of brevity, the amount
of tips can be related, above all else to the two
fuzzy variables quality of food and the quality of
service offered. This inferencing mechanism for
determination of the tips to the bearer stands as
a classical example to demonstrate the power of
fuzzy inference systems in handling uncertainty
in real world problems. This example is often
referred to as the basic tipping problem since
it deals with the problem of determination of
tips to the bearer. However, as already stated,
with any FIS, since the ultimate output is a crisp
quantity, the resulting tip amount is also a scalar
and measurable quantity.
Different graphical models of inference are in
vogue for analyzing the fuzzy inference system
(Passino98). Notable among these include the
(i) Mamdani, (ii) Tsukamoto, (iii) TSK (Takagi
Sugeno Kang) and (iv) Larsen models (Passino98).
These graphical methods are more user-friendly
than the conventional mathematical tools avail-
able in the market and even enable the beginners
to experiment and design robust fuzzy inference
systems starting from the scratch. Brief overviews
of these models techniques are discussed in the
following subsections.
Mamdani Model
This is the most widely accepted inference model.
Proposed by Mamdani (Mamdani77, Passino98),
the antecedents and consequents are represented
as membership functions in the graphical view
of this model. As stated earlier, the inference
mechanism is obtained using the min operator
for a fuzzy implication and the max-min operator
is used for the composition for the implication
method. Since it is intuitive in nature, it has got
widespread acceptance. Moreover, it is designed
to accept human inputs.
56
Fuzzy Logic
Tsukamoto Model
In this inference model (Passino98), the conse-
quent part is represented by a fuzzy set with a
monotonic membership function of the form
mqi (x ), where qi is a monotonic function defin-
ing the consequent. The ith rule of the underly-
ing rule base of the inference engine takes the
form
IF u is ai AND v is bi THEN w
 is q
i
The result of the ith rule fired with strength ti is
determined as
x i = mq-i 1 (ti ) (62)
For a system with multiple consequents, the
aggregation of the outputs is obtained using the
weighted sum method
n
ti x i
x' = å
i= 1 ti
(63)
Takagi-Sugeno Kang Model
The Takagi-Sugeno Kang model (Passino, 1998)
is similar to the Mamdani model in several respects
so far as the fuzzy inference process, the input
fuzzification process and the application of fuzzy
operators are concerned. The distinct difference
between the two models lies in the fact that the
Sugeno output membership functions are either
linear or constant in nature. Hence, it is compu-
tationally efficient and works well with linear,
optimization and adaptive techniques but does
not fair enough with real life data sets. Moreover,
in this model, the consequent part is given as a
crisp function of input variables. For an example,
if u and v are the input variables, the consequent
part is represented as
Fuzzy Logic
q = f (u, v) (64)
Thus, the ith rule may be represented as
IF u is ai AND v is bi THEN q is f (u,v)
For multiple consequents, the process of ag-
gregation is carried out by means of the weighted
average method of defuzzification.
Larsen Model
It is another graphical method of inference used
in practice (Passino98). It offers standard features
of a rule based inference system in that it uses
the product operator for fuzzy implication and
the max-product operator for the composition
operation.
Modified Tipping Problem and its
Solution Design Using Mamdani Model
The basic tipping problem and its solution are well
documented in the literature (MathWorks, 1995).
It incorporates two fuzzy input variables service
with three grades of membership (poor, good,
excellent) and food with two grades of membership
(rancid, delicious) and the single fuzzy output vari-
able tip with three grades of membership (cheap,
average, generous). A subtle modification to the
problem is presented here with the introduction
of another real life uncertain fuzzy input variable
in the form of the head of the family’s state of
mind with three grades of membership (morose,
indifferent, elated) without loss of generality. The
incorporation of the fuzzy variable state of mind
into the system introduces a flavor of the diverse
nature of uncertain situations often encountered in
real world situations, be it in homely atmosphere
or in a busy industrial scenario.
Even though the problem presented here devi-
ates from the industrial perspective, yet a study
of the underlying uncertainty and the role of the
fuzzy inference engine in handling the stated
uncertainties, would aptly justify similar prob-
lems faced during dissemination, understanding
and analysis of vague and imprecise knowledge
when it comes to industrial informatics. Thus,
this section focuses on the design perspectives
of the different facets required to solve problems
involving data sets entailing imprecise, vague and
fuzzy information content.
The different participating input and output
fuzzy variables of the modified tipping problem
along with their representative membership func-
tions are shown in Figures 11 and 12 (designed
using the Mamdani model of inference (Mam-
dani77) and generated using MATLAB 6.5®
(MathWorks95)).
From Figures 11and 12 it is evident that the
input service (whose value ranges from 0 to 10)
employs Gaussian membership functions, the
input food (whose value ranges from 0 to 10)
employs trapezoidal membership functions while
the input state of mind (whose value ranges from
0 to 1) employs double sided Gaussian member-
ship functions. The output variable tip (whose
value ranges from 0 to 30) employs triangular
memberships.
Once the input and output variables have been
modeled using respective membership functions,
the fuzzy inference system applies the embedded
rule base to infer the fuzzy output corresponding
to incident fuzzy inputs to the inference system.
The modified tipping problem may comprise a
collection of rules designed by experts out of
experience. A subset of the rule base may form
the following set of five rules.
1. IF service is poor AND food is rancid AND
state of mind is morose THEN tip is cheap
2. IF service is excellent AND food is delicious
AND state of mind is elated THEN tip is
generous
3. IF service is good OR food is delicious OR
state of mind is NOT elated THEN tip is
average
57
 Fuzzy Logic

Figure 11. Fuzzy membership functions for the inputs service, food and state of mind to the modified
tipping problem

58
Fuzzy Logic
Figure 12. Fuzzy membership functions for the output tip of the modified tipping problem
4. IF state of mind is indifferent THEN tip is
average
5. IF service is poor OR food is delicious OR
state of mind is elated THEN tip is average
The next part of the inferencing mechanism
is the interpretation of these rules to arrive at a
single or a set of conclusion/consequent. This is
generally a three-fold process. Firstly, all the fuzzy
statements in the antecedent parts of the rules are
resolved to a degree of membership between 0 and
1. However, during this process, it is to be noted
that if there are multiple parts to the antecedent,
fuzzy logic operators are invoked to resolve the
antecedent to a single number between 0 and 1.
This number ultimately determines the support/
strength for a particular rule to be fired. Finally,
the consequent part of the rule is determined by
the implication operation (using either equation 60
or 61) from the antecedent part using the degree
of support for the entire rule.
Since different consequent outputs are obtained
depending on the firing strengths of the different
rules in the rule base, the corresponding output
fuzzy sets need to be combined into one composite
fuzzy set to produce the final crisp output after
defuzzification. This process of combining output
fuzzy sets into a single set is called aggregation.
Essentially, aggregation takes all fuzzy sets that
represent the output for each rule and combines
them into a single fuzzy set that is used as the
input to the defuzzification process. Thus, the
inputs to the aggregation process are truncated
or modified output fuzzy sets obtained as the
output of the implication process. The output of
the aggregation process is a single fuzzy set that
represents the output variable. Since the aggrega-
tion method is commutative, the order in which
the rules are executed is not important. The max
method happens to be the most commonly used
aggregation method.
Figure 13 shows the results of operation of the
designed fuzzy inference system with the embedded
rule base. The result is again generated with MAT-
LAB 6.5® (MathWorks95). The columns indicate
the fuzzy input/output variables. The numbers at
the extreme left of the figure represent the five
different rules of the rule base. The yellow shaded
regions represent rules which are fired correspond-
ing to the test input of service=5, food=9, state of
mind=0.5. From these values, it is evident that rule
number 3 (service=5 seems to be good; food=9
seems to be delicious even though state of mind
=0.5 does not seem to be elated), rule number 4
(state of mind=0.5 seems to be indifferent) and rule
number 5 (service=5 does not seem to be poor but
59

Figure 13. Defuzzified crisp output obtained after aggregation
food=9 seems to be delicious even though state of
mind=0.5 does not seem to be elated) fire simulta-
neously. The third, fourth and fifth blue shaded
triangles (from top) in the last column of Figure 13
show the corresponding multiple consequents thus
obtained. These are then aggregated using the max
operator as stated earlier to yield the rightmost-
bottommost blue shaded region appearing in Figure
13. Then the centroid method of defuzzification is
applied to determine the crisp value of the tip (which
in this example comes out to be tip=15 for input
values of service=5; food=9; state of mind=0.5)
for the bearer at the restaurant.
Thus, a fuzzy inference system is effective in
handling uncertainty in information management
and facilitating decision-making out of inexact
and incomplete information. The performance of
a fuzzy inference system, however, depends on
the fuzzy modeling capability of the system under
consideration along with the underlying rule base
guiding the inference system. Thus, the more
robust the rule base is, the more efficient is the
fuzzy inference system and more is it supposed
to predict the system behavior.
60
Fuzzy Logic
FUZZY CONTROL
A fuzzy system comprises a black box guided by
an underlying fuzzy logic/rule base, which upon
accepting fuzzified input(s) delivers fuzzified
output(s). Hence, such a system is able to incor-
porate ever-existing uncertainties in its functioning
as well as its input-output relationships. The need
for design of a fuzzy control based system stems
from this ability of handling of uncertainties by
fuzzy systems. In this section, the basis for the
design of a fuzzy control based system would be
discussed with reference to information manage-
ment in the industrial spectrum in particular and
intelligent systems in general.
Control systems abound in our daily life
starting from the bare human physical systems to
the complex industrial process control systems.
A control system is defined as a collection of
hardware components designed to elicit a cer-
tain desired characteristic response or output
through a control action (Ross2004). Control
systems are typically of two types, viz., (i)
open-loop control systems, in which the control
Fuzzy Logic
action does not depend on the physical system
output and (ii) closed-loop control systems,
also referred to as feedback control systems,
where the control action depends on the physi-
cal system output. Since the proper functioning
of the closed-loop control systems depends
on the system outputs, a measurement of the
outputs is an essential requirement. Once the
system outputs are known, the system errors are
determined and fed back to system for tuning
the system betterment of system performance.
Human physical systems are examples of open-
loop control systems. Industrial systems are
closed-loop feedback control systems. Details
regarding control system design are available
in the literature (Passino98).
A fuzzy inference system resides at the core
of a fuzzy controller as shown in Figure 14.
In addition, a knowledge base module present
therein guides the FIS fuzzifier with the corre-
sponding membership characteristic of the input/
output variables to the fuzzy rule-base system
and the control system parameters. The system
outputs are measured by the sensor module and
fed back for error estimation and further tuning
of system parameters. The processing modules
at the input end and the feedback path of the
controller are meant for seasoning the inputs/
outputs either in (0, 1) or (-1, 1) amenable for
use by the controller.
Figure 14. Schematic of a fuzzy logic controller
Industrial Applications of Fuzzy
Logic Control
Fuzzy control have been put to use in a wide variety
of industrial products and consumer appliances
including household appliances (Quail92), image
processing equipment (Takagi92), water quality
control (Itoh87, Yagishita85), nuclear reactor
control (Kinoshita88, Bernard88), automatic train
operation systems (Yasunobu83, Yasunobu85,
Yasunobu87), automobile transmission control
(Kasai88), fuzzy logic controller hardware systems
(Yamakawa86a, Yamakawa87a), fuzzy memory
systems (Togai86, Togai87, Watanabe88, Yamak-
awa86b, Yamakawa87b, Yamakawa88), to name
a few. A plethora of industrial applications using
fuzzy control includes blood pressure control dur-
ing anesthesia (Meier92), camera auto-focusing
(Shingu89), image stabilization applications
(Egusa92) etc. A good treatise on the design and
development of industrial fuzzy controllers is
available in (Passino98). A host of different types
of fuzzy control domains inclusive of direct,
nonlinear, adaptive and supervisory fuzzy control-
lers are discussed in (Passino98) with regards to
design methodologies of specific examples like
translational and rotational inverted pendulum,
two-link flexible robot system, automobile cruise
control, magnetic ball suspension system, auto-
mated highway system, rocket velocity control,
61

temperature control, underwater vehicle control,
tape drive servo motor control, liquid level control
in a tank etc. Interested readers are also advised
to consult (Ross2004, Phillips96, Shinskey88,
Ogunnaike94, Murrill91, Ross2003, Passino98,
Wang97, Parkinson2001, Zong-Mu2004, Lee90)
for the latest updates on the topic.
APPLICATIONS OF FUZZY
SETS AND FUZZY LOGIC
BASED SYSTEMS
The ability of fuzzy set and fuzzy logic in mod-
eling imprecision has been rightly explored and
put to use in a wide variety of applications in this
information arena. This section would illustrate the
broad spectrum of different information-intensive
applications in the frontier areas of technology.
Industrial Applications
These applications are generally characterized by
the interchange of a huge amount of information
in day-to-day transactions. Of late, the ITES (in-
formation technology enabled services) industries
have emerged as the forerunner of these types of
data based industries. In ITES, transaction data
are often under various threats, which pose dan-
ger to the integrity and validity of the data. This
has given rise to the field of threat management.
Researchers are constantly in search of newer
mechanisms of shielding data from unknown yet
possible threats of data destruction. Threat model-
ing is targeted towards achieving a secure system.
Sodiya et al. (Sodiya2007) proposed an effective
fuzzy logic-based threat modeling technique based
on six major categories of threats, viz., spoofing,
tampering, repudiation, information disclosure,
denial of service and elevation of privilege using
the Mamdani model (Mamdani77) of inference.
As the going goes, “The more the data the
more the uncertainty”. The picture is also not
very much alien in case of other industries too
62
Fuzzy Logic
since data exchange is always a part of the daily
thoroughfare in every industry. Fuzzy logic plays
a very crucial role in extracting and analyzing
relevant information from industrial transactions.
Another important aspect that demands the role
of fuzzy logic as far as industrial applications are
concerned is the management of efficient industrial
resources for maximization of industrial profits.
The intelligence offered by the fuzzy logic can
be faithfully exploited to achieve this objective
as well. Chaudhury et al. (Chaudhari2010) devel-
oped a fuzzy model with an optimal usage of the
labor, automation, and production rate to arrive
at a significantly improved decision-making.
Niu and Dartnall (Niu2008) used a fuzzy-MRP-
II technique to deal with the uncertainty and
the imprecision involved in the Manufacturing
Resource Planning (MRP-II) decision-making
system to manage the process of production of
fast moving consumer goods. Other notable ap-
plications in this direction can be found in the
literature (Das2003, Feriadi2003, Grabot2005,
Kahraman2007).
Process Modeling and Control
In each and every real life process, be it an indus-
trial one or a financial one, fuzzy sets find use in
modeling higher and lower levels of reasoning the
various aspects of control mechanisms involved
therein in the form of (i) language, (ii) problem
solving, (iii) vision, (iv) speech recognition, for
generating the best process control settings of the
embedded parameters. It is evident that the com-
plexity of a system increases with the number of
parameters of a system as well as with the range
of parameter values. It is also a known observa-
tion that the uncertainty is manifold in a complex
system. Hence, proper selection and tuning of the
parameter values is a prerequisite in many appli-
cations for achieving the desired output. Several
fuzzy based efforts have been invested in this di-
rection to model system parameters either through
expert opinions or through system trace so as to
Fuzzy Logic
attain a global set of optimum parameter settings
appropriate for a specific task. Among the recent
advances, Majumdar and Ghosh (Majumdar2008)
developed a fuzzy logic based model using the
experience of yarn spinners for modeling the roles
played by the various yarn inputs on the yarn output
strengths. The expert system developed by them
using human knowledge base has been found to
be robust enough to predict accurately the strength
of the output cotton yarn in the textile spinning
process. Cheikh et al. (Cheikh2007) devised an
intelligent control method as a remedy to energy
crisis, pollution and global warming problems by
solving the energy conversion deficiency problem
of photovoltaic cells. For this purpose they pro-
posed the maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
method of a photovoltaic system under variable
temperature and insulation conditions. Another
interesting application which falls within this
domain and is worth mentioning as far as energy
saving is concerned is that proposed by Lah et al.
(Lah2006). In their work, they used fuzzy logic for
taking full advantage of daylight for illuminating
a premise by means of controlled dynamic illumi-
nance response of built environment in real-time
conditions. Osofisan and Obafaiye (Osofisan2007)
applied fuzzy logic for modeling the catalytic
unit of a petrochemical refinery. A host of other
applications in this domain can be found in the
literature (Berkan, 2000).
Image and Video Processing
and Pattern Recognition
As discussed in the section on fuzzy operators,
images can also be regarded as fuzzy sets given the
varied distribution of intensity gamut. Hence, the
uses of fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic in understanding
image preprocessing, processing and analysis are
self-justified. In fact, from the inception, much
of the research works related to the development
of fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic have been invested
in the fields of pattern recognition and image
processing (Pal2000b). Typical examples include
image processing, classification and pattern rec-
ognition in industry for automatic color image
segmentation and edge detection (Boskovitz2002,
Simpson92, Zenzo98), medical image segmenta-
tion (Chang2002, Shitong2006, Shitong2007),
volume rendering (Kim2007), image enhancement
(Bhattacharyya2006, Bhattacharyya2007), video
interlacing applications (Brox2006a, Brox2006b,
Van99, Gutierrez-Rios2004) etc.
Aside from the aforesaid applications, fuzzy
sets are also widely used in several other engi-
neering and financial applications, e.g. cogni-
tive science and machine learning (Joshi97,
Kyoomarsi2009), data clustering (Baraldi2001,
Zhao2001, Yang2004, Chen2003), industrial
portfolio management (Shipley2009, Yager81,
Nanda2010, Wei2011), industry credit rating
(Meng2008, Zhao2009) and the like.
Hybrid Systems in
Information Management
A synergistic symbiosis of different tenets of soft
computing paradigm has resulted in more effi-
cient and fault-tolerant hybrid systems. The soft
computing tools like (i) neural networks operate
in a numeric framework and are well known for
their learning and generalization capabilities and
(ii) genetic algorithms provide powerful search
and optimization methodologies. These tools
are crucial to addressing problems in the area of
artificial intelligence and they ably supplement
the fuzzy logical paradigm in developing robust
systems. Neuro-fuzzy techniques have been
developed to embed the intelligent structure of
the human nervous system for solving various
real life problems (Taur2000, Majumdar2005,
Boskovitz2002, Muhammed2003, Shitong2006,
Shitong2007, Baraldi2001, Charalampidis2001,
Bhattacharyya2006, Bhattacharyya2007, Er2008).
Neuro-fuzzy-genetic techniques have also been
evolved for the betterment of fuzzy-only systems
(De2008, De2009, De2010), as far as management
of information is concerned.
63

DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION
A brief overview of the foundations of the fuzzy
set theory and fuzzy logic is presented in this
chapter. The limitations of the conventional crisp
logic in describing uncertainties encountered in
real life situations are discussed with recourse to
some specific examples lifted from our work-a-day
world. The power of fuzzy logic in handling such
limitations has been suitably explained by intro-
ducing the set theory-based notions and concepts.
This follows the introduction of the different types
of fuzzy membership functions in vogue. These
functions have been discussed with reference
to the appropriate mathematical forms used in
practice. The application of the fuzzy membership
functions for deriving at fuzzified variables has
been duly explained by a trivial real life example
of a fuzzification procedure. In addition, differ-
ent possible defuzzification procedures are also
highlighted to emphasize the importance of the
usage of ultimate crisp variables in the real world.
As a sequel to the fuzzification and defuzzifica-
tion procedures discussed, the chapter also empha-
sizes on the usages of different fuzzy operators in
practice. Furthermore, the manifestation of human
intelligence in handling uncertainties is discussed
by taking recourse to fuzzy rule based systems
based upon the foundations of fuzzy logic. The
different forms of rules that make up such systems
are touched upon with examples. To sum up the
concepts, the operation of a fuzzy inference engine,
which is a representative example of a fuzzy rule
based system, is illustrated with reference to the
design of a real life information based system
with all the necessary modalities. An overview
of fuzzy logic based control and its application
to the industrial perspective is also presented for
the self sufficiency of the treatment. The trends
of research in the evolution of fuzzy logic based
systems for achieving superior performances are
also highlighted with due mention of the impor-
tant treatises and literature available as far as the
state-of-the-art application areas are concerned.
64
Fuzzy Logic
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to take this opportunity to
render their reverence to Dr. Parijat De, Director,
National Institute of Technical Teachers’Training and
Research, Chandigarh, India for his tireless efforts
in pointing out the lexical and syntactic errors in the
article and helping in improving its overall readability.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Defuzzification: The reverse mapping from
the fuzzy to the crisp domain is referred to as
defuzzification.
Fuzzy membership function: A fuzzy
membership function characterizes a fuzzy set.
It describes the behavioral characteristics of the
fuzzy set, its support, its height and its properties.
Fuzzification: It is a mapping from an input
crisp/conventional universe of discourse into the
fuzzy interval (0, 1) that describes the membership
of the fuzzy input variable.
Fuzzy Control: A fuzzy rule based nonlinear
control system which is more failsafe and sus-
ceptible to higher degrees of nonlinear input-out
relationships.
 Fuzzy Logic
Fuzzy Inference System: A fuzzy inference
system, abbreviated as FIS, mimic human intel-
ligence for quantifying the ambiguity/imprecision
in real world scenario through proper modeling
of the fuzziness of real world data by appropriate
rule bases.
Fuzzy Logic: It is a multivalued logic which
incorporates all the possible outcomes in an obser-
vation apart from the standard bivalent/bivalued
logic commonly dealt with in the conventional
computing scenario.
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Fuzzy Measures: The fuzzy measures provide
a quantitative value of the degree of fuzziness in
a fuzzy set.
Fuzzy Operators: These act as linguistic
hedges on fuzzy sets to modify the behavioral
characteristics of fuzzy sets.
Fuzzy Sets: These are capable of describing
the vagueness and ambiguity inherent in real world
data by assigning degrees of containment to the
elements of the constituent sets in the universe
of discourses.
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