Experiment Title : Flow through a Convergent-Divergent Duct

Course : UEME2123 Fluid Mechanics I

Program : ME

Name of Student : Tan Wei Shin

Student ID No : 2002754

Year and Trimester: Year 2 Sem 1

Date of Experiment: 16 June 2021

Name of Lecturer : Prakas Palanychamy

Title
Flow through a Convergent-Divergent Duct

Objective
To demonstrate the application of the Bernoulli equation as applied to the flow in a convergent-
divergent duct.

Introduction
In fluids with no energy exchange due to viscous dissipation, heat transfer, or shaft work, energy
manifests itself as pressure, velocity, and elevation. Based on the conservation of energy concept,
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) was the first to state the link between these three kinds of energy.
Bernoulli’s theorem assumes that the flow is frictionless, steady, and incompressible. These
assumptions are also based on the laws of conservation of mass and energy. The increasement in
the speed of the fluid happened simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or decrease in the
fluid’s potential energy. Bernoulli’s principle can be derived from Newton’s Second law. A net
force on the volume will acted when a small volume of fluid is flowing horizontally from a
region of high pressure to low pressure region. The net force will accelerate it along the
streamline.

Bernoulli’s theorem
The Bernoulli equation is given by the following relationship
p 1 v 12 p2 v 2 2
+ + z 1= + + z =H
ρ1 g 2 g ρ2 g 2 g 2
p v2
Which (Pressure Head), (Velocity Head) and z (Elevation Head) are constant.
ρg 2g
Where r1 and r2 are the density of water

g is the gravitational acceleration

v1 is the velocity at cross section 1
v2 is the velocity at cross section 2
z1 and z2 are the elevation
H is the total pressure head
Water may be considered to be incompressible, r1 = r2 = r
For a horizontal convergent - divergent duct, z1 = z2 = z
Volume flow rate
The velocity of flow v1 and v2 can be calculated from the cross-section area & the volume flow
rate
The volume flow rate Q = v1 A1 = v2 A2, where
π
A= d 2
4
Ideal case
Assuming no frictional losses in the ideal case, H remain constant.
p 1 v 12 p2 v 22
+ +z = + + z =H 0
ρ1 g 2 g 1 ρ2 g 2 g 2
The Ideal Pressure Head is obtained from
p2 v 22
+ z =H 0−
ρ2 g 2 2g

However, because of frictional losses, the actual H drops along the venturi duct.
Therefore, the Actual pressure head is less than the Ideal Pressure Head.
Venturi flowmeter
Venturi flowmeter are constrictions or “throats” in fluid conduits, are regions of reduced pressure
that are used in a number of devices. The principle behind the operation of the Venturi flowmeter
is the Bernoulli effect. The Venturi measures a fluid's flowrate by reducing the cross-sectional
flow area in the flow path and generating a pressure difference. After the pressure difference is
generated, the fluid is passed through a pressure recovery exit section where up to 80% of the
differential pressure generated at the throat is recovered.
Procedure
1. The water outlet tube is ensured directly to the pump of the apparatus.
2. The water pump is switch on.
3. The main input water flow valve is kept fully opened; the bypass water valve is adjusted
to control the volume flow rate.
4. The water flow is adjusted to the maximum possible flow rate by closing the bypass
valve. The flow to stabilize is allowed and all the air bubble is removed in the system.
5. The air pump provided is fitted to the right end of the manifold on top of the manometer.
6. The base line level of the manometer readings is controlled by the pump by increasing or
decreasing the pressure in the manifold. The base line need not fall exactly at the zero
line because the velocity calculation uses only the pressure difference.
7. The pressure in the manifold can be increased by pumping action of the air pump.
8. The pressure in the manifold can be decreased by pressing on to the needle valve on the
right-hand side of the manifold to release the air in the manifold.
9. The volume flow rate readings and all the manometer reading are taken. The readings are
entered into the spreadsheet in the computer provided for the purpose.
10. The bypass valve was adjusted to decrease the flow rate to obtain different sets of
manometer readings for flow rates of 6.5, 6.0, 5.0, 4.0, and 3.0 gallons /min.

Apparatus and Materials

Item Description Quantity Estimation

Bernoulli’s Theorem Apparatus LS- 1
1801-5BT
Hydraulic Bench LS-1801 1
Water inlet
Calculation
Let constant be:
π=3.1416 ρ=1000 kg/ m 3
g=9.81 m/ s 2 1 gal/min = 0.00006308 m3/s

Diameter of 16.0 mm; flow rate of 4.0 gallons/min is used as reference. (grey row)
Flow rate, Q
( 4.0 )( 0.00006308 ) =0.000 2523 m 3 /s

Area of duct, A
π π
A= d 2= (16.0 mm)2
4 4
¿ 2 01.1m m2
¿ 2.011 ×10−4 m 2

Velocity, v
Flow rate ,Q
v=
Area, A
0.0002523 m 3 / s −1
¿ −4 2
=1. 255 m s
2.011 × 10 m

Velocity Head
2
v 2 (1. 255)
= ×1000=80 .276 mm
2 g 2( 9.81)

Ideal Total Head

Ideal Total Head = Ideal Pressure Head + Velocity Head + Elevation Head
p v2
H 0= + + z=1 06.2+ 80.276+30=216.5 mm
ρg 2 g

Actual Total Head

Actual Total Head = Experimental Pressure Head + Velocity Head + Elevation Head
p v2
H 0= + + z=1 0 0.0+80.276+30=210.3 mm
ρg 2 g
Ideal Pressure Head
p v2
=H 0− −z
ρg 2g
1. 2552
216.5−( ×1000)−30=106.22 mm
2 ( 9.81 )

Heat lost
Ideal Total Head−Actual Total Head
216.5 mm−210.3 mm=6.2 mm

Percentage error
Experimental value−Ideal value
Percentage error = ×100 %
Ideal value
100.0−1 06.2
¿ ×100 %
1 06.2
¿−5.84 %
Result

Raw result

Flow rate 6.5 GPM result:

Expt Ideal
2
x Diameter Area p/(r*g) p/(r*g) Velocity V /(2*g) Z Actual total Head Head Loss Ideal total head
2
mm mm mm mm mm m/s mm mm mm mm mm d x gradient
5 1 26.0 530.9 250.0 250.0 0.77 30.4 30.0 310.4 0.0 310.4 26.00 25 0.400
18 2 24.0 452.4 236.0 238.5 0.91 41.9 30.0 307.9 2.5 310.4 24.00 17
31 3 17.6 243.3 155.0 135.6 1.69 144.8 30.0 329.8 -19.4 310.4 17.60 4
43 4 16.0 201.1 77.0 68.4 2.04 212.0 30.0 319.0 -8.6 310.4 16.00 0
78 5 18.6 271.3 160.0 163.9 1.51 116.5 30.0 306.5 3.9 310.4 18.58 23
105 6 21.6 367.0 200.0 216.8 1.12 63.6 30.0 293.6 16.8 310.4 21.62 50
132 7 24.7 477.3 215.0 242.8 0.86 37.6 30.0 282.6 27.8 310.4 24.65 77
145 8 26.0 530.9 221.0 250.0 0.77 30.4 30.0 281.4 29.0 310.4 26.00 89 0.112
Flow rate 6.0 GPM result:
Expt Ideal
2
x Diameter Area p/(r*g) p/(r*g) Velocity V /(2*g) Z Actual total Head Head Loss Ideal total head
2
mm mm mm mm mm m/s mm mm mm mm mm d x gradient
5 1 26.0 530.9 230.0 230.0 0.71 25.9 30.0 285.9 0.0 285.9 26.00 25 0.400
18 2 24.0 452.4 225.0 220.2 0.84 35.7 30.0 290.7 -4.8 285.9 24.00 17
31 3 17.6 243.3 152.0 132.5 1.56 123.4 30.0 305.4 -19.5 285.9 17.60 4
43 4 16.0 201.1 80.0 75.3 1.88 180.6 30.0 290.6 -4.7 285.9 16.00 0
78 5 18.6 271.3 155.0 156.7 1.40 99.2 30.0 284.2 1.7 285.9 18.58 23
105 6 21.6 367.0 191.0 201.7 1.03 54.2 30.0 275.2 10.7 285.9 21.62 50
132 7 24.7 477.3 206.0 223.9 0.79 32.1 30.0 268.1 17.9 285.9 24.65 77
145 8 26.0 530.9 211.0 230.0 0.71 25.9 30.0 266.9 19.0 285.9 26.00 89 0.112

Flow rate 5.0 GPM result:

Expt Ideal
2
x Diameter Area p/(r*g) p/(r*g) Velocity V /(2*g) Z Actual total Head Head Loss Ideal total head
2
mm mm mm mm mm m/s mm mm mm mm mm d x gradient
5 1 26.0 530.9 201.0 201.0 0.59 18.0 30.0 249.0 0.0 249.0 26.00 25 0.400
18 2 24.0 452.4 192.0 194.2 0.70 24.8 30.0 246.8 2.2 249.0 24.00 17
31 3 17.6 243.3 145.0 133.3 1.30 85.7 30.0 260.7 -11.7 249.0 17.60 4
43 4 16.0 201.1 92.0 93.6 1.57 125.4 30.0 247.4 1.6 249.0 16.00 0
78 5 18.6 271.3 149.0 150.1 1.16 68.9 30.0 247.9 1.1 249.0 18.58 23
105 6 21.6 367.0 167.0 181.4 0.86 37.6 30.0 234.6 14.4 249.0 21.62 50
132 7 24.7 477.3 178.0 196.7 0.66 22.3 30.0 230.3 18.7 249.0 24.65 77
145 8 26.0 530.9 182.0 201.0 0.59 18.0 30.0 230.0 19.0 249.0 26.00 89 0.112
Flow rate 4.0 GPM result:
Expt Ideal
2
x Diameter Area p/(r*g) p/(r*g) Velocity V /(2*g) Z Actual total Head Head Loss Ideal total head
2
mm mm mm mm mm m/s mm mm mm mm mm d x gradient
5 1 26.0 530.9 175.0 175.0 0.48 11.5 30.0 216.5 0.0 216.5 26.00 25 0.400
18 2 24.0 452.4 169.0 170.7 0.56 15.9 30.0 214.9 1.7 216.5 24.00 17
31 3 17.6 243.3 135.0 131.7 1.04 54.8 30.0 219.8 -3.3 216.5 17.60 4
43 4 16.0 201.1 100.0 106.2 1.26 80.3 30.0 210.3 6.2 216.5 16.00 0
78 5 18.6 271.3 135.0 142.4 0.93 44.1 30.0 209.1 7.4 216.5 18.58 23
105 6 21.6 367.0 150.0 162.4 0.69 24.1 30.0 204.1 12.4 216.5 21.62 50
132 7 24.7 477.3 158.0 172.3 0.53 14.2 30.0 202.2 14.3 216.5 24.65 77
145 8 26.0 530.9 162.0 175.0 0.48 11.5 30.0 203.5 13.0 216.5 26.00 89 0.112

Flow rate 3.0 GPM result:

Expt Ideal
2
x Diameter Area p/(r*g) p/(r*g) Velocity V /(2*g) Z Actual total Head Head Loss Ideal total head
2
mm mm mm mm mm m/s mm mm mm mm mm d x gradient
5 1 26.0 530.9 148.0 148.0 0.36 6.5 30.0 184.5 0.0 184.5 26.00 25 0.400
18 2 24.0 452.4 145.0 145.6 0.42 8.9 30.0 183.9 0.6 184.5 24.00 17
31 3 17.6 243.3 125.0 123.6 0.78 30.8 30.0 185.8 -1.4 184.5 17.60 4
43 4 16.0 201.1 105.0 109.3 0.94 45.2 30.0 180.2 4.3 184.5 16.00 0
78 5 18.6 271.3 124.0 129.7 0.70 24.8 30.0 178.8 5.7 184.5 18.58 23
105 6 21.6 367.0 134.0 140.9 0.52 13.5 30.0 177.5 6.9 184.5 21.62 50
132 7 24.7 477.3 138.0 146.5 0.40 8.0 30.0 176.0 8.5 184.5 24.65 77
145 8 26.0 530.9 140.0 148.0 0.36 6.5 30.0 176.5 8.0 184.5 26.00 89 0.112
Discussion
Bernoulli's principle is a seemingly counterintuitive statement about how the speed of a fluid
relates to the pressure of the fluid. It has many real-world applications, such as understanding
aerodynamics of airplane, calculating wind load on buildings, designing water supply and sewer
networks, measuring flow using devices such as weirs, Parshall flumes, and venturi meters, and
estimating seepage through soil, among others. In certain problems in fluid flows when given the
velocities at two points of the streamline and pressure at one point, the unknown is the pressure
of the fluid at the other point. The pressure can also find by using Bernoulli’s Equation, such as
Convergent-divergent ducts which is shown in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1: Converging-Diverging Nozzle Configuration

Based on the result obtained from the experiment, the ideal pressure head value which is
calculated by using Bernoulli equation is difference from the actual pressure head value for
different water flow rates. Generally, the actual pressure head value will be smaller than the ideal
pressure head value. Especially the value at the diverging section, which is distance after 43 mm.
For example, from the table of flow rate 3.0 GPM, the ideal total head for flow rate of 3.0
gallons/min is 184.5 mm. But the actual total heads vary from 184.5 mm to 183.9 mm, 185.8
mm, 180.2 mm, 178.8 mm, 177.5 mm, 176.0 mm, and 176.5 mm when the fluid flows through
different cross-sectional area of convergent-divergent duct. Moreover, other result also clearly
prove that the actual total head is not constant compared to ideal total head as the fluid flowing
through the duct. Therefore, the objective of this experiment which is to demonstrate the
application of the Bernoulli equation as applied to the flow in a convergent-divergent duct is
successfully achieved.

The difference between two result might because of the frictional losses of the fluid with the
inner wall of the duct when it is flowing through it. For further information, there are two main
types of friction that will occurs in the Convergent-divergent duct, which in skin friction and
form friction. Skin friction is the friction between a fluid and the surface of a solid moving
through it or between a moving fluid and its enclosing surface, it occurs when the fluid comes in
and contact with the wall of pipe. Next, form friction, where all localised losses due to
geometrical characteristics of the piping system are piled up: fittings, bends, valves. At those
points, flow is disturbed, resulting in increased losses which are difficult to solve for analytically,
however we have empirical functions that allow us to substitute these factors with an equivalent
length of pipe, for the friction calculation. Bernoulli’s equation can then modify by the inclusion
of the frictional head loss, H f .

In the consideration of ideal case, when fluid flows through the convergent-divergent
duct, the sum of the pressure head, velocity head, and elevation head should be constant. Even
though cross-sectional area varies along the duct which will affecting the velocity head, the
pressure head will also modify to balance the Bernoulli equation. It is due to the velocity of fluid
is increase when the fluid passes through the converging section. This can be explained by the
continuity equation shows at below, which ṁ represent mass flow rate.
ṁ1=ṁ2

ρ1 A 1 V 1 =ρ 2 A 2 V 2

The density of fluid will stay constant due to water is assumed as incompressible fluid.

A 1 V 1= A2 V 2

A1 V 1
V 2=
A2

Therefore, it shows that velocity is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. The
pressure will decrease while the velocity of fluid increases when a smaller cross-sectional line is
flowing to making the total head in an ideal case constant. Therefore, the fluid velocity is
inversely proportional to the fluid pressure. Bernoulli’s principle is basically about the
conservation of work energy which states that for an ideal fluid or situations when effect of
viscosity is neglected, with no work being performed on the fluid, total energy remains constant.
However, in actual experiment, frictional losses should be considered because they reduce the
velocity and pressure of the fluid flows. Frictional losses can be caused by the friction exerted
when the fluid moves.

Figure 2: The relation between velocity, pressure and temperature in

convergent-divergent duct

Other than that, there are also other factor that may affect the difference between two result. The
reading of the manometer was flowing up and down continually. It might affect the result that
when trying to record. Then, the fluid is assumed to be incompressible with constant density
condition. However, the temperature changes all the time as well as the fluid density which
directly affecting the experimental value of the total head. The air bubble inside the manometer
will also affect the reading. The air bubbles contribute no weight to the column of fluid, but they
alter the height. When the manometer is hooked up and vacuum is present, the air bubbles can be
removed by a syringe pulling air from the vent tube. Besides that, parallax error might also occur
when taking the reading of manometer, and this may cause disagreement between experimental
result and theoretical result.

If the convergent-divergent duct is inclined upwards, the corresponding total head, H will remain

p
unchanged because of theorem of Bernoulli’s while the increasing of pressure heads, will
ρg
occurs. The elevation, z will increase when going up the tube. Therefore, the pressure head will
increase at the upper section due to the difference in height. The reason is the velocity in
divergent section, which is having smaller cross-sectional area is increase and decrease in
convergent section, which is having larger cross-sectional area. According to Bernoulli’s
equation, the pressure will decrease, if velocity of fluid will increase. Hence, the fluid is difficult
to flow from a lower pressure section to a higher pressure section due to the elevation while the
duct is inclined upwards. Other than that, the dynamic head is decreasing when the velocity of
fluid is also decreasing. Moreover, a minimum pressure head will be obtained when the duct is
inclined at 90°. It is due to a maximum gravitational force pull downwards on the fluid
streamline. For further information, from Figure 3 it can conclude that the higher the gradient of
incline (the incline angle closer to 90°), the stronger the gravitational pull experienced by water
particle. The fluid might not flow through the convergent-divergent duct and manometer tubes
successfully if the certain flow rate is not achieved. Therefore, dynamics pressure and static
pressure can state as zero, the fluid will continue to flow until the pressure head at upstream
equals the elevation head at downstream.

mg sin Ɵ

mg (gravitational force)

Figure 3

Lastly, these are some of the precaution steps that we can refer to in order for us to reduce the
percentage error. Firstly, the eyes must be parallel to the scale when the manometer readings are
taken to ensure an accurate result will be collected. Second, the control valve needed to be
controlled slowly when changing the fluid flow rate. While adjusting the valve, the flow rate
needed to at the exactly correct value. It is due to a slightly changes might affect the whole
result. The air bubble in the pipeline needed to be removed before carried out the experiment.
This is to ensure a better accuracy of our experiment data. Other than that, water leakage should
be prevented in all of the apparatus.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the objective of this experiment is successfully achieved. The logic of Bernoulli’s
equation is also proved. The application of the Bernoulli’s equation as applied to the flow in a
convergent-divergent duct is demonstrated. We can conclude that the velocity of the fluid
decrease when the fluid passed from a narrower area to wider area tube and vice versa. The
pressure head decreases when the velocity increases and the other way round.

Reference
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http://www.wermac.org/specials/venturiflowmeter.html
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Merriam-webster.com. 2021. Definition of SKIN FRICTION. [online] Available at:

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/skin%20friction
[Accessed 18 June 2021].

Ahmari, H. and Kabir, S., 2019. Experiment #2: Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration. [online]
Uta.pressbooks.pub. Available at:
https://uta.pressbooks.pub/appliedfluidmechanics/chapter/experiment-2/
[Accessed 19 June 2021].

Scienceworld.wolfram.com. 1996. Bernoulli's Law -- from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics.

[online] Available at: https://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/BernoullisLaw.html
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