Karnataka

Chapter 11 Fine Arts

Glimpses of
Architecture and Sculpture
Pre-historic Period

K
arnataka has a long tradition of architecture
which can be traced to the pre-historic times. In
fact, the state has one of the earliest evidences
of artificial dwellings created by humans. The
archaeological excavation conducted at Hunsgi,
Baichbal, Islampur, etc. in Shorapur taluk in Gulbarga
district have revealed structures constructed by the early
hominids. Remains are found of boulders neatly arranged
in a circular plan which belong to the earliest cultural
phase in man’s history, dated to about a million years ago.
These circular constructions were perhaps meant to protect
shelters made of thatch from the winds. The only other area
where there is some evidence of architectural activity of the
early hominid ancestors is in Africa.

Regular architectural constructions came up in the

Neolithic period, when people gave up nomadic hunting

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 and gathering way of living, started agriculture and
began to settle in villages. In several Neolithic sites
excavated in Karnataka like Pikilhal and Watgal
(Raichur district), Tekkalakota (Bellary district),
etc. remains of circular huts have been traced.
These had mud or wattle and daub walls covered
with a conical thatch roof, a practice still prevalent in
several tribal communities. These simple architecture
works are datable to 3000-1200 B.C.
The earliest evidences of stone architecture are from the
Iron Age, i.e., the Megalithic period (1200-300 B.C.).
Though no residential or other buildings have been
found, there are a large number of funerary structures
which are called megalithic burials. Many megalithic
burials have cists in which dressed granite stone
slabs have been used. These look like small square or
rectangular cells. In Rajan Kollur and other places in
Gulbarga districts, a number of stone alignments, i.e.
dressed stone pillars arranged in rows, have been found.
These are supposed to be ritual enclosures, perhaps
also associated with astronomical observations.
It is again during the Megalithic Iron Age that we find
first evidence of sculpture. Flat granite slabs cut like
standing human figures with extended hands have been
found in a few Megalithic sites.
Early Historical Period
Although there are several Asokan inscriptions
in Raichur, Bellary and Chitradurga districts, no
architectural remains assignable to the Mauryan period
(4th– 3rd century B.C.) have been found in the region so
far. An apsidal brick structure (the base portion only)
found in the excavations at Bramhagiri (Chitradurga
district), is dated to about the 2nd century B.C. Perhaps
this marks the beginning of brick architecture
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in Karnataka. Banavasi in Uttara Kannada district, Vadgaon
Madhavpur near Belgaum and Sannti in Gulbarga district have
brick fortification walls of the early Satavahana period belonging
to the 1st– 3rd century A.D.
Sannati was an important metropolis in the Maurya-Satavahana
period. Though definite Mauryan remains in the form of Asokan
edicts have been found here, there are extensive architectural and
sculptural remains datable to about the 1st– 3rd century A.D. There
are at least four Buddhist stupas, and one of them at Kanaganahalli
near Sannati, has been exposed by the Archaeological Survey of
India. It shows the circular base (medhi) and the hemispherical
dome (anda) as well as the railing around. The whole stupa has
been encased with decorative limestone panels carved in bas-
relief with Buddhist themes. One of them has a portrait of Asoka.
Sannati has also yielded a number of limestone ayaka pillars and
Buddhist sculptures, of Buddha, naga, etc., as well as memorial
stones. All these are idioms of the Amaravati style, widely seen in
Andhra Pradesh.
An apsidal brick structure excavated at Banavasi shows an
improvement by providing a partition near the apsidal end, thus
introducing the concept of garbhagriha separated from the front
mantapa. This may be dated to about 3rd – 4th century A.D.
Early Kadamba Period
As the Kadamba rule commenced and the sovereignty of the native
rulers became significant in the political history, in architecture
and sculpture too, the rise of an indigenous Karnataka idiom can
be seen. In Gudnapur near Banavasi, remains of the palace area
of the early Kadamba period have been found in an excavation
conducted in recent years. There are foundation courses of several
brick structures, consisting of palace remains and of temples.
Perhaps, an apsidal structure, the foundation courses of which
have been excavated at Halasi (Belgaum district), and another
apsidal structure of brick excavated at Banavasi appear to belong
to the early Kadamba period. It appears that brick architecture
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Fine Arts

was common during this period. The only

example of stone architecture comes from
Talagunda (Shimoga district). Some portions
of the garbhagriha of the Pranavesvara temple
are of the Kadamba times, where one of the
doors bears an inscription of the Kadamba
period.

An image of Kartikeya found in the excavation

at Banavasi in the aforementioned apsidal
brick structure is aesthetically impressive
and displays some Gupta influence in
style. Some Buddha images found in
Haive, Ganesha images from Gokarna and
Idagunji (all in Uttara Kannada district) and
a Mahishamardini sculpture from Jambitige
are other examples of early Kadamba
sculpture.

Ganga Period

Though Gangas of Kolar, and later

Talakad began their rule as early
as the Banavasi Kadambas, there
are no architectural sculptures
which can be definitely ascribed
to a period earlier than 8th – 9th
century A.D. A large number of
slender pillars of granite, cubical
at the bottom but tapering slightly
at the end and surrounded by a
wheel moulding just below the
capital, sometimes half broken,
are strewn round the town. Many
of them were pulled out and used
for later buildings. The Arkesvara,
Patalesvara and Maralesvara at
Talakad can be assigned to this
period. The Kapilesvara temple at Manne, once the celebrated
capital of the Gangas, and also the Somesvara temple at the same
place are of brick and probably belong to the 8th century A.D.
Sravanabelagola in the Hassan district, however, contains some
buildings of the Ganga period. The Basadi of Chandraprabha was
built in about 800 A.D. by Sivamara. The Chavundarayabasti, a
two-storeyed building, was built by Chavundaraya in 982 A.D.
The world famous image of Gommata on top of the bigger hill at the
place was carved out of a single granite piece by Chavundaraya,
the minister of the Ganga king Rachmalla (974-994 A.D.). This
magnificent piece of sculpture was finished by 983 A.D. and is
perhaps one of the mightiest achievements of ancient Karnataka
in the realm of sculptural art.

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 The huge Brahmadeva Pillar, built in 974 A.D. in
honour of Marasimha and the Tyagad Brahmadeva
Pillar of Chavundaraya in 983 A.D., constitute
good examples of carved pillars peculiar to the
Jaina faith. The shaft of the latter has a beautiful
scroll of climbing honey-suckle and the figures
of Chavundaraya and his guru Nemichandra are
flanked by chauri (whisk) bearers.
The Gangas of Talakad built a few temples which
are noteworthy for purity of architectural style and
elegance of sculptural art. The Panchakuta Basti
(10th century A.D.) at Kambadahalli in Mandya district
is one of the finest examples of pure Dravida temple
style. The Bhoga Nandishvara (9th century) at Nandi
in Chikkaballapura district, built in the Ganga-Bana
style, consists of two temples and is the finest example
of a Southern vimana, in which the storeys are clearly
marked and the parapets are profusely ornamented
with figure sculptures. The pillared hall known as
navaranga carries some exquisitely carved deities and
demi-gods. The festival hall of black granite is famous
for delicate details of carving. The Kolaramma temple of
the same period is built in the Ganga-Chola idiom of the
Southern vimana.
Early Chalukyan Style
Karnataka is rightly called the cradle of temple
architecture, for the two major temple styles of
India, namely the southern Vimana with a square
superstructure and the northern rekhaprasada, also
termed rekhanagara and noted for its curvilinear tower,
evolved simultaneously as result of an innovative
experiment carried out in the Malaprabha valley. A third
type with a conical multi-tiered roof, called by some as
kadambanagara style, also made its appearance
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and was popular for some time in the west coast. As a result
of experimentation, over 100 temples were built by the Early
Chalukyan rulers at Aihole, Mahakuta, Badami and Pattadakal
in Karnataka within a short span of two and a half centuries (500-
750 A.D). They evolved sophisticated models from simple flat-
roofed mantapa type structures resembling the village assembly
hall. Despite the fact that sandstone used by them was not soft,
they could produce sculptures of high artistic value.
The earliest stone temple, namely the Gaudargudi built at Aihole
on the model of the Late Satavahana brick temple of the 3rd-4th
century A.D at Pattadakal, is a rectangular pillared hall standing on
a high moulded plinth (adhishthana). It is divided into three bays,
the nave having a flat covered roof and the aisles having a sloping
one. The central square of the central bay is converted into a shrine
(garbhagriha), thus providing an open circumambulatory passage
(pradakshinapatha). Soon, the urge for experimentation and the
need for protecting the devotees against sun and rain must have
induced the builders to enclose the open hall of the next temple
they built, namely the Ladkhan (Surya) temple, with exquisitely
carved perforated screens (Jajandras). The plan was, however,
elaborated by adding a pillared porch (mukhamantapa) and the
flat roof was given an elevation by building an upper chamber. A
further elaboration in the plan can be seen in the Meguti temple
at Aihole, where an open hall, a closed circumambulatory passage
(sandhara) and a large porch were added. The Meguti temple
which is dated 634 A.D. by the inscription of Ravikirti, marks the
end of the first stage of experimentation by which time, the main
elements of a temple namely garbhagriha, pradakshinapatha,
sabhamantapa and mukhamantapa had been evolved. The tower,
however, still remained undefined. So far as ornamentation was
concerned, it is only the ceiling, doorframe and the pillars and
the plinth which were used for the purpose of producing relief
sculptures of animals, human figures and floral and geometric
designs.
The next stage in the Chalukyan experimentation of temple

construction can be seen in the pre-Pallava edifices such as the
upper and lower Shivalayas at Badami, where the first ever attempt
to evolve a temple tower forming an integral part of the structure
as a whole was made. The beginning of the talachchanda concept
can be seen in the faint division of the tower directly rising over the
walls. In the hollow tower of the upper and the lower Shivalayas,
there is clarity in the uppermost storey, but the lower storeys
are smudged. As these two Shivalayas were built before 634
A.D., it can be said that the Chalukyan architects were pioneers
in designing a southern vimana. After 634 A.D., further details
seem to have been worked under Pallava influence. For tracing
the subsequent evolution of the super-structure into a curvilinear
tower of the northern style (rekhanagara), Huchchamalligudi
at Aihole and Sangamesvara and a few other temples at
Mahakuta are important. The third type which emerged from
the experiments carried out at Aihole in the 6th - 7th century A.D.,
is a rectangular shrine with multi-tiered towers of receding tiers
surmounted by an amalaka and kalasa but devoid of bhumis and
the shukanasa. The Mallikarjuna and the Galaganatha temples
at Aihole provide excellent examples of this type which survived
up to the Hoysala times, as exemplified in the Lakshmidevi temple
at Doddagaddavalli in Hassan district.
In addition to the three major types, there is also an apsidal or
oblate Chikkigudi complex at Aihole. Further evolution of the
vimana type can be seen in the Bhutanatha group of temples
at Badami and the emergence of the rekhanagara in the
Huchchamalligudi temple at Aihole. The Mahakuteshvara is an
example of the two-storeyed (dvitala) vimana with an octagonal
dome, and the Sangameshvara at the same place is a good example
of rekhanagara. The mahanasika projecting from the shikara is an
important feature of the northern type evolved and adopted in the
case of the southern vimana models as well. Similarly, the closed
pradakshinapatha (sandhara) usually associated with northern
model occurs in some of the southern Chalukyan temples.
Among the more significant architectural models also noted
for their sculptural wealth, mention must be made of the
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structural temples such as the Ladkhan, Durga, Kunti, Meguti,
Hucchappayya, Chikki, Hucchappayya Matha, Ravalphadi (a
rock-cut temple of the Vedic faith) and the Buddhist temple on
the way to Meguti which are all situated at Aihole. In the early
Chalukyan art, the subsidiary figures are arranged around the
principal figure in a spacious and orderly fashion to heighten
the meaning and form of the deity, a good example of which is
the Trivikrama panel in Badami. The early Chalukyan art is
characterised by an iconographic transition in its architectural
style. The evolution of iconographic formulae can be gauged from
the position of Ashtadikpalas which kept alternating till definite
positions were assigned to them. The Chalukyan artist gave an
aesthetic finish to some of the iconographic forms which were
poorly represented earlier. While Krishna as Govardhanagiridhari
resembled Skanda in Gupta art, he is more human in Chalukyan
art in which details are introduced through ornaments and cows,
etc. Some innovations in iconography to suit the architectural
models and local religious requirements of the age can be seen in
different phases of Chalukyan art. Further, it is observed that the
iconographic formulae of some of the forms such as the Nataraja
were evolved by the Chalukyans. The ganas occupied a unique
position in this art. Their cosmic acts and their very presence
provide relief in a tense situation, as in the Mahishasuramardini
 panel in Badami cave No.1. (sharashayya) are reproduced here on a
These dwarfs enhance the grander and more forceful scale. Among
liveliness of some scenes the few Rashtrakuta temples within the
such as the procession present boundary of Karnataka, only two
of worshippers, etc. The deserve mention, namely the Jaina temple at
Chalukyan contribution Pattadakal and the Trikuteshvara at Gadag
to secular art lies in the in Dharwad district. The latter is extensively
sublimation of mildly erotic decorated with miniature figures of deities,
couples. The credit for depiction royal processions, hunting scenes, etc. while
of kamashastriya (erotic) poses the former is noted for its elaborate plan,
for the first time goes to the including a large mukhamantapa. Just as
Chalukyas, as an auspicious the Early Chalukyan school influenced the
symbol mithuna occurs on art of the Elephanta, the Rashtrakuta school
pillars, lintels brackets, etc. had its impact as far west as Dwaraka, as is
The Gupta art motifs such as evident from the recently discovered temple
the purna ghata, chaitya arch, of the 8th-9th centuries A.D.
garland bearers and pearl
garlands were discreetly carved
on pillars and capitals. Kaitabeshwara Temple,
Kubatur, Shimoga District

Rashtrakuta style
After the fall of the Early Chalukyan
kingdom which extended from the banks of
the Narmada to Kaveri, the Rashtrakutas
of Malkhed rose to power in the latter half
of the 8th century and ruled over a large
area, including Gujarat. They followed the
Chalukyan tradition in architecture. The
finest example of the Rashtrakuta style is the
rock-cut temple known as Kailasa at Ellora
in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra. It
had for its model the famous Virupaksha
temple at Pattadakal. Most of the Chalukyan
themes such as Ravana lifting Kailasa,
Jatayu attacking Ravana, Lingodbhava
Shiva and Bhisma on a bed of arrows

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Later Chalukyan style
The temples at Lakkundi, Gadag, Kuruvatti, Haveri, Hangal
and Chaudadanapura in Dharwad district, Itagi and Kukkanur
in Raichur district, Hadagali and Bagali in Bellary district,
Balligame in Shimoga district and Harihar in Chitradurga district
are the better known monuments of the Later Chalukyan style.
The Later Chalukyan style temples show a further increase in
the number of offsets in the facade of the vimana, thus providing
greater scope for architectural embellishment and profusion of
figure sculptures than was possible on the Early Chalukyan
style. The Early Chalukyan style feature of spacing out the
wall surface with pilasters, noticeable in the Virupaksha temple
and Papanatha temples at Pattadakal, was carried further and
a functional framework of architectural significance was given
to the whole edifice. The pilaster framed niche was skillfully
incorporated in the architectural framework and foliated curves
were interposed between architectural motifs. The total mass
Lakkundi temples, Gadag
district
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of the superstructure was reduced and a batter was produced
to give an effect of verticality as in the northern temples, while
other features emphasising horizontal lines in the tower were still
retained to suggest its southern origin. The cupola and pinnacle
together with the frontal projection (mahanasika) suggest a
northern affiliation, as in the case of the Nanesvara temple at
Lakkundi. The highly ornate door frames, the embellishment
of the horizontal courses of the shikara with miniature figure
sculptures, the ornamented bracket figures (kichakas), such as
those in the Kuruvatti temple, and the larger but graceful figures
of deities in the ceiling and the niches of the Lakkundi and Itagi
temples are some of the striking features of plastic treatment of
the Later Chalukyan style. The Later Chalukyan builders made
the entrance to the shrine chamber the focal point of attraction
and bestowed great attention in decorating the door frames.
Finally, mention should be made of a unique temple known as
the Doddabassappa at Dambal in Dharwad district, which is a
landmark in the evolution of the Later Chalukyan style into the
Hoysala style. Its vimana and the hall are both stellate in plan.
This edifice is distinguished from the Chalukyan and Hoysala
temples by the carrying of the basal projection in a ribbed format
up to the ‘neck’ (griva) of the tower, thus replacing the stepped
pyramidal form by a soaring tower.
The Later Chalukyas revelled in embellishing the temples with
delicately carved miniature figures of gods and demi-gods which
appear mostly in the upper register of the wall and the string
courses of the shikara. The larger figures occupy the pilastered
niches surmounted by architectural motifs which are said to
represent the Nagara and the Dravida forms of temple. Both
in the Hindu and Jaina temples, the ornamentation of figures
is discreet and the drapery is thin. Particular mention may be
made of Kubera, male Chauri-bearers, Sarasvati and Ganesha.
The Mahishasuramardini and Sarasvati from Bagali, the bracket
figures from Kuruvatti, the ceiling panels in the temples of Haveri,
the miniature deities in the shikaras of temples at Balligame and
Lakshmeshvar give an idea of the wealth of the Later Chalukyan
art.
 Hoysala Style
The Hoysala rulers of Dvarasamudra (Halebidu)
were great patrons of art and learning. Apart from
building temples and embellishing them with
exquisite sculptures, they encouraged painting,
music and dance. The material used by Hoysala
builders is bluish or grey chloritic schist which lent
itself to delicate carving and polish. The renowned
temples among them are those at Belur, Halebidu,
Doddagaddavalli, Arsikere, Hosaholalu, Koramangala,
Arakere, Harnahalli, Nuggihalli, Mosale and Aralaguppe
in Hassan district, Somanathapura in Mysore district
and Nagamangala in Mandya district. An outstanding
feature of Hoysala temples is the dominance of
sculpture over architecture. Almost every corner and
niche, every moulded course of the plinth and shikara
and almost the entire ceiling are carved with delicate
human figures, gods and demi-gods and intricate floral
and geometric patterns.
the shikara makes it less northern in style. The pillars in Hoysala
architecture are lathe-turned and carry smooth horizontal rings
and grooves. The shaft has a bell-shaped motif at the base, while
the capital has beautifully carved bracket figures attached to it.
The Keshava temple at Somanathapura is the most complete,
while the Channakeshava temple at Belur is the most ornate.
The Hoysala temple is a veritable treasure house where every
part of the temple is tastefully decorated with animal and plant
life besides enchanting damsels and benign looking gods. The
Channakeshava temple at Belur may be taken as the best example
of Hoysala art. The moulded courses of the plinth are embellished
with successive friezes of elephants, scroll work, dancers, musicians
and rows of female figures standing under bowers. Above them can
be seen perforated screens and above the pillars are the famous
bracket figures, known as the madanikas, standing in graceful
Somnathpur temple, Mysore district

In plan and elevation, the Hoysala temples show a

departure from the Later Chalukyan temples. The
ground plan of the vimana is laid out in a series of
points to produce a star shape obtained as if by rotating
the square on its common center, the number of angular
displacements depending upon the number of points
needed in the star. The platform on which the temple
is built closely follows the stellate plan. The high plinth
is ornamented with successive bands of animals, floral
designs and figure sculptures. The treatment of the wall
surface is one of horizontality with three bands of figures
running around the vimana and two around the hall
(navaranga). The upper tendency of the superstructure
is indicated by the fluting effect of the tower produced
by carrying the stellate plan through the cave up to the
finial, but the introduction of the horizontal courses in

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postures. These bracket with imaginatively carved pillars and brackets. Composite pillars
figures are masterpieces carrying mythical animals and riders are a unique contribution
of Hoysala art noted for of the Vijayanagara rulers. They built a separate shrine for the
delicacy of modelling consort of the main deity and also a number of subsidiary shrines
and harmony between with high-walled enclosures which were elaborately decorated
essential plasticity and with scenes of folk dance, royal hunts, victory parades, etc., as in
monumentality. The the case of Hazara Rama temple. Scenes from the Ramayana can
Hoysala artist has be seen in this temple, while those from Bhagavata are narrated
emphasised that nature, in Krishna and Vitthala temple at Hampi. The musical pillars in
man and God are all part the Vitthala temple produce different musical notes when gently
of a continuity which tapped with fingers.
can be seen not only in
the friezes on the plinth The use of hard granite did not permit delicate carvings in
but also in the scenes Vijayanagara art, but its low relief sculptures are full of vigour
like Ravana shaking and dynamism where massive monolithic sculptures such as
Kailasa. In repeating those of Lakshminarasimha and Ganesha (Sasivekalu and
samharamurtis such as
Gajasuramardana and
Narasimha, the artist is
conscious of the fact that
he should emphasise
destruction of wickedness
on a transcendental plane
and not the fury of God.
This explains why some of the samharamurtis are mild
in Hoysala art. The Hoysala artist excelled in carving
the minutest-details.

Vijayanagara Style

The Vijayanagara rulers built a rich and powerful empire

which extended from the banks of the river Krishna to
Kanyakumari. As great patrons of art, they evolved a
new style of architecture which is known for its ornate
and massive towers (gopuras) over the gateways (ma-
hadvaras) and for the proliferation of ceremonial halls

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 Kadalekalu Ganeshas) are concerned-the very
concept reveals the intention to impress on the
people the might of the Vijayanagara empire. The
might of the empire was also hinted at by the
parade of troops in sculptures. The Vijayanagara
kings took particular delight in encouraging folk
art, especially folk dances and festivals such as the
sprinkling of colour in Holi. Scenes from the epics are
repeatedly shown in various temples, especially in the
Hazara Rama temple. Animal life received the special
attention of Vijayanagara artists. The composite pillars
in the temples at Hampi, Srirangam and Vellore carry
real and mythical animal figures.
Painting
The earliest paintings of Karnataka are of the pre-historic
period around 2000-1000 B.C. The representations of
animals, human figures, etc. are painted beneath the
projected rocks which formed the dwelling place of the
pre-historic people. Such relics of the art of pre-historic
man can be seen in the districts of Bellary, Bijapur,
Bagalkot, Koppal, Raichur and Chitradurga. The pre-
historic sites like Hirebenakal, Piklihal, etc., contain
figures of hunters with weapons, horse-riders, bulls,
etc., on rocks. Many coloured figures on mud pots are
found in plenty in Brahmagiri, Chandravalli, Hemmige,
Herekal, Maski and Bengaluru. The art of painting and
its existence in the historical period have been referred to
in contemporary literature and inscriptions. Paintings
done under royal patronage in Karnataka can be traced
to the days of the Chalukyan ruler Mangalesha, and
only traces of the paintings of his time survive in Cave
III of Badami.
Due to historical factors, there are gaps in the
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continuity of this tradition of painting in Karnataka. Illustrated
manuscripts of Dhavala at Moodubidare belonging to the Hoysala
period are also seen. The figures, settings and the postures are
different from the Kalpasutra paintings of Gujarat illustrating the
same themes. The style is distinctly indigenous and leaves an
impression of the ornamentations in Hoysala sculptures. Many
references to portraits and pictures are made by Kannada poets
like Rudrabhatta. Manasollasa by Emperor Someshvara III has a
section on this art.
A study of the paintings of the Vijayanagara period reveals that
mural painting was practised on a large scale. The earliest such
specimens are found on the ceilings of the Virupaksha temple at
Hampi. A close study of the paintings in Karnataka indicates that
instead of reflecting life as it was during those periods, the painters
had adopted conventional settings, highly stylised postures, all
bound strictly by the dictates of the Aagamas. The paintings seem
to be pictorial versions of sculptures which are seen in abundance
even today. Even secular themes followed these stylised postures.
It is possible most of the major temples in Karnataka were decorated
with such murals. The Mysore Gazetteer edited by C. Hayavadana
Rao mentions many such temples where mural paintings are
or were found in old Mysore province. The Terumalleshwara
temple at Hiriyur, Narasimha temple at Sibi, the Jaina Matha
at Shravanabelagola, Mallikarjuna temple at Mudukutore,
Virupaksha temple at Hampi, Prasannakrishnaswamy temple,
Krishna and Varaha temples at Mysore, the Divyalingeshwara
temple at Haradnahalli and Jaina Temple at Saligrama are among
them. The Daria Daulat at Srirangapattana, Jaganmohan Palace
at Mysore, the mansions at Nargund, Kamatagi near Bijapur and
Nippani, Amminabhavi near Dharwad, Rama temple at B.K. Halli
near Haliyal, private houses at Raichur and Guledagud too have
paintings.
From the Later Vijayanagara period, the art of painting appears
to split into two branches. The Vijayanagara rulers and their
feudatories followed the ancient tradition bound by the Aagamas,
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while the rulers of many old families. The most famous of such manuscripts is the
Bijapur, Gulbarga and Sritatvanidhi, a voluminous work prepared under the patronage of
Bidar were responsible Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar. This manuscript has nine parts
for the development of dealing with different topics such as Shaktinidhi, Vishnunidhi,
a distinct style known Brahmanidhi, Shivanidhi etc. The paintings illustrate ancient
as the Deccani style. knowledge in the branches of the Aagama, Shilpa, Jyothisha,
The finest specimens Tantra, etc. The Jaganmohan palace has portrait pictures of kings
of this school were and other nobility and pictures relating to puranic themes, either
produced at Bijapur. in water colour or oil colours on clothes, glasses, etc. Sundaraiah,
Though this school Kondappa, Yellappa, Durgada Venkatappa, Narasimaiah,
was heavily influenced Thippajjappa and others adopted and developed this style. In
by the Mughal style, those days, the painter prepared his own materials. The colours
it also had a strong were from natural sources and of vegetable, mineral or organic
indigenous strain. origin. Gold leaf was applied on gesso works, the hallmark of all
traditional paintings of Karnataka. Besides paper, the painters
The southern parts of painted on glass too. Raja Ravi Verma in the early decades of the
Karnataka continued 20th century influenced many painters of the day in Mysore.
the ancient style
which was developed
at Vijayanagara. After
the fall of Vijayanagara, A mural painting,
Jagan Mohan palace, Mysore
the court migrated
to different places
in the South. The
rulers of Mysore
extended patronage to
art. A large number of artists settled in Srirangapatna under
the patronage of Raja Wodeyar. The colourful paintings on the
pillars, walls, roofs, etc. of the Dariya Daulat at Srirangapatna
are of varied themes and subjects. These paintings were done
during the time of Tipu Sultan but by the local artists who used
the traditional techniques in painting. Similar traces of paintings
are available in the palace of Tipu at Bengaluru.

In addition to murals, the painters were also commissioned to

illustrate manuscripts. Such illustrated manuscripts with
attractive and colourful drawings were in the possession of

241

Music
Indian classical music consists of two systems
called Hindustani and Karnataka. While
Hindustani style prevails mainly throughout north
India, the Karnataka system is flourishing in the
four Dravidan language speaking states in south India.
Interestingly enough, both these systems are prevalent
in Karnataka. The Tungabhadra River more or less
divides the domains of these two in this state. The
word ‘Karnataka’ in the context of music denotes a
system of music prevailing in all four states of South
India, i.e., Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu
and Kerala. In the evolution of this music, the role
of Karnataka has been highly significant, attested by
ancient monuments, inscriptions and literature.
Music, like literature and other creative arts, was
cultivated in Karnataka from ancient times. It was an
indispensable part of the social and religious life of the
people. The sculptures from the caves of Ellora down to
the temples of Vijayanagara period testify to the variety
and range in the development of this art. Music was
important both in times of war and peace. Texts on
music generally mention ancient theoreticians but not
the performers who gave shape to the musical ideas.
Nevertheless, literature and history have occasionally
mentioned some expert performers, either as vocalists
or on instruments. In the Virashaiva literature, for
instance, mention is made of persons like Sakalesha
Madarasa who was an expert player on nearly a dozen
varieties of the veena. Similarly, Allamadevi who played
on kahale and Guddadevi who played dandige are
also mentioned. A study of such references to music
in ancient Kannada literature and history reveals that
among the musical instruments, kinnari and veena
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were very popular. In fact, works like Abhilashitartha Chintamani
(Manasollasa) and Sangita Ratnakara have made detailed
references to kinnari, its two varieties, its structure, technique
of play, etc. There were also experts like Bommayya, who was
called Kinnari Bommayya due to his expertise on this instrument.
Among all the instruments, veena was very popular. Apart from
the descriptions of this instrument and its expert players, we also
come across interesting information like a swayamvara contest
where the princess wed the person who outshone all the aspirants
in his skill on the veena. Most of the major temples had a vainika
on their staff to provide music at prescribed hours during daily
worship of the deity. Instruments stimulating the fighters in the
sculptures relating to war scenes are also seen. Panchamahavadya
consisting of five important instruments, was an essential part of
the honours in royal courts, temples and also at important social
and religious events.
The earliest inscriptional reference to music occurs in the
Talagunda inscription of the Kadambas which describes how the
Kadamba palace was vibrating with music. During the times of
Chalukyas of Badami, musicians were usually associated with
temples. The Hoysala kings and noblemen gave a lead to the
people in the practice and development of music and dancing.
After Bharata wrote his Natya Sastra, the first notable work on
music was Matanga’s Brihaddesi. This work deals elaborately with
the science of music of the folk songs of his time. Matanga was
the first to use the word raga for the melodies that were current in
his time and this is probably the foundation for the raga-system
of present-day music. Sarngadeva who was patronised by the
Yadava king of Devgiri, mentions a total of 26 ragas in his work
Sangitaratnakara.
Compositions currently in use in Karnataka in both Hindustani
and Karnataka systems are mostly related to classical music
and are common to the entire area where these systems prevail.
Ancient texts like Brihaddesi mention compositions like kanda,
sukasarika etc., composed in Karnataka Bhasha. Later texts like
Manasollasa and Sangita Ratnakara describe compositions like

kanda, tripadi, chatushpadi, shatpadi and varna as being sung in
Karnataka Bhasha. The art gamaka which is unique to Karnataka
formed a bridge between music and literature and other forms
of music like vachanas which could be both recited and sung –
thereby forming both the music and literature.
The present music of south India carries the deep influence of
Vijayanagara known as Karnataka Samrajya and one of the best
known precursors of this music is Purandaradasa, also called
Karnataka Sangita Pitamaha (grandfather of Karnataka music).
He is credited with so many innovations as well as introducing
many new features into the art of music. While lip service is paid
to him as Sangita Pitamaha, attention is focused on his Sahitya,
Bhakti, Upadesa etc. He is treated more as a spiritual leader than
as a savant of music. His compositions are being sung by present
day musicians as well.
The migrating scholars and artistes no doubt carried with them
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The Glory that is Karnataka
Fine Arts
the numerous new ideas and concepts developed at Vijayanagara
and spread them throughout the south. Noteworthy among them
was the concept of the mela system on which the Karnataka music
system rests. Apart from the mela system, the post Vijayanagara
period saw the introduction and popularisation of many ragas
that were not only derivatives of the time-honoured ones but also
many that were new to this system. These ragas were popular in
Vijayanagara even centuries earlier and accepted as belonging to
the classical tradition. As an itinerant minstrel, Purandaradasa
travelled throughout south India propagating not only Bhakti
and righteous life but also the music enriched by the new ideas
developed at Vijayanagara which included these new ragas, the
simplified forms of the Suladi talas and also a large variety of
prabandha or compositions. It is this aspect or work that has
justly earned for Purandaradasa, the appellation Karnataka
Sangita Pitamaha.
Purandaradasa was one of the prominent figures in the Bhakti
movement. The movement itself was responsible for radical change
in the face and form of music. The saint minstrels propagated the
tenets of their creeds and also urged the people to lead spiritual
and virtuous lives. They conveyed these ideas through music and
in simple songs that could be easily grasped by the people. The
effect of these songs in the shaping of the music of subsequent
periods was considerable. In addition to making the compositions
more attractive through new blends of ragas, their forms were
also simplified while retaining the classical values. The new
compositions were different from the tongue twisting ancient
prabandhas and became very popular in no time.
There were many other composers of Virashaiva faith like Muppina
Shadakshari, Bala Leela Mahanta Shivayogi, Nagabhushana
Ghananatharya, Madivalappa Kadakola and Nanjunda Sivayogi.
In addition to Haridasa, there are many composers belonging to
other faiths or schools of religious thought. The Sivasharanas,
whose compositions lend themselves to musical renderings,
provided great impetus to the development of music. Members of
other religious schools like Chidanandavadhoota and Shariff sahib
of Shishunal have composed songs on the mystical experiences.

Dance
The traditions of dances in Karnataka can be
broadly divided as janapada (folk dance) and
shista (classical dance), the former being localised
in certain areas only whereas the latter has spread
to all parts of the state and beyond. Dance seems to
have been practiced by the people of the state from a
very early period. The Tamil text Silappadikaram refers
to a dance of the Kannadigas witnessed by the Chera
ruler, Senguttavan. An inscription mentions a famous
dancer and actor named Achala during the Badami
Chalukyan period. In this period, several schools of
natya were popular, but the Bharata School of natya
enjoyed prominence. An inscription of Pattadakal (778
- 79 A.D) reveals that Devadasis were engaged to offer
nritya seva in temples. The Kalamukha Saivas were very
keen on having music and dance as part of service in
temples. The classical tradition of dance system seems
to have received patronage as and when the temples
became more revered. Kings and chieftains patronised
the art and the artists from the early period and even
the princes and princesses were highly accomplished in
the art.
Ganga rulers like Durvineeta and Narasimhadeva
Satyavakya are described as well-versed in dancing and
singing. During the Rashtrakuta and the Later Chalukya
periods, the courtesans had duties assigned to them
in temples and they were the custodians of the art.
Kalachuri Savaldevi and Hoysala Chansaladevi were
accomplished dancers. Many inscriptions have praised
Shantaladevi, the queen of Hoysala Vishnuvardhana,
as being expert in dancing. The rule of Vijayanagara
was one of encouragement to fine arts. Bhandaru
Lakshminarayana was the natyacharya in the court
244
of Krishnadevaraya and was also called as Abhinava Bharata.
During the rule of Venkatappa Nayaka I of Keladi, a beautiful
natyashala was built at Ikkeri. Mysore court also encouraged
the tradition of encouraging dance, following the footsteps of
Vijayanagara. Manosollasa of Someshwara III, in its fourth book
devoted to vinodas or diversions, deals with dance exhaustively.
By the end of 19th century, in Tirumakudlu Narasipur, Mulbagal,
Hoovadi or Poovalvadi near Chintamani and other places, there
were as many as 200 professional dancing women living with
a number of nattuvanars or dance masters. It is said that in a
single temple in Mulbagal, there were 14 nartakis attached who
offered service to the temple deities in the forms of dance once
a week. Apart from this, there were many Brahmana scholars
well-versed in Sanskrit, Bharatanatya and abhinaya, who
taught these devadasis the intricate art of abhinaya. One such
illustrious person was Pansekari Venkatasubba Bhatta, a revered
guru of Mulbagal who was well-known for his precision and skill
in footwork.
Bharatanatya developed its own style in Mysore due to the efforts
of such Brahmin scholars in the erstwhile Mysore state. There
developed a repertory of Bharatanatya in which Mangalam, Stuti,
Alaripu, Jatiswara, Vemam, Pada and Tillana came in a sequence.
During that period, Kavisvar Giriyappa, Kashi Guru, Amritappa,
Appaya, Dasappa, Kittappa and Jetti Tayamma were some reputed
teachers, while Venkatalakshamma, Puttadevamma, Ramamani
and Mugur Tripurasundaramma were dancers of repute.
Bengaluru came to be recognised as a very important center for
the teaching of Bharatanatya. Between 1910 and 1930, the art
and the artistes suffered decline due to the breakdown of social
values and also due to the influence of western education which
eclipsed the traditional and indigenous art. After 1930, people
like E. Krishna Iyer, Rukmini Arundale, Ramagopal, U.S. Krishna
Rao and his wife Chandrabhaga Devi popularised this art in the
1940s.
Vidhana Soudha, Bangalore Chapter 12 Karnataka and India
245