MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Department of Technical and Vocational Education

Date: Time:
CE. 02017- Transportation Engineering
----------------------------------------------------------------
Attempt Any Five Questions (Make Necessary Assumptions.)

(1) What are the guiding principles which should be kept in mind that in selecting the
location for a highway?

(2) What is the Reconnaissance survey? What are the basic criteria for the selection of
route in reconnaissance stage? Explain any five of these criteria.

(3) Explain the basic criteria for the selection of route in reconnaissance stage.

(4) Explain the Preliminary survey and Soil survey.

(5) What do you understand the final location survey?

(6) Draw the road cross-section in a fill and in a cut.

(7) What are the factors affecting the width of pavement? Explain briefly.

(8) Write down the short notes on the following terms of the factors affecting the width of
pavement.
(a) Transverse placement of fast-moving vehicles
(b) Design speed of the road
(c) Effect of the clearance between pavement edge and the obstructions on the sides.
(9) Why does the shoulders form an essential part of the road way?

(10) Write down the two essential requirements for safe vehicle operation and for the
stability of the embankments.

(11) Define the Road Camber. Write the types of road camber with neat sketches.
(12) Define the Rigid Pavement and Flexible Pavement. What are the differences between
rigid and flexible pavements?

(13) Write down the short notes on the followings.

(a) Sub-grade
(b) Sub-base
(c)Base
(d) Surface course.

(14) Describe the construction of a natural earth road.

(15) Explain the oiling of an earth road.

(16) Which size and quality of material to be used in gravel road?

(17) Describe the construction of a gravel road.

(18) What do you understand oiling of a gravel road?

(19) What is a Traffic Bound Macadam road? Discuss size and nature of stones which is
used in Traffic Bound Macadam roads. Also write down the construction procedure.

(20) Define the Water Bound Macadam road. What are the design principles of Water
Bound Macadam road?

(21) Write down the materials to be used in construction of base course of water bound
macadam road. Explain any five of these.

(22) Write down the short notes on the following terms.

(a) Bricks
(b) Slag
(c) Boulder Stones
(d) Laterite
(e) Broken Stones.
(23) Discuss about the stacking of materials for construction with neat sketches.

(24) Describe the construction of Water-Bound Macadam roads?

(25) Discuss the various types of admixtures used in soil stabilization.

(26) What are the principle types of soil stabilization which can be used in highway
construction? Explain about the mechanical stabilization.

(27) What are the factors affecting mechanical stability?

(28) Describe the chemical stabilization of soils.

(29) Explain cement stabilization or soil cement stabilization.

(30) Discuss the bituminous stabilization which is suitable for sandy soils and soils
containing a minimum of silt and clay size particles.

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 MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Technical and Vocational Education
Date: Time:
CE. 02017- Transportation Engineering
----------------------------------------------------------------
Attempt Any Five Questions (Make Necessary Assumptions.)

1. What are the guiding principles which should be kept in mind that in selecting the
location for a highway?

2. What is the Reconnaissance survey? What are the basic criteria for the selection of
route in reconnaissance stage? Explain any five of these criteria.

3. What are the factors affecting the width of pavement? Explain briefly.

4. Define Rigid Pavement and Flexible Pavement. What are the differences between
rigid and flexible pavements?

5. Describe the construction of a gravel road.

6. Define the Water Bound Macadam road. What are the design principles of Water
Bound Macadam road?

7. Discuss the various types of admixtures used in soil stabilization.

No.1 The guiding principles which shoukd be kipt in mind that in selecting
the location for ahighway as following
(1) For the highding to serve its function of allweing convenient, con
tinuous free flowing traffic poperation it should be located where it
can bvest meet the major traffic desire lkine and be as dirct as possible.
(2) Keep grades and curvature to the minumum necessary to astify the
service requirements of the highway.
(3) Avoid sudden changes in sight distance especially near junction.
(4) Avoid having a sharp horizontal curve on ro aduacent to apronounced
vertical curve.
(5) In rural area, locate as much as possible of the new highway existing
area so as to minimize the use farmland and rexduce initial mainte
nance cost.
(6) Avoid the destruction or remocal of man-made cultural features.
(7) Keep the highway from cemeteries plces of worship hospitals schools
and playbround.
(8) Never have two roads intersection near a bend and at the top or
boionm of a hill.
(9) Avoid intersection at grade where raiwlay lines.
(10) Seek favorable sies for river crossings, Preferably these should be
rght angle to the stream centre line.
(11) Do not have a bridge located on ro adjacent to a highway curve .
(12) Avoid the deep cutting and expansie tunnel construction.
(13) In hilly ferrain beware of the possibilities of had slide.
(14) To minimze the draingae problems select alocation on hig ground
in bontreas to one in valley.
(15) Avoid marshes and other low-lying lands subject to flooding.
(16) Locate the highway on soil whic will requre eht least pavement
thickness above it.
(17) Locate the hibhway adjacent of sources of pavenent materials.
(18) When the needs of all other factors have bean satisfied the best
location is the one which results in the minimum total cost of
earhwork,
(19) Avoid the unnecessary and epvansive destruction fo wooden eara.
(20) Avoid tround subuect ot mining subsidence.
(21) Placing the highway at right angles to the natural draina channels .

No.2 First hand information about the topography, physical features and
land-use of the area is most essential since these are the factors on which
generally depend the alignement gradients sight distances cross sections and
other design elements.
 The second phase of reconnaissance survey is concerned with the in-
spection of each band to determine that route of those routes, which are most
feasible and are based on certain fundamental crieria that have a significant
effect on its location.
(a) Minimum Design Standard
(b) Grading and Earth Work
(c) Foundation Canditions
(d) Geological Conditions
(e) Drainage
(f) Right-of-way
(g) Effect on Population
(h) Traffic Characteristics
(i) Financing
(j) Maintenanee Costs
(a)Minimum Design Standard. Minimum design standards e.g.. regard-
ing alignment and gradients, etc., are fixed prior to the startof the work and
any route that economically fits in these standards might be suitable.
(b)Grading and Earth Work. Grading cost is a funciton of ruggedness of
terrain but relation between the alignment and general lay of the land is
important.The type of the material encountered may be another major factor
in the cost of the earthwork since solid rock excavation needing blasting cost
much more than the ordinary earth excavation.
(c)Foundation Conditions . Complete foundation study for the loca-
tions of the drainage structures cannot be done at the reconnaissance stage
but the general condition of the area may give the preliminary information
needed in this connection. The presence of marshes and boggy areas are un-
suitable for the foundation structures. Also, the type of the sub-grade soil
may be so poor that the construction cost may go up. Such situations can be
investigated.
(d)Geological Conditions.
(e)Drainage, Detailed drainge studies at this stge may not be possible
and also may not be as useful but a general idea about the drainage condition
of the area is most essentia.
(f)Right-of-way, Right-of-if-way is a major factor contributing enor-
mously to the cost of a highway. In developed areas the acquisition of land for
location of a highway may sometimes cost as much as 70%of the construc-
tion cost. A little shift in alignment this way or that way may reduce the cost
considerably. Acareful study of the property required to be acquired and the
probable extent of damage must studied for each altemate location.
(g)Effect on Population,
No.3 (a) Minimum Design Standard
(b) Grading and Earth Work
(c) Foundation Canditions
(d) Geological Conditions
(e) Drainage
(f) Right-of-way
(g) Effect on Population
(h) Traffic Characteristics
(i) Financing
(j) Maintenanee Costs
(a)Minimum Design Standard. Minimum design standards e.g.. regard-
ing alignment and gradients, etc., are fixed prior to the startof the work and
any route that economically fits in these standards might be suitable.
(b)Grading and Earth Work. Grading cost is a funciton of ruggedness of
terrain but relation between the alignment and general lay of the land is
important.The type of the material encountered may be another major factor
in the cost of the earthwork since solid rock excavation needing blasting cost
much more than the ordinary earth excavation.
(c)Foundation Conditions . Complete foundation study for the loca-
tions of the drainage structures cannot be done at the reconnaissance stage
but the general condition of the area may give the preliminary information
needed in this connection. The presence of marshes and boggy areas are un-
suitable for the foundation structures. Also, the type of the sub-grade soil
may be so poor that the construction cost may go up. Such situations can be
investigated.
(d)Geological Conditions.
(e)Drainage, Detailed drainge studies at this stge may not be possible
and also may not be as useful but a general idea about the drainage condition
of the area is most essentia.
(f)Right-of-way, Right-of-if-way is a major factor contributing enor-
mously to the cost of a highway. In developed areas the acquisition of land for
location of a highway may sometimes cost as much as 70%of the construc-
tion cost. A little shift in alignment this way or that way may reduce the cost
considerably. Acareful study of the property required to be acquired and the
probable extent of damage must studied for each altemate location.
(g)Effect on Population,

No.4 The preliminary survey consists in running an accurale travers line usu-
ally called the P-line (also sometimes called the 'Base Line') along the route
alreadyy recothmenede as a result of reconnaissance survey, in order to obtain
sufficient data for final location. After establishing the P-Line important
These features include rock-ougcrops,faults obviously bad soil,marshes
swamps, lakes, streams, drainage conditions, land-slide possibilitles, quar-
ries, gravel-pits and any other features which affect the final location and
design of the highway.
All the information collected by preilmary survey work is use in pre-
paring a map often called the 'Basic Map' or Preliminary Survey Map,. The
accuracy of this map ,to a larger extent, gorberns the accuracy of the final
centre-line. This basic map includes complete details e.g.,the bearing of vari-
ous traverse lines, the distances, the deflection angles, corner ties and other
salient features along the alignment.
The next step after recording all the availabls on the basic man is to
locate the centre-line ot the proposed highway on it. This requires a lot of
judgement. Anumber of trial lines are drawn on the map, avoiding valuable
property, obstructions and difficut areas such as water-logged areas,grave yards,
places of woship,etc. Having thus selected the center-line on the map, the
next step consists in transferring it on to the field.

NO.5 Preliminary survey forms the basis for the final location survey, which
consists in fixing up the centere line of the proposed high-way on the ground
with necessary horizontal and vertical controls. Final location survey is also
helpful in collecting further information necessary for preparing the detailed
plans for estimation of quantities and for excavation work. Althought com-
plete design details ot the highway are not needed to make funal selection,
sufficient details about the treatment of cross-roads, stream-crossings,etc,are
desirable so that the location finally chosen is economical and as far as pos-
sible the best.
In the first instance, the centre line marked on the map is transferred to
the field. If detailed level work was not carried out in prelimanary survey, it
should be done in the final location survey. Precision leveling is of extreme
importance since the establishment of the grade line, calculation of earth-
work, quantities and design of dralnage structures, etc.,is done with the help
of leveling data. Temporary bencn marks, so as to serve as reference points
during the construction of the roads, may be fixed up along the alignment
about 1,000 ft apartin level courty and at closer intervals in the hilly terrain.
Detailed cross-sections for a distance of at least 50-ft on either side of
the centre line and at stations every 100-ft. apart along it should be taken.
These should also be taken at other intermediate points where sudden changes
in elevation occur. Cross-section shall help determine the detailed and avvruate
information needed for the establishmunt of grade line,in the assessment of
grade line, in the assessment of the grading operations, in the design of the
drainage strutures and for general estimation of quantities. In the case of stream
crossings,the profile should run for a distance of at least 1,500 ft on either
side of the center-line, Important topographical features such as fences, soil
data, land use, etc, at least withih the right-way should be noted while taking
the cross-sections.
The survey consists in securing soil samples along the centre-line of the
route at intervals of about 300 ft, with the help of borings taken to a depth of
10ft and then subjecting the same to laboratory testing so as to determine the
type of tie soil, the gradation of the particles, its natural water -conternt etc;
such a data being of extra help in designing the road cross-section, its base
and basement type, etc. With the bore-hole data, the soil-profile can be easily
drawn, which can further be made use of in the location of borrow pits the
water table, the thickness of various layers of soils, the areas having unsuit-
able soils such as peat and muck, and is thus helpful to the thus helpful to the
designer in worikng out the design details.

No.6

No.7 The windth of the pavement depends mainly upon the following
facrors.
(1) Existing and expected total volume of traffic, the average daily
traffic (A.D.T),the peak hour internsity and the nature of teaffic. The nature
of traffic, whether fast,slow or mixed, determines the vehicular movements
on the road, thus affectiong the width ot the road, indirectly.
(2) Overall width of the vehicles. The overall width of the velucels
add up to the total width needed for the pavement. For this reason,the width
of the desoign vehicle must be limited.
(3) Transverse placemet of fast-maving vehicles. Some general
conlusion are as under,
 (i) Trucks keep closer to the edge of the pavent than passenger cars
when meeting other wehicles and when moving freely.
(ii) The path of a vehicle on aconcerete road boes from one edge when
meeing opposing vehicle to the other edge of the road when passing
vehicles to the other edge of the road when passing vehicles in the
same direction oftravel
(iii) An ordinary passenger car will not travel clorser than 1.9 ft and a
truck 1.4 ft from the edge of the pavement .
(iv) Hazardous traffic cnoditions exist on pavements less than 22 ft
wide, even when the volumes of traffic are moderate and the traffic
is mixed (cars and trucks.)
The average transverse placement of commerciles vehicles on 18,20,22
and 24 ft wide concrete pavements druring day time is shown in fig,2.3. These
may be taken as the averages for other types of apvements also.

(4) Design speed of the road. The greater the design speed of the road,
the greater shall be the whidth of the pavement needed. The A.A.S.H.O.,"Plolicy
on Geometric Design of Rural Highways." 1954 specifies that for main roads
carrying 400 DHV in which truck traffic is sufficient, the minimum width of
the pavement needed for speeds of 30 m.p.h and above,is 24 ft.

(5) Effect of pavement width on accidents. Observations have shown

that smaller the width of the pavemetnt, the greater the number of accidents.

(6) Effect of pavement width on accidents. It has been observed by vari-

ous reserch workers working on the design of pavements that if the vehicles
come closer to the pavemtnt edge as is obvious in case of pavements with
comparaticely small widths, charces of failure of the pavemetn are inceased,
specially during the rainy season when the water enters the sub grade and
makes it weak.

(7) Effect of the clearance between pavement edge and the abstructions
on the sides. The effective width of the pavement of a 22 ft pavement edge to
obstructions is 6 ft and ig reduces to 19.3 ft if the clearance from the pave-
ment edge to the pbstructions is zero.

(8) Increase in the effective width of pavement by the provisiont of

shoulders. It has been observed that the use shoulders by the vehicles increases
when the with id below 22 ft and as such where this much width pabement is
not justified, the effectiv with may by the provision of shoulders of olwer
such ash soil stabilized or brick-paved surfaces etc.
No.8. (3) Transverse placemet of fast-maving vehicles. Some general
conlusionare as under,
(i) Trucks keep closer to the edge of the pavent than passenger cars
when meeting other wehicles and when moving freely.
(ii) The path of a vehicle on aconcerete road boes from one edge when
meeing opposing vehicle to the other edge of the road when passing
vehicles to the other edge of the road when passing vehicles in the
same direction oftravel
(iii) An ordinary passenger car will not travel clorser than 1.9 ft and a
truck 1.4 ft from the edge of the pavement .
(iv) Hazardous traffic cnoditions exist on pavements less than 22 ft
wide, even when the volumes of traffic are moderate and the traffic
is mixed (cars and trucks.)
The average transverse placement of commerciles vehicles on 18,20,22
and 24 ft wide concrete pavements druring day time is shown in fig,2.3. These
may be taken as the averages for other types of apvements also.
(4) Design speed of the road. The greater the design speed of the road,
the greater shall be the whidth of the pavement needed. The A.A.S.H.O.,"Plolicy
on Geometric Design of Rural Highways." 1954 specifies that for main roads
carrying 400 DHV in which truck traffic is sufficient, the minimum width of
the pavement needed for speeds of 30 m.p.h and above,is 24 ft.
(5) Effect of pavement width on accidents. Observations have shown
that smaller the width of the pavemetnt, the greater the number of accidents.
(6) Effect of pavement width on accidents. It has been observed by vari-
ous reserch workers working on the design of pavements that if the vehicles
come closer to the pavemtnt edge as is obvious in case of pavements with
comparaticely small widths, charces of failure of the pavemetn are inceased,
specially during the rainy season when the water enters the sub grade and
makes it weak.
(7) Effect of the clearance between pavement edge and the abstructions
on the sides. The effective width of the pavement of a 22 ft pavement edge to
obstructions is 6 ft and ig reduces to 19.3 ft if the clearance from the pave-
ment edge to the pbstructions is zero.
(8) Increase in the effective width of pavement by the provisiont of
shoulders. It has been observed that the use shoulders by the vehicles increases
when the with id below 22 ft and as such where this much width pabement is
not justified, the effectiv with may by the provision of shoulders of olwer
such ash soil stabilized or brick-paved surfaces etc.

No.9 These shouldors form an essential part of the roadway for the
following reasens.
 (c) Sufficient space is available for parking the vehicles; clear of pave-
ment proper, which helps reduce the chances of accidents.
(d) Adequate spaces is available for fixing up the roadway signs and
signals away from the pavement propar.
(e) At the outer edges of the shoulders shady trees can be grown which
besides being comforable to the passengers in the hot summers save the pave-
ment from unsightly cracking due to high temperatures.
(f) Besides improving the general appearance of the bhghways, the sende
of openness produced by wide shilukers, gives confiidence in dreiveing and
this ensures fairly uniform spooes.
(g) In case of stabilized shoulders or such other impermeable types hav-
ing adequate cross-slope, the rainwater is drained away from the pavemetn
and the seepage along the edges of the pavement is mainimized . This in-
creases the life of the pavement.
(h) The effective width of the pavement is increased
(i) Sight distances are improved.

No.10 Two essential requirements for safe vehicle-operation as also for

the stability of the empankment are;
(a) In order ot infuse greater confidence in the driver of a vehicle mov-
ing on theempabkment, it is an essential requriment that the driver sitting in
his seat should be able to see the bottom of the side and as such will easily
give right-of-way to the overtaking vehicle or a vehicle or a vehicle coming
from the opposite direction, thus minimizing the number of accidents on em-
bankments.
(b) Whatever the slope provided according to the type of soil. climatic
conditions and drainage etc., it is essential to round off the edges where the
side slopes meet the natural surace, so that water does not cut the embank-
ment at the bottom due to hight velocity but passes of smoothly.

No.11 Road comber may be defined as the gradient of the line joining
the crown (topmost point) of the pavementto its edge. It is sometimes also
called the cross-slope or cross-fall of the road.
Road camber can be of four types:
(a) Simple parabola,
(b) Single straingt line on each side of central line of road;
(c) Combination of a parabolic cap at the centre and straighr line on
the side,
(d) Two strainght lines on each side of the central line.
The cross profiles of these surfaces are shown in Fig . 2.4.
12. A pavement (or pavenment Structure) consititutes one or more layers
of processed materials. The one which consists of a mixture of asphaltic or
bituminous material and aggergate placed on good-quility and compacted
gramula material is termed, Flaxible and the one consisting of a Peetiand
cement conerete seld is referred to as Rigid. Water-bound,Macadam road,
stabilized soil ronds are examples of flexlbel pavements. Cement concrate
road (with or without reinforcement) are example fo rigid pavements. Ce-
ment-grouted roads may be termed semi-rigid pavements. The essential pointsof
diffence between flexlble and rigid pavements are given below.
(i) Flexible pavement yields to excessive stresses that occur due to oc-
casional wheel-loads passing over it being heavier the one for which it has
been designed, thereby producing a depression on the surface. Aright pave-
ment under heavies wheel loads instead ruptures thereby producing acrack on
the surface the production fo which helps relieve the stresses.
(ii) If the sub-grade is ot varying strenght, a flexible pavement will ad-
just itself to the irregularties due to different settlement while a rigid pave-
ment will not, but shall tend to not as a beam or a cantilever at poings of
support.
(iii) Temperature variations due to atmospuaric conditions do not pro-
duce stresses in the fiexible pavement but produce heavy temperature stresses
in the rigid pavements.
(iv) The fiexible pavements have self-healties but the rigid paverments
do not have any. In other words whatever deformation occurs in a flexible
pavementdue to heavier whee loads,it is recoverable to some extent after some
time it is not so in the case of arigid pavement.
Due to low ayerage population density in mostof towns and villages.In
vileses in India and the high cost of construction of the rigid pavemonts, most
of the high cost of bituminous materials, considerable portion fo the road
mileages is either unsurfacad or too .
No.13 The sub-grade is the nutural soil (whether embankment or exca-
vation) on which the enter load of the structure as well as that of trafic plying
on the surface above is ultimately transterred.
The sub-base course is placed immediately above the sub-grade soil and
is composed of hard well-bumt clinker,natural gravel. The function of the
sub-base is simillar to that of the base(described below) so that it may some-
times be combined with the base.
The base the materials may consist of untreated or treated crushed stone
or granular materials mixed with various types of binnders such as asphalt
and tar. The function of the base course is to withstand the high shearing
stresses imposed by conccentrated loads ta the surface and to distribute.
The surface course. Consists of a mixture of bituminous material and
aggregate and forms the actual wearing coat. The principa functions of the
surface course are to waterproof the base against the pentration of surface
water to distribute the load to protect the surface from the disintegration
effects of traffic.

No.14 The construction of a natural-earth road can be crried out in two-

operations:
(1) Claring and Grubbing Operation.
(2) Grading operation.
1. Claring and Grubbing Operation. Clearing the grubbing consists in
removing trees, tree-stumps and from the road site and disposing them off as
debrs. All the vegetable matter must be removed from the road site. The bor-
row-pits from where good marerial is brought for empankment for as wste
marerial is brought flr empabkments are usually dug outside the right-of-way
width.
2. Grading operation. After the cleaeing operation is over,grading
operation is performed Grading invilves. Excavation is the process of loosen-
ing and removing and removing earth or rockes from their original position
in a cut and transporting it to a fill or to a waste deposit. Soft masterials like
common earth are easy to handle but rocks heve invariably to be drilled and
then blasted.
Hauling loose material depend upon the hauling distance and the avail-
ability and comparative costs of the hauling modes. Spreading of the material
for proper compaction dose not need much of skill. All that has to be done is
that the material should be fairly distributed ober the entire area covering it in
lavers of equal thickness.The equipment needed for compactiorn depends upon
the type of the soil encounterd. Usually 8 to 10 ton roller series the pupose.
On many solids, construction of natural earth surfaces without any treatment
should never be attempted. Light sandy soils, heavy clasys and many silty
stabilization in such cases becomes essential

No.15 Many silty and clay solis are extremely dusty indry weatyher and
soften readily in wet weather. Use of oils to prevent dust and make them
waterproof has proved very effective, particularly where surfacing of the
eatrh roads is not done due to non-availability of the sufacing material localyor
totherwie due to high cost.
Oiling cannot be done in case of pure sands or in solis which bace great
capillary rise .
The disirable characteristics of the oils needed for liling an earth road
are:
(i) They should pensetrate and mi with the soil uraher soil rather than
form asufrace mat which will break as the traffic passes over it.
(ii) They should not sepatate out into light and beavy fractions and thus
spreas non-uniformly.
(iii) They syhould wateproof the surface.
Show-curing liquid asphalt products which cemain as remain as residual
oils, described in Chapter 13 are genertally suitable.
The earth surface is carefully shaped and smoothed by blade graderrs or
drags and is pluverized by means harrows or a special heavy discing machine.
Blading or dargging after discing is necessary to obtaina a smooth surface.

No.16 Size and Quality of Material

Gravel for road mixtures consistes consists or stone particles of coarse
aggregarte, sand, silt and clay. The dividing line between course and fine ag-
gregates varies with different highway agencies and is determined by means
of screen or No.4.8 and 10 mesh A.S.T.M sieves. The particles of gravel must
be hard, tough and durable. They should be free from any deleterious matter.
Crushed gravel is sometimes addedd to increase the stabinty . Clean grave
will not bind will; a small percentate of clay, loam or lime-dust is both desir-
able and necessary.

No. 17. In the trench-spread method, a trench is dug on the alignemetnt,

the subgrade is prepared in this trench and teh gravel spread on this prepared
surface. In the feather-edge method. the subgrade is copacted as such, without
any trench and the mateial is spread over it. The trench-spread is not so likely
to breakdown as the feather-edge spread.
Trucks or dumpers are usually employed to dump gravel on the subgarde.
Care should be takine to ensure a uniform thickness of the layers. The layers
of 2'' to 4''arethe most desirabel. Some hand-work with rakes and shovels
may be needed. A blade-grader or truck-scraper may as well be used for
 The compacted surface will be designated non-stabilized bravel sur-
face.

No. 18. If oiling has to be done to the road surface, for operating moder-
ately heavy traffic, the surace should be cleared of excess fine dust and the oil
applied in two or three successive light coats of approximately 20 to 25 lbs.
per handred square feet. No oiling should be done before one year is over
after the construction of the road. Same grade of oil may be used as for earth
roads.
Calcium chloride, which is hyproscopic in nature and absorbs moisture
from air is also used sometimes, to prevent dust and wearing of gravel roads.
The material is got in the form of either flakes or granules the former are
preferred and applied directly to the smooth dry road surface. The presence of
loose material on the surface increase the amount of calciu chloride neces-
sary for binding the surface and should be avoided. Under average conditions
quantity of calcium chloride needed would be 10 to 15 lbs.per handred sq. ft.
This will involve considerable cost. Economy may be affected by stabilizing
the surfece with a suitable stabilizer, instead of having a non-stabilized sruface
with this type treatment.

No.19. Traffic-bound macedam is the type of construction, where a sur-

face is prepared by appliying gravel, slag or crushed stone to the natural soil
and allowing it to be rolled into place by motor vehicles. This type of surface
in reality is a subgrade dtabilizer and road-surfacing combined. The subgrade
is flat or slightly campered and the wearing coat is constructed on it.
Cursher-run stone is the most desirable one and the best results will be
obtained with marterial which has a maximum of to inch size.Among
stones, lime-stone is thought to be the best on account of its cementing
properies. Gravel and slag are also used for this constuction.
The subgrade is first shaped and compacted and then stones are applied
in layers of not more than 1 to 1 inch in thickness. Traffic is allowed on the
surface immediately thereafter and the surface is bladed at frequent intervals
wiht a blade-grader. Manual labour using rakes and shovels can also serve the
purpose. When the first layer has been compacted and consoildated, the suc-
cessive layer are placed on them and the compaction continued with the help
of traffic.

No. 20. A water -bound macedam road comsists of broken stones fo ir-
regular shape, keyed together by consolidation under a roller, the stones them-
selves being wedgedtogether in positiong and prevented from moving by
smaller stones. Water is used to wash the smaller particles of stone and grit
 Water-bound macadam coure is normally used as a second layer in the
total thickness of construction and is somtimes designated as the wearing
course. The bottom course usually designated, as the base-course may consist
of either bigger stones called boulders or bricks laid in a single layer or in teo
layers depending upon the total thickness of the pavemetn and the distribution
of this total thickness into different courses.
Water-bound surfaces are very well adapted to animal drawn steel-
tyred vehicles because the action of the animals feet and the steel tyres pro-
duces fine material to replac that taken away by traffic. These srufeace cannot
stand the suction and abrasive action of fast moving rubber-tyred vehicles and
tyey ravel and they ravel and deteriorate rapidly unless protected by a bitumi-
nous surface. Strictly speaking water-bound macadam leyers should be used
as base courses and not as surface-courses.
Water-bound macadam pavemetns are satisfactory and economical for
traffic conditions in India and can suit up to daily traffic load of 1,500 to
2,000 tons, with light surfacing, provided they are maintained properly.
21. The base -bourse of a water-bond macadam road may consist of:
(i) Bricks; (ii) Boulder stones, (iii) Broken stones,
(iv) Slag, (v) Laterite, (vi) Kankar.
(vii) Moorum, (viii) Gravel,
When bricks are used inthe base course, they should be prepared from
good loamy soils and should be well-burnt or over-burnt and distorted bricks
are not suitable for base-courses. When boulders are used, any boulder is
suitable provided it is not rotten. Large boulders must be sledged to suitable
sizes. Maximu sizee is usually placed at 7inches, with the depth not greater
than the finished depth of the course. The boulders have to be filled in
olny,should never be used for filling the voids in the boulders.
Broken-stone is used, any stone which will stand the necessary rolling
for cpmpaction is suitable. The size usually specified is 2 inches to 3 inches.
for the base course when the top or wearing course is form stone-sizes of
1 inches to 2 inches. Perfectly satisfactory base-courese can be constructed
stones ranging in size from 0.75 inches 3.5 inches. Coarse sand, stone or slag
screnings can be used as fillers to fil in the voids for the bottom curese.
Crushed slag weinghing not less than 1,800lbs.per cubic yard lose, can
also be used as a base-course material.The size of the suitable for construc-
tion may be the same as that of the stones mentioned in the preceding pargragh.
Laterites available in abundance in India can also be used for the base-
courese. Laterites may be decribed as materials of perofrated or cellular struc-
ture having a deep-brown coloration .When fresh from the quarry, these are
soft to cut.
No.22. When bricks are used inthe base course, they should be prepared
from good loamy soils and should be well-burnt or over-burnt and distorted
bricks are not suitable for base-courses. When boulders are used, any boulder
is suitable provided it is not rotten. Large boulders must be sledged to suit-
able sizes. Maximu sizee is usually placed at 7inches, with the depth not greater
than the finished depth of the course. The boulders have to be filled in
olny,should never be used for filling the voids in the boulders.
Broken-stone is used, any stone which will stand the necessary rolling
for cpmpaction is suitable. The size usually specified is 2 inches to 3 inches.
for the base course when the top or wearing course is form stone-sizes of
1 inches to 2 inches. Perfectly satisfactory base-courese can be constructed
stones ranging in size from 0.75 inches 3.5 inches. Coarse sand, stone or slag
screnings can be used as fillers to fil in the voids for the bottom curese.
Crushed slag weinghing not less than 1,800lbs.per cubic yard lose, can
also be used as a base-course material.The size of the suitable for construc-
tion may be the same as that of the stones mentioned in the preceding pargragh.
Laterites available in abundance in India can also be used for the base-
courese. Laterites may be decribed as materials of perofrated or cellular struc-
ture having a deep-brown coloration .When fresh from the quarry, these are
soft to cut.

No.23. The material for construction is stacked along the road-side, pref-
erably clear of the berms, in regurlar stacks of 25,50 or 100 cutfeet depend-
ing upon the sizes of stacks chosen and the space avilable to stck the material.
The sizes of the stacks and the type of box in which it is usually measured, is
shown in Fig4.2. Dur to the voids in the material when loose, every 3 inches
height of the stack is counted 12 inches for calculating the bubic-contents.
The stacking usually starts from the other end of the quarry and pro-
ceeds towards it. No material is stacked on the gridges, nor it is stacked in the
cut sections of a hill-road on the road-side.
No.24. The construction of water-bound macadam roads will involve the
following operations;
(i) Prepartion of the sub-grade to receive the base course;
(ii) Lay-out of base-course and bringing it to the required profile;
(iii) Dry consolidation of base-course after spreading screening filler,if
needed;
(iv) Dry rolling of the metal and bringing the surface to required profile
(v) Dry rolling of the metal for compaction and interlocking;
(vi) Spreading of screenings or binder;
(vii) Watering the surface and adding more screenings or binder,if need;
(viii) Consolidation of the surface till grout works up and paaers before
the roller;
(ix) Curing the surface and preparation fof berms; and
(x) Opening the road to traffic;

No. 25. Various types of admixture used in soil stabilization cab be cat-
egorized under the following upon the properties imparted to the soil:
(i) Cementing Materials. They increase the strength of the soil by
cemeting action. Portland Cement imparts strength by hydration and by modi-
fying the clay-minerals to some extent .Lime reduces the thickness of water
film surroudning individual soil. Addition of sodium- silicate results in thee
form of get which gains in strenght after setting.
(ii) Modifiers . They improve plasticity characteristic of the soil but
may or may not improve strength. Cement and lime will change the water
film on the soil particles. Birumen used in small quantities with low-grade
aggregates rarards moisture sorption of the clay fraction in the soil aggreregate
mixtue.
(iii) Water-retaining Agents. Bituminous materioas coat the soil and
aggregate grains and retard or vommpletely stop sorption of moisture. Plastic
membranes can also help retard or stop moisture-movement into the soil.
(iv) Water-retaining Agents. Some moisture is essential for stabiliza-
tion but certain types of soils such as sands do not sorp moisture as such.
Calctum chloride and sodium chloride help increase rate of water sorption.
(v) Water retarding Agents. Masterials such as calcium arcyalte, res-
ins and certain other organic compounds if used, help ratard the ingressof
moisture into the soil and thus act as water repellent agents.
(vi) Mescellaneous Agets. Lignin and molasses can be used as cheap
additives for bindign the soil particles together. Lignin deribatives can be used
asnedcellent dispersing agents for clays.
No.26. The following are principal types of soil- stabiliztion which can
be used in higheay construction;
1. Mechanical stabilization;
2. Chemical stabilization;
3. Cement stabilization;
4. Bitumious stabilization;
Other methods of stabilisation such as electical and thermal stabi-
lization. complex stabilization etc;
The factors affecing mechical stability are;
(i) Mechaincal strenght of the aggregates, weak aggretates being better.
(ii) Mineral composition of the materials. so as to be resistant to weath
ering;
(iii) Particle-size distribution of the granular and the binder soils;
(iv) Characteristics distrbutions by the plasticity properties of the frac
tion passing No.40 A.S.T.M sieve:
(v) Compaction in the field; being such as to aim at about 95% of the
laboratory-value of the maximum density.
(a) Method of Trials . It consists in preparing a munber of mi,tures of
the native and the improted soil soils in various proportinos based on experi-
ence. After being tested, the mixture which meets the gradation requirements
and plasticity requirements finally selecited.
(b) Comboning on the basis of Sicve Analivsis. According to this method
the materials are proportioned either by making use of some mathematical
formual or by using graphical method such that the grading of the mixture
will meet the desired specifications . After having so determained the propor-
tions a sample of the mix is taken and tested for liquid- limit and plasticity
inded which should be in accorsance with teh actual requirement of the mix.
(c) Combining on the basis of Plastucity Index. This method consists
in proportioning the materials with teh help of a formula or using tables such
that the P.I of the mixture falls within the required range. The trial mix after
being tested for P.I is also tested for appropriateness fo gradation.
(d) Graphical Method . Of the graphical methods available for mix
design the one due to Rotyhfuchs is the most suitable. It is reasonably quick
and simple and can be used for mix design of any number of components. The
method consists in plotung cumulartive curve of the required particle-size
distribution plots as a straight line.
No. 27. The factors affecing mechical stability are;
(i) Mechaincal strenght of the aggregates, weak aggretates being better.
(ii) Mineral composition of the materials. so as to be resistant to weath
ering;
(iii) Particle-size distribution of the granular and the binder soils;
(iv) Characteristics distrbutions by the plasticity properties of the frac
tion passing No.40 A.S.T.M sieve:
(v) Compaction in the field; being such as to aim at about 95% of the
laboratory-value of the maximum density.

No. 28. If both the types of the constituent materiasl are availble locally
mechanical stabilization may be the best-suited but areas predominant in one
type of soil are generally deficient in teh other type. In order to stabilize me-
chanically, highly clayey soils.as much as 70 t0 80 by weight to sandy soil is
needed the cost of transportainon of which if not locally available shall be
fremendous . In such saces some type of admixture which when added the soil
shall react chemically with ti producing stable particles by changing some fo
the basic proberuse of the soil can be made use of advantageously. The mate-
rials which have been found to combine chemically with teh soils are lime
calcum chloride resin sodium silicate lignin and molasses . Of all ehese, lime
is probably the best suited for highly clayes soils (such as the black cotton
soils) which arr found in abundance is India.
Lignin which is a waste bi-product from paper industry has been found
to improve the compressive strength and density of some soils considerably .
Similarly molasses a by product from sugar industry can be made use of to
mprove the intermal cohesion of the soil.

No.29. Cement is suitable for almost all typse of soils especially the
coarse-graned soils. For fine aggregate soils. If the clay-fraction is up to 30%
stabilization with cemment may be econormical. Large quantity of cement-
slurry is needed to coat the pariticles.
The exact quantity of cenent required to produce as a satisfactory soil-
cement mix under a certain set of conditions is found out by perporming
laboratory tests such as compressive stength test wetting and drying test of
the cmopacted mix. and freezing and thwing test etc. The mix requires an
effective moisture control the best results having been obtained ot optimum
moisture content in the case of sandy soils and alittle more moisture content
in the case of silty and blayey soils.
As has been stated above almost every soil which can be bulberized can
be stabilized with cenent . There is however that group of soils contain exces-
sive quantity of organic meteral and ceratin sulphates. which render the soil
No.30. This type of stabilization is suitable for sandy soils and soils con-
taining a minimum of silt and clay -size particles ,tye high cost of bitumen
prohibits its use in general in India. Bitumen adds cohesion so that clays are
unsuitable for treatment with it,since its addition would make the soils fluidy.
The quntity of bituminous material tequired to be mixed depends upon
the intended purpose the climptic monditions and the mosture content of the
soil and may generally vary from 4 to 7% . In some cases asmall quantity of
cement is also added with the emulsion. This process is especially useful in
arid regions where three is scarcity of water and yreantment with emulsoin
brings down considerably the quantity of water required. Addition of small
quantity of lime may render excessively wet sand also suitable for bitumi-
nous stabilization .
The relative stability of soil-bitumen mixture is generally evaluated by
water-absorption tests and stability tests. The strength druability and stability
shall depend upon the thoroughness of mixing the moisture content and com-
paction.

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