Name ……………………………………………

GCSE Latin Grammar

Revision Pack

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 Contents

1. Cases
2. Noun Tables
3. Time Expressions
4. Adjectives
5. Prepositions
6. Verbs
7. Subjunctive
8. Direct Commands
9. Direct Questions
10.Relative Clauses
11.Indirect Statements
12.Indirect Command
13.Indirect Questions
14.Purpose Clauses
15.Verbs of Fearing
16.Result Clauses
17.Temporal Clauses
18.Participles
19.Ablative Absolutes
20.Gerundives
21.Conditionals

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 Cases

Latin Nouns have different Case endings and the meaning of a Noun is changed by
the Case that it is in. Here are the different Cases which Latin uses.

Nominative: The Nominative Case is the Subject (i.e. the person/thing which is
doing the action in the sentence).

e.g. Caecilius dormit. Caecilius is sleeping.

puella clamat. The girl is shouting.
milites ambulant. The soldiers are walking.

Vocative: The Vocative Case is used when you are addressing someone. It
usually has the same ending as the Nominative, except for 2nd Declension (m) Nouns
which go to –e and Nouns ending –ius which go to-ii.

e.g. tace, Quinte! Shut up, Quintus!

salve, Caecillii! Hello, Caecilius!
festinate, pueri! Hurry up, boys!

Accusative: The Accusative Case is used for the Object of the sentence (i.e./the
person/thing which is having something done to it by the Subject of the sentence).

e.g. Quintus puellam vidit. Quintus saw the girl.

miles mercatorem conspexit. The soldier caught sight of the merchant.
imperator milites vulneravit. The general wounded the soldiers.
Quintus amicos vocat. Quintus calls his friends.

Genitive: The Genitive Case in Latin is used for the word ‘OF’.

e.g. iuvenis vocem feminae laudavit.

The young man praised the voice of the woman (or the woman’s voice).

magna multitudo militum erat in aula regis.

A large crowd of soldiers was in the palace of the king (or the king’s palace).

Dative:The Dative Case in Latin is used for the words ‘TO’ or ‘FOR’.

e.g. Quintus donum Caecilio dat. Quintus gives a gift to Caecilius.

imperator arma militibus emit. The general buys weapons for the soldiers.

Ablative: The Ablative Case in Latin is used for ‘BY’, ‘WITH’ or ‘FROM’.

e.g. puella, domino territa, nihil dixit.

The girl, terrified by her master, said nothing.

mercator, gladio armatus, pueros occidit.

The merchant, armed with a sword, killed the boys.
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Latin Nouns are also divided into declensions or groups and the endings which each
Noun has depends on which declension it belongs to.

You can work out which declension a Noun is in by looking at the endings of the
Nominative Singular and Genitive Singular of a Noun in the vocabulary list. All Nouns
are written out in dictionaries and vocabularies giving their Nominative Singular,
Genitive Singular, Gender and Meaning.
e.g. servus (nom.s.), servi (gen. s.), m (Gender) = slave (meaning)

Declension Nominative Singular Genitive Singular

First -a -ae
Second usually -us -i
Third no rule -is
Fourth usually -us -us
Fifth -es -ei

N.B. Third Declension Nouns often change stem in the Genitive (e.g. rex, regis m =
king; nomen, nominis n = name etc.)

Thorough knowledge of how Nouns are declined and all the Case endings is vital
for translation. On the next page, the basic Noun endings are written out.

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 Noun Tables

First, Second and Third Declensions

puella, puellae f = girl; servus, servi m = slave; templum, templi n = temple;

mercator, mercatoris m = merchant; tempus, temporis n = time

First Second Third

Sing. f m n m&f n
nom puella servus templum mercator tempus*
voc puella serve templum mercator tempus
acc puellam servum templum mercatorem tempus
gen puellaeservi templi mercatoris temporis
dat puellaeservo templo mercatori tempori
abl puella servo templo mercatore tempore

plur.

nom puellaeservi templa mercatores tempora

voc puellaeservi templa mercatores tempora
acc puellas servos templa mercatores tempora
gen puellarum servorum templorum mercatorum temporum
dat puellis servis templis mercatoribus temporibus
abl puellis servis templis mercatoribus temporibus

(N.B. tempus changes its stem to tempor- for the Genitive Singular)

Fourth and Fifth Declensions

exercitus exercitus m = army; genu genus n = knee; dies diei m = day

Fourth Fifth
sing. m&f m&f
nom exercitus dies
voc exercitus dies
acc exercitum diem
gen exercitus diei
dat exercitui diei
abl exercitu die

plur.
nom exercitus dies
voc exercitus dies
acc exercitus dies
gen exercituum dierum
dat exercitibus diebus
abl exercitibus diebus

The normal ending for each Case is marked in bold.

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Year 11 Revision Nouns & Cases

There follows below a short passage about Agricola’s conquests in Scotland.

Translate the passage in the spaces provided and identify the number and case of
each noun which is underlined. The first one has been done as an example.

Acc (pl)
Agricola Caledonios vicit.

Agricola, cum Britanniam quinque annos administravisset, contra Caledonios bellum

gerere constituit. naves igitur emisit ut portus barbarorum explorarent. ipse simul

in Caledoniam cum magnis copiis processit. Caledonii, ubi naves Romanorum

viderunt, se ad bellum paraverunt.

Agricola, cum barbaris appropinquaret, copias suas in tres partes divisit. barbari, hoc

conspicati, in nonam legionem, quae pars invalidissima exercitus erat, noctu

impetum facere consituerunt. castra ingressi, cum custodes interfecissent, milites

dormientes oppugnaverunt. Agricola, postquam ex exploratoribus cognovit quid

accidisset, ad castra cum novis copiis statim contendit. pugna erat atrox. tandem

hostes, magna cum difficultate superati, in silvas et paludes effugerunt.

adminstro (1) to govern exploro (1) to reconnoitre

divide (3) to divide nonus a um ninth
invalidus a um weak impetus us (m) attack
explorator exploratoris m scout, spy atrox atrocis fierce
novae copiae -arum -arum f reinforcements
difficultas –tatis (m) difficulty palus paludis f marsh

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Time Expressions

Time phrases can be formed in different ways:

With a Preposition/Adverb:

e.g. post multos dies after many days

ante primam lucem before dawn

Without a Preposition/Adverb:

With the ACCUSATIVE Time ‘how long,’ ‘for’

e.g. Romani urbem decem annos oppugnabant.

The Romans were attacking the city for ten years.

With the ABLATIVE Time ‘at which,’ ‘when,’ ‘within’

e.g. quinto die advenit.

He arrived on the fifth day.

prima luce profecti sumus.

We set out at dawn.

tribus diebus rediit.

He returned in three days.

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 Adjectives

Adjectives are words which describe Nouns. In Latin, they change their endings to
agree in Number (s. or pl.), Gender (masc./fem./neut.) and Case (nom./acc./gen.
etc.) with the Noun that they describe.
There are two basic types of Adjective in Latin. Those which form their endings like
puella, servus & templum (called ‘First and Second Declension Adjectives’) and those
which form their endings like mercator & tempus (called ‘Third Declension
Adjectives).
First and Second Declension Adjectives

bonus -a -um = good; pulcher -chra –chrum = beautiful

sing. m f n m f n
nom bonus bona bonum pulcher pulchra pulchrum
voc bone bona bonum pulcher pulchra pulchrum
acc bonum bonam bonum pulchrum pulchram pulchrum
gen boni bonae boni pulchri pulchrae pulchri
dat bono bonae bono pulchro pulchrae pulchro
abl bono bona bono pulchro pulchra pulchro

pl.
nom boni bonae bona pulchri pulchrae pulchra
voc boni bonae bona pulchri pulchrae pulchra
acc bonos bonas bona pulchros pulchrae pulchra
gen bonorum bonarum bonorum pulchrorum pulchrarum pulchrorum
dat bonis bonis bonis pulchris pulchris pulchris
abl bonis bonis bonis pulchris pulchris pulchris

Third Declension Adjectives

fortis, fortis, forte = brave acer, acris acre = keen ingens, ingens,ingentis = huge

sg. m&f n m f n m&f n

nom fortis forte acer acris acre ingens ingens
voc fortis forte acer acris acre ingens ingens
acc fortem forte acrem acrem acre ingentem ingens
gen fortis acris ingentis
dat forti acri ingenti
abl forti acri ingenti

pl.
nom fortes fortia acres acres acria ingentes ingentia
voc fortes fortia acres acres acria ingentes ingentia
acc fortes fortia acres acres acria ingentes ingentia
gen fortium acrium ingentium
dat fortibus acribus ingentibus
abl fortibus acribus ingentibus

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 Adverbs

Adverbs (words describing a Verb) are formed from Adjectives in the following ways:

Adjective Adverb
First and Second Declension
benignus kind (genitive benigni) benigne kindly, in a kind fashion
pulcher beautiful (genitive pulchri) pulchre beautifully

Third Declension
fortis brave (genitive fortis) fortiter bravely
felix lucky (genitive felicis) feliciter luckily

A few Third Declension Adjectives, such as facilis, ‘easy’ and difficilis, ‘with difficulty’,
form Adverbs ending in -e, e.g. facile, difficile.

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 Comparative Adjectives

In Latin, the Comparative form of the Adjective is used if you want to say ‘more ----’
or ‘----er’ and the Superlative if you want to say ‘most ----’, ‘very ----’ or ‘----est’.
Comparatives and Superlatives are still Adjectives and agree in Number, Gender and
Case with the Noun they describe. They are formed as follows.

Normal Adjective Comparative Superlative

benignus benignior benignissimus
kind kinder, more kind kindest, most kind
pulcher pulchrior pulcherrimus
beautiful more beautiful most
beautiful
fortis fortior fortissimus
brave braver bravest
facilis facilior facillimus
easy easier easiest, very easy
ingens ingentior ingentissimus
huge huger hugest
audax audacior audacissimus
bold bolder boldest

Irregular forms:

bonus melior optimus

good better best
malus peior pessimus
bad worse very bad, worst
magnus maior maximus
big bigger biggest
parvus minor minimus
small smaller smallest
multus plus plurimus
much more most, very much
multi plures plurimi
many more most, very many

Comparative Adjectives like benignior change their endings like Third Declension
Adjectives:
Singular Plural
masc/fem neuter masc/fem neuter
nom/voc benignior benignius benigniores benigniora
acc benigniorem benignius benigniores benigniora
gen benignioris benigniorum
dat benigniori benignioribus
abl benigniore benignioribus

Superlative Adjectives like benignissimus change their endings like bonus bona
bonum.

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N.B. For sentences like ‘It is better for you to remain in the villa’ use the nom. neut.
s. form of the Comparative. “melius est tibi in villa manere.”

Comparison

The word than after a comparative Adjective is expressed in Latin in two ways:

1. quam = ‘than’: the two words compared by ‘quam’ are in the same Case.

e.g. Quintus est audacior quam Clemens.

Quintus is bolder than Clemens.

2. Ablative of comparison: the word being compared is placed in the Ablative

Case.
e.g. quis est fortior Camillo? Who is braver than Camillus?
puellae pulchriores sunt pueris. Girls are prettier than boys.

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 Comparison of Adverbs

In Latin, the Comparative form of the Adverb is used if you want to say ‘more ----ly’ or
‘rather ----ly;’ the Superlative is used if you want to say ‘most ----ly’or ‘very ----ly’.

Normal Adverb Comparative Superlative

benigne benignius benignissime
widely more widely most widely
pulchre pulchrius pulcherrime
beautifully more beautifully most beautifully
forte fortius fortissime
bravely more bravely very bravely
facile facilius facillime
easily more easily very easily

Irregular forms:

bene melius optime

well better best, very well
male peius pessime
badly worse worst, very badly
magnopere magis maxime
greatly more most greatly
paulum minus minime
little less least, very little
multum plus plurimum
much more most, very much

N.B. Superlative forms are sometimes used with ‘quam’, meaning ‘as ... as
possible’:

quam celerrime as quickly as possible

quam maxime as much as possible

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Year 11 Revision Adjectives Revision

Exercise 1:

In the following sentences, underline the adjectives and circle the nouns that go with
them. Identify the number, gender and case of each noun-adjective pair, then
translate underneath.

1. mercator, qui in urbe habitabat, filiam bonam laudavit.

2. rex Cogidubnus milites fortes salutavit.

3. servi novi in horto pulchro domini laborare nolunt.

4. servi saevis dominis non parebunt.

5. ubi iuvenis audax ad urbem pulchram festinabit?

6. miseri cives ingentem equum non deleverunt.

7. ecce! Cogidubnus multam pecuniam habet. quam felix est rex!

8. Romani fortes urbem auxilio celerium navium vastaverunt.

Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into English. Underline the

comparative and superlative adjectives. Circle any words in these sentences which
are being compared.

1. Horatius fortissimus omnium Romanorum est.

2. toga domini est brevis. brevior quidem est quam mea.

3. Romani Camillo, imperatori maximo, multa dona dederunt.

4. cur imperator consilium melior non ceperat?

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5. canis viri pulchrior cane uxoris est.

6. dona ancillae pulcherrimae Quintus misit.

7. Quintus maiorem villam quam Barbilli numquam viderat.

8. Clemens plures amicos quam Eutychus habebat.

Exercise 3: Tranlate the first (a) sentence of each pair. Complete the second (b)
sentence with a comparative and superlative adjective, using the first sentence as a
guide; then translate. The ordinary form of the adjective is given in brackets after
each sentence.

1a. Cerberus est ferocissimus; canem ferociorem numquam vidi. (ferox)

b. gladiator est ....................; virum ...................... numquam vidi. (audax)

2a. frater meus est sapientior quam tu; sapientissimus est. (sapiens)

b. Bregans est ................. quam Loquax; .................... est. (magnus)

3a. milites sunt fortiores quam cives; fortissimi sunt. (fortis)

b. servi sunt .............. quam ancillae; ........................ sunt. (tristis)

4a. Melissa vocem optimam habebat; vocem meliorem numquam audivi.

(bonus)

b. Caecilius servum .................... habebat; servum .................. numquam vidi.

(fidelis)

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 Prepositions

Prepositions are small words generally used to express movement and place. In Latin
they are followed by either the Accusative or Ablative Cases.

Taking the ACCUSATIVE Case:

ad to, towards
ante before
apud at, near, among
circum around, about (of things)
contra against
inter between, among
per through, by means of
post after, behind
prope near
trans across

Taking the ABLATIVE Case:

a, ab* by, from

cum with
de down from, concerning
e, ex* out of, from
pro in front of, for, in return for
sine without

* Use ‘a’ or ‘e’ unless the following word begins with a vowel.

Taking the ACCUSATIVE and ABLATIVE Case (Accusative if there is a sense of

MOTION, otherwise Ablative):

Accusative Ablative
in into, onto, against (a person) in in, on
sub close up under, on the underside of sub under, underneath

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 Verbs

In Latin, there are two main types of Verb - Indicative and Subjunctive. The
Indicative is used for normal actions (e.g. The cat is sitting on the mat); the
Subjunctive is used in Clauses (e.g. The cat walked across the garden in order that
she might sit on the mat). All the information on this sheet refers to Verbs in the
Indicative.

The most important thing to know about any Verb is its principal parts. A Verb may
have two, three or four principal parts + English meaning. This knowledge will help
you identify and form all the different tenses and persons of the Verb.

Present Active Present Active Perfect Active Supine English

(1st p. sg) Infinitive (1st p. sg) (P.P.P.) Meaning
amo amare amavi amatum love
moneo monere monui monitum warn, advise
traho trahere traxi tractum drag
audio audire audivi auditum hear

Latin Verbs are divided into four different groups, called Conjugations. They can be
identified in the following way:

Conjugation Present Active Present Active Perfect Active

(1st p. sg) Infinitive (1st p. sg)*
FIRST -o -are -avi
SECOND -eo -ere -ui
THIRD -o (rarely -io) -ere -i
FOURTH -io -ire -ivi/-ii

* The 3rd principal part is a less reliable indicator of Conjugation as there are many
irregular forms.

Stems To form different parts of the Verb, you need to know the stem.

Present Stem: Present Infinitive minus ‘-RE’; e.g. portare porta

invenire inveni

Perfect Stem: Third Principal Part minus ‘-I’; e.g. intellexi intellexi
timui timu

Active and Passive Verbs

With Active Verbs, the Subject of the sentence is doing something (e.g. The teacher
is beating the pupil). With Passive Verbs, the Subject of the sentence is having
something done to it (e.g. The pupil is being beaten by the teacher).

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Rules for Formation

Tense Active Passive

PRESENT Present Stem + -O Present Stem + -OR
-S -RIS
is, are, -ing -T -TUR
(3rd Conj.: -MUS -MUR
stem is -i or -u, -TIS -MINI
not -e) -NT -NTUR
FUTURE Pres. Stem + -BO -AM Pres. Stem + -BOR -AR
-BIS -ES -BERIS -ERIS
will/shall -BIT -ET -BITUR -ETUR
-BIMUS -EMUS -BIMUR -EMUR
(L = 1/2) -BITIS -ETIS -BIMINI -EMINI
(R = 3/4) -BUNT -ENT -BUNTUR -ENTUR
IMPERF. Present Stem + -BAM Present Stem + -BAR
-BAS -BARIS
was/were -BAT -BATUR
began to (3rd & 4th Conj.: -BAMUS -BAMUR
add -e onto -BATIS -BAMINI
pres. stem) -BANT -BANTUR
PERFECT Perfect Stem + -I *P.P.P. + -SUM
-ISTI -ES
has/have -IT -EST
used to -IMUS -SUMUS
-d -ISTIS -ESTIS
-ERUNT -SUNT
FUTURE Perfect Stem + -ERO *P.P.P. + -ERO
PERFECT -ERIS -ERIS
-ERIT -ERIT
will have -ERIMUS -ERIMUS
shall have -ERITIS -ERITIS
-ERINT -ERUNT
PLUPERF. Perfect Stem + -ERAM *P.P.P. + -ERAM
-ERAS -ERAS
had -ERAT -ERAT
-ERAMUS -ERAMUS
-ERATIS -ERATIS
-ERANT -ERANT

*P.P.P.s are Adjectives and agree in Number, Gender & Case with the Noun they go with.

(a) feminae a militibus captae sunt

The women have been captured by the soldiers.
(b) oppidum a civibus oppugnatum erat.
The town has been attacked by the citizens.

N.B. With Passive Verbs, if the action of the Verb is done by a person, the word ‘by’
is expressed by the words a or ab followed by the Ablative Case. For example:

captivus a milite vulnerabatur. The prisoner was being wounded by the soldier.

BUT: if the action of the Verb is done by a thing (sometimes called ‘the instrument’),
the word ‘by’ is expressed in the Ablative Case without any preposition.

captivus gladio vulnerabatur. The prisoner was being wounded by the sword.
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Deponent Verbs

These are a special type of Verb which look like Passive Verbs, but are Active in meaning.
They are formed like normal Passive Verbs, and have the same four Conjugations:

Conjugation Present Present Infinitive

FIRST -OR -ARI
SECOND -EOR -ERI
THIRD -OR (rarely -IOR) -I
FOURTH -IOR -IRI

Deponent Verbs you need to know are:

conor, conari, conatus sum try

egredior, egredi, egressus sum go out
hortor, hortari, hortatus sum encourage, urge
ingredior, ingredi, ingressus sum enter
loquor, loqui, locutus sum speak
miror, mirari, miratus sum wonder at
morior, mori, mortuus sum die
patior, pati, passus sum suffer
proficiscor, proficisci, profectus sum set out
progredior, progredi, progressus sum advance
regredior, regredi, regressus sum go back, return
sequor, sequi, secutus sum follow
videor, videri, visus sum seem

Semi-Deponent Verbs

Latin also has some Verbs which have Active endings for Present, Future and Imperfect
Tenses (+ Imperatives & Present Infinitive), but Passive endings for the Past Tenses. These
are:

audeo audere ausus sum dare

gaudeo gaudere gavisus sum rejoice
soleo solere solitus sum to be accustomed to

The Verb ‘to be’

The Verb ‘esse’ (‘to be’) is irregular. It can never take an Accusative Case.

Present Future Imperfect Perfect Fut. Perfect Pluperfect

sum ero eram fui fuero fueram
es eris eras fuisti fueris fueras
est erit erat fuit fuerit fuerat
sumus erimus eramus fuimus fuerimus fueramus
estis eritis eratis fuistis fueritis fueratis
sunt erunt erant fuerunt fuerint fuerant

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Irregular Verbs
The Verbs possum (to be able to), volo (wish, want), nolo (not want, be unwilling) and malo
(prefer) are irregular in form and followed by an Infinitive. eo (I go) is also irregular:

POSSE = to be able to/can

Present Tense Imperfect Tense Perfect Tense

possum poteram potui
potes poteras potuisti
potest poterat potuit
possumus poteramus potuimius
potestis poteratis potuistis
possunt poterant potuerunt

I am able/can I was able/could I have been able/could

Future: potero Future Perfect: potuero Pluperfect: potueram

VELLE = to want/wish

Present Tense Imperfect Tense Perfect Tense

volo volebam volui
vis volebas voluisti
vult volebat voluit
volumus volebamus voluimus
vultis volebatis voluistis
volunt volebant voluerunt

I want/wish I was wanting I wanted/wished

I used to want Pluperfect: volueram
Future: volam Future Perfect: voluero

NOLLE = not to want/wish

Present Tense Imperfect Tense Perfect Tense

nolo nolebam nolui
non vis nolebas noluisti
non vult nolebat noluit
nolumus nolebamus noluimus
non vultis nolebatis noluistis
nolunt nolebant noluerunt

I do not want/wish I was not wanting I did not want

I used not to want
MALLE = to prefer

Present Tense Imperfect Tense Perfect Tense

malo malebam malui
mavis malebas maluisti
mavult malebat maluit
malumus malebamus maluimus
mavultis malebatis maluistis
malunt malebant maluerunt

I prefer I was preferring I preferred

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 I used to prefer
Future: malam Future Perfect: maluero Pluperfect: malueram
IRE = to go

Present Tense Imperfect Tense Perfect Tense

eo ibam i(v)i
is ibas i(v)isti
it ibat i(v)it
imus ibamus i(v)imus
itis ibatis i(v)istis
eunt ibant i(v)eunt

I prefer I was preferring I preferred

I used to prefer
Future: ibo Future Perfect: ivero Pluperfect: iveram

NB: Not all Verbs take an Accusative Case for their Object (e.g. tibi manere
persuasi: I persuaded you to stay). Be on the lookout for Verbs which are followed
by the Dative in the vocabulary list, e.g. resisto, impero.

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 The Subjunctive

The Subjunctive is used in Latin in various different ways and in various different
constructions. Often it is used to express ideas of ‘may’, ‘might’, ‘would’ or ‘should’.
It is found in the following constructions:

cum + Subjunctive = ‘when/since ...” Purpose Clauses

Result Clauses Indirect Commands
Indirect Questions Verbs of Fearing
Conditional Clauses

It is formed in the following way:

Tense Active Passive

Present Present Stem + Endings* Present Stem + Endings
portem moneam porter monear
portes moneas porteris monearis
portet moneat portetur moneatur
portemus moneamus portemur moneamur
portetis moneatis portemini moneamini
portent moneant portentur moneantur
Imperfect Infinitive + Endings Infinitive + Passive endings
portarem portarer
portares portareris
portaret portaretur
portaremus portaremur
portaretis portaremini
portarent portarentur
Perfect Perfect Stem + Endings PPP + present Subjunctive of esse
portaverim portatus sim
portaveris portatus sis
portaverit portatus sit
portaverimus portati simus
portaveritis portati sitis
portaverint portati sint
Pluperfect Perfect Stem + Endings PPP + imperfect Subjunctive of esse
portavissem portatus essem
portavisses portatus esses
portavisset portatus esset
portavissemus portati essemus
portavissetis portati essetis
portavissent portati essent

* First Conjugation Verbs (Present Infinitive -are) form their Present

Subjunctives like ‘porto’; Second, Third and Fourth Conjugation Verbs form their
Present Subjunctives like ‘moneo’.

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 Verbs Revision

Exercise 1:

Translate the following verbs into English. Look at person & tense carefully:

a) cogunt k) intellecti erant

b) ambulaveris l) dabantur

c) monebas m) ambulas

d) dedi n) monitae sumus

e) monebitis o) intellego

f) intellexit p) accusunt

g) veniebam q) dormiverunt

h) cogitur r) cogitavistis

i) moneberis s) accusabamini

j) fractum est t) monueram

Exercise 2:

Translate the following sentences which contain Subjunctive Verbs.

a) gratias imperatori demus.

b) ne Quintus in villa maneat.

c) ne populum Romanum vincant.

d) mane ad forum ambulemus.

e) ne imperator auxilium a me petat.

f) ne imperatorem ex urbe mittamus.

23
24
 Direct Commands

In Latin, the IMPERATIVE is used for Direct Commands/Orders.

This is formed by taking the stem and adding a vowel for singular, or a vowel plus ‘te’
for plural.

portare – to carry porta – carry (s) portate – carry (pl)

monere – to warn mone – warn (s) monete – warn
(pl)
trahere – to drag trahe – drag (s) trahete - drag (pl)
audire – to hear audi – hear (s) audite – hear (pl)

It is easy to recognize an imperative as it is normally followed by an exclamation

mark:

e.g. porta arma, serve!

Carry (s) the weapons, slave!

credite mihi, cives!

Trust (pl) me, citizens!

To order someone NOT TO DO SOMETHING, use noli (s), nolite (pl) + the Infinitive:

e.g. noli currere, puer!

Do not run, boy!

nolite loqui, ancillae!

Do not talk, maidservants!

25
 Direct Questions

The most common way of asking questions in Latin is through the use of QUESTION
WORDS:

qualis – what kind of? quis? – who?

quid? – what? cur? – why?
quantus? – how big/much? quomodo? – how?
quo? – to where? quando? – when?
quot? – how many? ubi? – where?

NE can be attached to the end of the first word in a sentence to indicate a question:

e.g. puellamne vidisti? Did you see the girl?

NONNE is used at the beginning of a sentence if a ‘yes’ answer is anticipated; NUM

for a ‘no’ answer.

e.g. nonne puellam vidisti? Surely you have seen the girl?
num puellam vidisti? Surely you haven’t seen the girl?

26
 Direct Commands & Direct Questions Revision
Exercise 1:

Underline the Imperative form and translate the whole sentence:

1. surgite statim, pueri!

2. nolite proficisci ante primam lucem!

3. fac iter ad urbem, filia, ut sororem videas!

4. noli credere illi viro, nam pessimus est!

5. ferte cibum in agros ad dominum, servi!

6. sequere me et ascende hunc montem!

Exercise 2:

Underline the question indicator and translate the whole sentence:

1. quid heri fecistis, pueri?

2. quando ad urbem pervenietis?

3. quo modo viam invenire poterimus?

4. unde venistis, nautae? quo ire vultis?

5. illumne clamorem audivisti?

6. num milites contra hostes pugnaverunt?

7. nonne exercitum vincemus?

8. cur nemo in urbe erat?

27
 Relative Clauses

‘The general, who was standing on the tribunal, had won many victories’. In Latin,
the words underlined are known as a Relative Clause. A Relative Clause is used to
add additional information to a sentence.

The Relative Pronoun, qui, quae, quod, is declined as follows:

Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Meaning

Nom qui quae quod who, which
Acc quem quam quod whom, which
Gen cuius cuius cuius whose, of whom, of which
Dat cui cui cui to, for whom or which
Abl quo qua quo by, with, from whom or which

Nom qui quae quae who, which

Acc quos quas quae whom, which
Gen quorum quarum quorum whose, of whom, of which
Dat quibus quibus quibus to, for whom or which
Abl quibus quibus quibus by, with, from whom or which

The Relative Pronoun agrees with its antecedent in Number and Gender. For
example:

The boy, whom I saw in the forum, was carrying a book.

In the sentence above, the word ‘whom’ in Latin would be singular and masculine
because it is referring to and describing ‘the boy’.

The Case of the Relative Pronoun is determined by its function within the Relative
Clause. Consider the following examples:

(a) I have seen the girl who did this.

puellam vidi quae hoc fecit.

Here the Relative Pronoun is feminine singular to agree with the Gender and
Number of the antecedent puellam; but it is in the Nominative Case because it is the
Subject of fecit.

(b) The pupils, whom you praised, have come.

discipuli, quos laudavisti, venerunt.

Here the Relative Pronoun is masculine plural to agree with the Gender and Number
of the antecedent discipuli; but Accusative because within the relative Clause it is
the Object of laudavisti.

NOTE: A useful working rule is that ‘cuius’ (the Genitive s.) & ‘quorum’/’quarum’ (the
Genitive pl.) mean ‘whose.’

28
 Indirect Statement
In Latin, Reported Speech introduced by Verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, showing,
hoping and promising take the Indirect Statement construction.

e.g. We know that the soldier is brave.

In Latin, there is no word for ‘that’. Therefore the whole sentence needs to be
rephrased to the more cumbersome, but grammatically correct:

We know the soldier to be brave.

In Latin, the Object of the Main Verb (‘soldier’) goes naturally into the Accusative
Case and the Verb going with the Object of the Main Verb goes into the Infinitive.

BASIC CONSTRUCTION = Main Verb + Accusative + Infinitive

Therefore our example will be translated: ‘scimus militem fortem esse’.

Formation of Infinitives

The basic rules for the formation of Infinitives are set out below.

Present Perfect Future

Active present stem + RE perfect stem + isse PPP + urus esse *
to _____ to have _____d to be about to _____
amare amavisse amaturum esse
Passive present stem + RI# PPP + esse *
to be _____d to have been _____d
amari amatum esse

* The Future Active and Perfect Passive Infinitives are formed by adding the
Perfect/Future Participle to the word ‘esse’. As Participles are Adjectives they must
agree in Number, Gender and Case with the Noun they go with.

e.g. puella dicitur a nauta amata esse. The girl is said to have been loved by a sailor.

NB: The Present Passive Infinitive of 3rd Conjugation Verbs ends in -I

e.g. mitti to be sent

Verb to be: Present Perfect Future

esse fuisse futurum esse

Tenses of Infinitives in Indirect Statements

To work out the tense of an Infinitive within an Indirect Statement, you need to find
the Tense of the original words used in the Direct Statement. For example:

Indirect Statement Original Words Tense

He said that the camp would be taken. “The camp will be taken.” Future
He said that the boy was running. “The boy is running.” Present
He thought that the ship had arrived. “The ship has arrived.” Perfect
29
 Relative Clauses Revision

Translate the following sentences into English on the sheet:

a) servus, cui dominus arma dederat, lente ambulabat.

b) aedificia, quae puer viderat, pulcherrima erant.

c) cuius est illa toga, quae in villa est?

d) pueri, quibus pecuniam saepe das, felices sunt.

e) cibum, quod servi parabunt, optimum erit.

Indirect Statement Revision

a) ancilla credit dominum suum bonum esse.

b) Romani putant Cyclopes sub monte Vesuviano habitare.

c) Modestus putavit se multos Britannos interfecisse.

d) Salvius sperabat Belimicum cibum consumpturum esse.

e) Caecilius sensit hospites nimis vini bibisse.

f) Agricola Romanis nuntiavit Britannos in proelio magno victos esse.

g) credo Domitianum cras ad urbem reventurum esse.

h) Plinius dixit matrem suam villam prope Misenum vendisse.

30
31
 Indirect Command

DIRECT COMMAND INDIRECT COMMAND

Go away! He told me to go away!

LATIN CONSTRUCTION = Verb of Commanding + UT + Subjunctive

When a Latin Verb of ordering, asking, telling etc. is followed by a Clause introduced
by UT with a Verb in the Subjunctive, the ut Clause is normally translated by the
Infinitive in English,

e.g. senem rogavimus ut domi maneret.

We asked the old man to stay at home.

regem orabimus ut servis parcat.

We will beg the king to spare the slaves.

When the Clause is introduced by NE, it is usually translated as NOT TO ….,

e.g. servos monebo ne vinum bibant.

I shall warn the slaves not to drink wine.

Remember that in Indirect Commands, UT = ‘to,’ NOT ‘in order that’

Verbs which commonly introduce Indirect Commands include:

peto – ask
hortor – encourage
impero (+ dat.) – order
invito – invite
moneo – warn, advise
oro – beg
persuadeo (+ dat.) – persuade
rogo – ask

N.B. iubeo (I order), however, takes a straightforward Infinitive.

e.g. iubeo te laborare.

I order you to work.

32
 Indirect Questions

Indirect Questions are questions in Reported Speech. Such questions tend to depend
on a Verb of asking or asking oneself.

DIRECT Q. INDIRECT Q.
e.g. Who are you? I asked who you were.
What were they saying? He wondered what they were saying

LATIN CONSTRUCTION = Main Verb + Question Word + Subjunctive

e.g. eum rogavi quis esset.

I asked him who he was.

nescio cur non advenerit.

I do not know why he has not arrived.

The conjunction NUM (‘whether’ or ‘if’) is often found in such sentences:

e.g. rogavit num clamorem audivissem.

He asked if I had heard the shouting.

33
 Indirect Command Revision

a) tibi impero ut ad forum venias.

b) eum rogavi ne ad tabernam veniret.

c) Iuppiter, te oramus ut nobis auxilium das.

d) Salvius militibus imperavit ut Quintum peterent.

e) Salvius regi persuasit ne Quinto crederet.

f) Memor Cogidubno persuadet ut templum sanctissimum ingrediatur.

Indirect Questions Revision

a) me rogat quot servos habeam.

b) Agricola mihi dixit quales milites in Britannia essent.

c) Salvius cognoscere volebat num Quintus mortuus esset.

d) militibus imperavit ut cognoscerent utrum Quintus effugisset an mortuus

esset.

e) ‘nescio’, inquit Agricola, ‘utrum Salvio an Quinto credere debeam.’

f) puer patrem rogavit quid in bello magno fecisset.

g) Domitia nescivit quando Romam ex insula reditura esset.

34
35
 Purpose Clauses

Purpose is expressed in Latin by UT + the SUBJUNCTIVE.

e.g. puer ad forum ambulavit ut milites videret.

The boy walked to the forum to see the soldiers.

puella villam intravit ut mater paterque eam viderent.

The girl entered the house so that her mother and father would see her.

To express a negative, NE is used instead of ut and can be translated as so that …

not, in case, to avoid, to prevent.

e.g. Quintus se celavit ne milites se viderent.

so that the soldiers would not see him.
Quintus hid in case the soldiers saw him.
to prevent the soldiers seeing him.

Latin also uses the RELATIVE PRONOUN (qui, quae, quod) to express Purpose,
especially after Verbs implying motion (e.g. mittere, venire, advenire).

e.g. milites advenerunt qui urbem defenderent.

Soldiers arrived to defend the town.

femina servum mittit qui togam emeret.

The woman sent a slave to buy a toga.

Similarly, UBI (where) can be used in a Purpose Clause:

e.g. locum quaerebamus ubi sederemus.

We were looking for a place where we might sit.

36
 Verbs of Fearing

Verbs of Fearing are found introducing Clauses beginning with NE (translated that)
and are followed by Verbs in the SUBJUNCTIVE.

BASIC CONSTRUCTION = Verb of Fearing + NE + Subjunctive

The negative = NE NON

e.g. servus timet ne dominum videat.

The slave is afraid that he will see his master.

Caesar timebat ne hostes Romam oppugnarent.

Caesar was afraid that the enemy would attack Rome.

timebant ne femina effugisset.

They were afraid that the woman had escaped.

nos timemus ne nuntius ad tempus non adveniat.

We are afraid that the messenger will not arrive on time.

Note the way to translate the Verb in the Subjunctive:

PRESENT – will PERFECT – have

IMPERFECT – would PLUPERFECT – had

37
 Result Clauses

Result Clauses express the result of a previous state of affairs,

e.g. So big was the crowd that it filled the entire market-place.

LATIN CONSTRUCTION = Word of Extent + Main Verb + UT + Subjunctive

e.g. iter tam longum est ut proficisci timeamus.

The route is so long that we are afraid to set out.

servus dominum adeo timebat ut fugerit.

The slave was so afraid of his master that he ran away.

Words of extent include:

tantus – so big, so great

tam – so
tot – so many
adeo – so much
talis – of such a kind
ita – in such a way

38
 Purpose Clauses Revision

a) Metella in atrio stabat ut amicam salutaret.

b) Quintus amicos ad villam invitavit ut diem natalem celebraret.

c) Quintus celeriter currebat ne pueri se capere possent.

d) senator donum quaerit quam uxori det.

e) puellae ad urbem festinabant quae gladiatores viderent.

f) servi locum quaerunt ubi dominus dominaque sedeant.

Fearing Clauses Revision

a) timebam ne hostes advenirent.

b) timui e castris egredi.

c) timebamus ne non dominus nos videret.

d) timuistine ne praemium non acciperes?

e) diu timebant ne non urbem hostium caperent.

39
 Result Clauses Revision

a) Quintus tam celeriter currebat ut fures eum capere non possent.

b) Salvius tam scelestus erat ut Quintum interficere conaretur.

c) vir tantam villam habebat ut omnia spectare non posset.

d) gladiator in arena ita pugnat ut tota turba eum amet.

e) tam benignus est rex ut omnes eum laudent.

40
 Temporal Clauses

cum may be a preposition or a conjunction.

1. PREPOSITION
When cum is a preposition, it is followed immediately or closely by a word in the
ABLATIVE Case and it means ‘with.’

e.g. cum puero with the boy

cum domini irati servis with the slaves of the angry master

2. CONJUNCTION
The context of the passage and the mood of the Verb in the Clause introduced by
cum will usually provide the necessary clues as to its meaning.

e.g. cives, cum hostes oppugnaverint, urbem defendant.

When the enemy attack (lit. will have attacked), the citizens will defend the
city.

vix domum adveneram cum clamores audivi.

I had scarcely arrived when I heard the shouts.

If it is followed by a Verb in the SUBJUNCTIVE, it can mean when, since or although.

Only the context will determine which one is correct - USE COMMON SENSE.

e.g. dominus, cum omnia cognovisset, servos petivit.

When the master had learned the whole story, he attacked the slaves.

cum custodies dormirent, homo effugit.

Since the guards were sleeping, the man escaped.

cum senator multam pecuniam haberet, non laetus erat.

Although the senator had a lot of money, he was not happy.

dum has a Number of meanings – while, as long as, until, provided that. The context
will determine which is correct in a particular sentence.

e.g. dum per viam ambulabam, amicum quarebam.

While I was walking along the street, I was searching for my friend.

dum cives regi parebunt, pax erit.

As long as the citizens (will) obey the laws, there will be peace.

amicum quaerebam dum eum conspexi.

I kept searching for my friend until I caught sight of him.

41
 Participles

Participles are Verbal Adjectives which are used to give additional information about
what a Noun (person, place or thing) is doing within a sentence. As Adjectives, they
must agree in NUMBER, GENDER and CASE with the Noun they go with.

Here are the different types of Participle and the way they are translated:

Present Part. Active Future Part. Active Perfect Passive Part.

1 portans, portantis portaturus -a -um portatus -a -um
carrying about to carry (having been) carried
2 monens, monentis moniturus -a -um monitus -a -um
advising about to advise (having been) advised
3 trahens, trahentis tracturus -a -um tractus -a -um
dragging about to drag (having been) dragged
4 audiens, audientis auditurus -a -um auditus -a -um
hearing about to hear (having been) heard

NOTES

1. Present Participles decline like THIRD DECLENSION Adjectives (ingens type),

except that the Ablative singular, all Genders, of the present Participle ends in -e, not
-i.

All other Participles decline like FIRST & SECOND DECLENSION Adjectives (bonus
type).

2. There is no fixed rule for the formation of Perfect Passive Participles. While
most end in -tus (like portatus above), there are many exceptions (e.g. missus -
having been sent; oppressus - having been crushed etc). The P.P.P. is always the
FOURTH PRINCIPAL PART which you must learn from your DVL.

3. The Future Participle Active of any Latin Verb may be formed by changing
-um of the fourth principal part and adding -urus.

4. Deponent Verbs (e.g. conor, hortor, progredior, loquor etc.), which are
Passive in form, but Active in meaning, also have perfect Participles. These, however,
are ACTIVE and are translated as Perfect Active Participles.
e.g. egressus -a -um having gone out
locutus -a -um having spoken etc.

Deponent Verbs form their present Participles like their Active equivalents in the
same Conjugation, e.g. conans, conantis (trying), moriens, morientis (dying).

5. The Verb ‘esse’ has one Participle - the future Participle futurus, about to be.

42
The Use of Participles

To the Romans, Participles were a short cut. By using a Noun and Participle phrase, a
Roman could use just two words, where in English a full Clause with its own proper
Verb introduced by a conjunction (such as: when, after, since, because, as, while,
although) would require several more words. For example:

(a) The general, when he had been (having been) defeated by the enemy,
returned to the camp.

imperator, a hostibus victus, ad castra rediit.

(b) I caught sight of Marcus (whilst he was) walking through the forum.

Marcum per forum ambulantem conspexi.

Participles can also be used in place of a Relative Clause. For example:

(c) The Romans killed the soldiers who had been captured in the war.
(lit. The Romans killed the having-been-captured in battle soldiers.)
Romani milites in bello captos necaverunt.

43
 Ablative Absolute

Basic Construction: Ablative Noun + Participle in the Ablative Case.

A literal translation of an Ablative absolute into English might be: ‘with ..... having
been -----d’. HOWEVER, in English Ablative absolute phrases are most normally seen
starting with the words: when, after, since, because, while, although etc.

Consider the following sentences:

(a) The boy having been found was led home.
(b) The boy having been found, we led him home.
(c) The boy having been found, we gave him food.
(d) The boy having been found, we gave the soldier a reward.

In (a), boy is Subject of the Main Verb was led; therefore it stands in the norminative
Case with the Participle having been found in agreement-

puer inventus domum ductus est.

In (b), boy is identical with the direct Object him. The sentence in Latin must be
expressed ‘We led home the having been found boy’ and the Participle having been
found must go into the Accusative Case-

puerum inventum domum duximus.

In (c), boy is identical with the indirect Object (dative) him. The sentence in Latin
must be expressed ‘We gave food to the having-been-found boy’ and the Participle
having been found must go into the dative Case-

puero invento cibum dedimus.

In (d), boy neither is, nor is identical with, Subject, Object or indirect Object of the
sentence. The Noun boy with the Participle having been found forms an independent
phrase within the sentence. Nevertheless, the phrase does have an important job
because it tells us the reason why or the circumstances in which the action of the
main sentence happened. Such a phrase is called an Absolute Phrase (‘absolutus’ in
Latin means ‘detached’). In Latin, the Noun and Participle which form an Absolute
Phrase agree with each other in the Ablative Case:

puero invento, militi praemium dedimus.

Ablative Absolute Phrases

(i) With a Present Participle, e.g.:

domino loquente, omnes tacebant.
While (as, since, when) the master was speaking, all were speaking.

(ii) With a Noun or Adjective, e.g.:

Romulo rege, with Romulus being king, in the reign of Romulus
Caesare duce, with Caesar being leader, under the leadership of Caesar
44
amico meo vivo, my friend being alive, in the lifetime of my friend

45
 Participles Revision

In the following examples, underline the participle and the noun it describes, then
translate into good English:

a) Caesar oppidum captum intravit.

b) profecti prima luce, milites in summo monte castra posuerunt.

c) Quintus in foro loquenti credit.

d) femina, multa passa, auxilium nostrum petebat.

e) Imperator ad Italiam profecturus deis precatus est.

f) Caecilius donum filio domo egredienti dedit.

46
 Ablative Absolutes Revision

Translate these sentences into the most natural English.

a. Modesto appropinquante, Gutta valde timebat.

b. voce Guttae audita, Modestus attonitus erat.

c. patre a hostibus interfecto, Cogidubnus rex Regnensium factus est.

d. Britannis victis, Imperator Claudius Romam regressus est.

e. Salvio in atrium ingresso, rex Cogidubnus timebat.

f. rex, ianuis clausis, Salvium vulnerare coepit.

47
 Gerundives

GeruNDives have –ND- in them. They can be translated by the words ‘the necessity
to …’

e.g. portandum the necessity to carry

monendum the necessity to warn
trahendum the necessity to drag
audiendum the necessity to hear

They are used to convey the words MUST, OUGHT, SHOULD.

LATIN CONSTRUCTION = Dative Noun/Pronoun + Gerundive + est

e.g. liber tibi legendus est.

The book must be read by you.
→ You must read the book.

A Gerundive + AD (+ ACCUSATIVE) is used in Latin to express PURPOSE:

e.g. iuvenis ad epistulam legendam in villa sedit.

The boy sat in his house to read the letter.

48
 Conditional Sentences

Conditional Clauses with the INDICATIVE are usually made up of a MAIN CLAUSE and
a CONDITIONAL CLAUSE introduced by SI ‘if’ or NISI ‘unless, if … not’

e.g. si tu laetus es, ego gaudeo. If you are happy, I am glad.

si mala facis, punieris. If you do bad things, you will be punished.
si id fecit, stultus fuit. If he did that, he was stupid.

When the Verb in the SI/NISI Clause is in the Future or Future Perfect (i.e./ if it refers
to the future), English uses the Present Tense to translate the Verb in the SI/NISI
Clause.

e.g. si me rogaverit, respondebo.

If he will have asked me, I will reply.
→ If he asks me, I will reply.

There are two types of Conditional Clauses in Latin:

A. Indicative [Real] Type (as above)

(i) Present Time: present present

si filius meus mortuus est, villam libertis do.
If my son is dead, I give the house to the freedmen.

(ii) Past Time: perfect perfect

si dominus te vulneravit, crudelissimus fuit.
If the master wounded you, he was very cruel.

(iii) Future Time: future future

(a) si milites bene pugnabunt, hostes terrebunt.
If the soldiers will fight well, they will terrify the enemy.

future perfect future

(b) si hostes urbem oppugnaverint, multos cives interficient.
If the enemy will have attacked the city, they will kill many
citizens.

N.B. In Future Conditional Clauses, English, less precisely, often uses a Present
Tense. So
(a) If the soldiers fight well, they will terrify the enemy.
(b) If the enemy attack the city, they will kill many citizens.

A Negative Conditional Clause is done by the word ‘NISI’:

future future
(a) nisi princeps me liberabit, hic multos annos manebo.
If the Emperor will not free me, I will remain here for many years.

future perfect future

(b) nisi tacueritis, o pueri, vos puniam.
49
 Unless you are silent, boys, I will punish you.

B. Subjunctive [Unreal] Type [would/should]

This type of Conditional Clause is used when an action is unfulfilled/ not done/
unreal. For example:

1. If the teacher was kind, she would not give us homework.

2. If the enemy had attacked the city, they would have killed many citizens.

(i) Present Time: Use Imperfect Subjunctive in both halves.

impf. subj. impf. subj.

(a) si Valeria esset pulchra, Quintus laetissimus esset.
If Valeria was beautiful, Quintus would be very happy.

impf. subj. impf. subj.

(b) si dominus crudelis adesset, omnes servos puniret.
If the cruel master were here, he would punish all the slaves.

(ii) Past Time: Use Pluperfect Subjunctive in both halves.

plupf. subj. plupf. subj.

(a) si tu ad forum venisses, servos vidisses.
If you had come to the forum, you would have seen the slaves.

plupf. subj. plupf. subj.

(b) nisi Caecilius intravisset, canis villam delevisset.
If Caecilius had not entered, the dog would have destroyed the house.

plupf. subj. plupf. subj.

(c) si me vocavisses, statim ad villam tuam festinavissem.
If you had called me, I would have hurried immediately to your house.

(iii) Future Time: Use Present Subjunctive in both halves.

pres. subj. pres. subj.

(a) si Princeps ad forum veniat, cives eum videant.
If the Emperor were to come to the forum, the citizens would see him.

N.B. Of Subjunctive Type Conditional Clauses, past time sentences are the most
common.

50
 Gerundives Revision

a) imperator milites ad hostes capiendos emisit.

b) dominus imperavit ut servus adesset ad togam custodiendam.

c) Cogidubno cras moriendum erit.

d) ancilla non laudanda est nobis, sed vulneranda.

e) pater dixit filiam vehementer puniendam esse.

f) puer ad forum ivit ad equum emendum.

51
 Conditional Clauses Revision

a. si Marco credis, stultus es.

b. si templum spectabis, dea tibi auxilium dabit.

c. si diligenter in villa meo quaesiveris, donum splendidum invenies.

d. si rex essem, in hac villa non laborarem.

e. si nautae in portu mansissent, non eos amisissemus.

f. si Salvius talia scelera commisit, puniendus est.

g. nisi liberti senem defendissent, pueri eum occidissent.

h. si dominus meus te ad cenam invitaverit, vinum optimum tibi dabit.

i. si milites urbem oppugnent, facile eam capiant.

j. nisi ancillae dilgenter laboravissent, domini eas vendidissent.

52
 Additional Practice Sentences

Exercise 1: Agreement of Nouns and Adjectives

1. novus consul omnes amicos salutabat.

2. nauta bonus consilium audax habet.

3. servus miser in medio flumine stabat.

4. iter lentum totam noctem faciebamus.

5. parvus puer magnos pedes habebat.

6. templum ingens in foro Romano aedificatum est.

7. cives stulti equum infelicem in urbem suam traxerunt.

8. quot ianuas habet villa ingens?

9. senex clarus librum brevem olim scripsit.

10. liberi fortes ad summum montem advenerunt.

53
Exercise 2: Adverbs

1. milites nostri fortiter pugnabant.

2. ancillam iterum dormientem inveni.

3. pueri laborem facile confecerunt.

4. servus pecuniam domini fideliter custodiebat.

5. ille senator irate surrexit.

6. nuntius regis forte advenit.

7. urbem hostium frustra oppugnavimus.

8. puella me laete salutavit.

9. muri postea deleti sunt.

10. senex mihi breviter respondit.

54
Exercise 3: Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

1. uxor senatoris pulcherrima erat.

2. hic puer stultior est amico.

3. illud templum maximum omnium est.

4.milites Romani fortiores sunt quam ceteri.

5. cenam optimam mihi parate, servi!

6. peius vulnus numquam vidi.

7. murus meus altior est quam tuus.

8. iter facillimum esse videtur.

9. femina plus pecuniae habet quam maritus.

10. portam minimam tandem inveni.

55
Exercise 4: Comparative and Superlative Adverbs

1. puella celerius cucurrit quam frater.

2. dominus servum saevissime punivit.

3. hic puer audacius respondit quam ceteri.

4. librum tuum quam celerrime invenire conabor.

4. nemo fortius pugnavit quam dux noster.

6. haec domus pessime aedificata est.

7. talia nunc saepius accidunt quam antea.

8. nonne puellam quam clarissime loqui iussisti?

9. servos meos laetius laudo quam punio.

10. ubi minime progredi videmur, saepe progredimur maxime.

56
Exercise 5: Personal Pronouns and Possessives

1. ego vinum bibo, tu aquam.

2. amicus noster mox adveniet.

3. illa femina et maritum Sulum et pecuniam eius amabat.

4. quid tu in bello fecisti, pater?

5. regina ‘ego et maritus’ inquit ‘vos salutamus’.

6. puer se in silva celavit.

7. fratrem tuum in foro conspexi.

8. pecuniam eis dare volo.

9. ubi villam vestram aedificabitis?

10. putavi me eam antea vidisse.

57
Exercise 6: This and That

1. hic cibus pessimus est.

2. cur illam puellam salutavisti?

3. nuntius, postquam haec dixit, statim discessit.

4. servum capere conabar, ille tamen effugit.

5. senator his verbis nobis persuasit.

6. illud iterum audire nolo.

7. hi mortui sunt ut ceteri viverent.

8. hunc servum in horto laborantem conspexi.

9. pars huius itineris difficilis erit.

10. cenam illi seni paravi.

58
Exercise 7: Self and Same

1. rex ipse subito intravit.

2. eadem in foro semper audio.

3. eandem puellam heri iterum conspexi.

4. verba senatoris, non senatorem ipsum, laudare volo.

5. et Romani et hostes eodem die profecti sunt.

6. librumne ipsa scripsisti, domina?

7. omnes captivi eodem modo necati sunt.

8. filii eiusdem patris sumus.

9. nonne putas idem semper accidere?

10. nuntius dei ipsius adest.

59
Exercise 8: Relative Pronoun and Clauses

1. nuntius quem heri audivimus iterum adest.

2. ubi est puella cuius librum habeo?

3. amicum quaero qui semper fidelis erit.

4. ei qui festinant saepe cadunt.

5. captivus cui cibum dederam postea fugit.

6. hic est gladius quo rex necatus est.

7. milites a quibus servatus sum mox iterum videbo.

8. felices sunt servi quorum dominam amo.

9. omnes qui Romam venerunt redire volunt.

10. librum inveni sine quo nihil facere possum.

60
Exercise 9: Less Common Pronouns

1. quis praemium accipere vult?

2. nauta captus nihil dixit.

3. hoc consilium stultum est, sed aliud non habeo.

4. nonne donum quoddam accepisti?

5. nomen pueri nemo scit.

6. intravit quidam donum ferens.

7. alter consul Romae semper aderat.

8. inveni quendam cenam meam consumentem.

9. cui hunc librum dabo?

10. unum equum quaero; ceteri iam adsunt.

Exercise 10: Prepositions (i)

61
1. filia regis inter captivos inventa est.

2. vita nihil sine labore hominibus dat.

3. villam prope flumen aedificare nolo.

4. iuvenis cum fratre profectus est.

5. multas per terras iter fecimus.

6. senex pro ianua templi sedebat.

7. audesne trans mare hoc tempore navigare?

8. de monte descendere coacti sumus.

9. corpus circum muros urbis tractum est.

10. servus ex horto effugit.

Exercise 11: Prepositions (iI)

62
1. ille contra amicos patriamque pugnavit.

2. amici in tabernam intraverunt.

3. quid in templo invenisti?

4. ab insula regis scelesti celeriter navigare volebam.

5. senex post cenam in horto sedere solebat.

6. multis post annis bellum cum eisdem hostibus gessimus.

7. cur ad forum festinatis, cives?

8. dei omnia vident quae sub caelo accidunt.

9. maritus sub terram iter fecit ut uxorem reduceret.

10. miles propter virtutem laudatus est.

63
Exercise 12: Prefixes and Compound verbs

1. imperator tandem redire constituit.

2. mox ad insulam adveniemus.

3. homines scelesti Roma expulsi sunt.

4. pueri libros abicere volebant.

5. in urbem captam ingressi sunt.

6. quando pecuniam meam reddes?

7. pater huius puellae diu aberat.

8. cives in forum exierunt.

9. flumen transire conabamur.

10. liberi in via convenerunt.

64
Exercise 13: Verb Tenses

1. nuntius nunc castris appropinquat.

2. amicos nostros cras videbimus.

3. servi in agro multas horas laborabant.

4. illum librum olim legi.

5. alii iam advenerunt, alii mox advenient.

6. equum inveni quem antea vendideram.

7. tres dies navigabamus; postridie terram conspeximus.

8. si hoc iterum facies, ego te puniam.

9. in ea villa diu habitabam.

10. urbs Roma manet semperque manebit.

65
Exercise 14: Irregular Perfect and Pluperfect Tenses

1. senator omnes e foro exire iussit.

2. puellam inveni quae epistulam miserat.

3. pater mihi pecuniam dedit.

4. nihil de hac re antea cognoveram.

5. consul locuturus surrexit.

6. cives qui Roma discesserant tandem redierunt.

7. nonne deus quidam caelum sustulit?

8. nemo equum aquam bibere coegerat.

9. multi pueri cucurrerunt; pauci ceciderunt.

9. in ea villa diu habitabam.

10. quod alios libros non intellexeram, hunc scripsi.

66
Exercise 15: Very Irregular Verbs

1. nemo arma in foro fert.

2. urbs quae valida fuerat nunc deleta est.

3. ego iter facere volo; tu domi manere mavis.

4. nemo laborem conficere potuerat.

5. cur vinum in hortum tulisti?

6. nuntius ‘victoriam’ inquit ‘in proelio habemus.’

7. nova verba cognoscere coepi.

8. tale donum accipere nolumus.

9. pecunia mea ablata est.

10. senes in templum nunc eunt.

67
Exercise 16: Passive: Agent and Instrument

1. puer fortis ab omnibus laudabatur.

2. imperator gladio necatus est.

3. haec femina a turba spectari vult.

4. servi scelesti a domino punientur.

5. urbs olim ab hostibus capta erat.

6. milites qui capti erant postea effugerunt.

7. vinum a senibus in taberna bibebatur.

8. multi libri ab amico meo scripti sunt.

9. hi muri tempore non delebuntur.

10. portae a militibus fortiter custodiebant.

68
Exercise 17: Passive: Deponent and Semi-Deponent Verbs

1. omnes templa Romae mirati sunt.

2. prima luce proficisci constituimus.

3. ego celeriter ambulare soleo.

4. miles vulnus grave passus mox morietur.

5. verba nuntii intellegere conabar.

6. cives, ubi de victoria audiverunt, maxime gavisi sunt.

7. dux nos hortatus est ut regrederemur.

8. quis nobis respondere audebit?

9. hostes multas horas sequebamur.

10. hic senator scelestus est sed bene loquitur.

69
Exercise 18: Direct Commands

1. laborem tuum confice, ancilla!

2. nolite cibum nostrum auferre!

3. alteram epistulam quam celerrime scribe, serve!

4. novas copias statim parate!

5. da mihi plus vini!

6. si potestis, pecuniam celate!

7. arma fer! iter fac!

8. audite verba nuntii, cives!

9. noli contra amicos pugnare!

10. domi mane! noli timere!

70
Exercise 19: Direct Questions

1. quando domum redibis, pater?

2. tene in foro heri vidi?

3. ubi est gladius meus?

4. nonne haec verba intellegitis?

5. quis vinum meum bibit?

6. cur eundem librum semper legis?

7. quot captivi in castris inventi sunt?

8. num villam vendere vis?

9. quo festinas, amice, et quid petis?

10. quomodo senator tot civibus persuasit?

71
Exercise 20: Numerals and Time Expressions

1. puer novem fratres habet.

2. mille milites decem annos pugnabant.

3. post cenam dormire solebam.

4. imperator duas legiones in magnum periculum duxit.

5. amicus meus quinque diebus Romam veniet.

6. multis post annis illum librum iterum legi.

7. per totam noctem navigabamus; prima luce ad insulam adveniemus.

8. multa dira illo anno acciderunt.

9. centum equi in agris erant.

10. tres puellae a sene docebantur.

72
Exercise 21: Time Clauses

1. ubi clamores audivimus, auxilium statim tulimus.

2. cives, postquam, urbs capta est, perterriti erant.

3. ubi de hac re plura audies, dic mihi!

4. puer dum domum ambulat clamorem in via audivit.

5. ubi Romam adveni, domum amici quarere coepi.

6. femina, simulac epistulam accepit, statim respondere constituit.

7. postquam tantum cibum consumpsi, nihil aliud agere poteram.

8. multi, ubi pecuniam habent, putant se felices esse.

9. ubi hostes tandem superabimus, omnes gaudebimus.

10. servi postquam laborem confecerunt dormire cupiebant.

73
Exercise 22: Because, although and if clauses

1. huic ancillae credo quod semper fidelis est.

2. si me iterum videre vis, da mihi plus pecuniae!

3. pueri laeti erant quamquam diligenter laborare debebant.

4. quod saevus est, dominus noster timetur.

5. quamquam saevus est, dominus noster amatur.

6. puer stultissimus erat si hoc fecit.

7. quod gladium non habeo, pugnare non possum.

8. si hanc epistulam accipies, statim responde!

9. illum servum vendidi quod vinum abstulerat.

10. ancillam emere nolo nisi bonam cenam parare potest.

74
Exercise 23: Conjunctions and Connecting Relatives

1. cibum atque vinum emere volumus.

2. femina quam olim amaveram rediit; quam iterum visam libenter salutavi.

3. tempestas heri fuit. itaque navigare non poteramus.

4. nuntius verba regis nuntiavit. quibus auditis, cives laetissimi erant.

5. hic puer nihil intellexit. stultus enim erat.

6. consilium habeo. quod ubi audies, miraberis.

7. in foro manere debetis. nam imperator mox adveniet.

8. servum de scelere rogavi. ille tamen nihil dixit.

9. milites nostri terra marique vicerunt. quod cum cognovissemus, gavisi sumus.

10. dominus iratus erat. ancilla igitur in horto se celavit.

75
Exercise 24: Paired Words

1. alter frater rex factus est, alter ex urbe discessit.

2. hic servus et malus et stultus est.

3. alii in taberna bibebant, alii domum redierunt.

4. alter consulum exercitum duxit, alter in urbe manebat.

5. verbi nuntii et credo et faveo.

6. puella nec laeta nec misera esse videtur.

7. aliae naves deletae sunt, aliae navigare possunt.

8. et fortis et fidelis esse volo.

9. alii alia de imperio Romano dicunt.

10. neque tempus neque artem habeo.

76
Exercise 25: Participles

1. domum currens in via cecidi.

2. imperator urbem captam incendere constituit.

3. nuntius discessurus magnos clamores audivit.

4. pueri per viam ambulantes puellam salutaverunt.

5. femina epistulam lectam marito tradidit.

6. seni auxilium petenti pecuniam dedi.

7. navem Romam navigaturam conspeximus.

8. servus fugiens a domino captus est.

9. hanc ancillam lacrimantem inveni.

10. villam aedificaturus agrum emi.

77
Exercise 26: Ablative Absolute

1. rege adveniente, quidam clamare coepit.

2. consule de victoria locuturo, omnes tacuerunt.

3. his verbis dictis, senator e foro discessit.

4. ad tabernam cibo consumpto ire debeo.

5. te duce hostes vincemus.

6. omnibus rebus paratis, iter faciemus.

7. labore confecto, domum redibo.

8. num scelus civibus spectantibus accidit?

9. exercitu profecturo, nuntius approprinquans conspectus est.

10. epistulis scriptis, in viam egressus sum.

78
Exercise 27: Indirect Statement (i)

1. puer dixit servum in horto dormire.

2. miles hostes appropinquare nuntiat.

3. cives audiverunt navem principis advenisse.

4. sciebam hanc feminam ab omnibus laudari.

5. liberi laborem facilem esse mox cognoscent.

6. omnes credebant nuntium bene dixisse.

7. portam ab hostibus oppugnari videmus.

8. audivimus hunc locum optimum esse.

9. dominus servum fugisse intellexit.

10. scitisne bellum ibi geri?

79
Exercise 28: Indirect Statement (ii)

1. puella respondit se nihil in via vidisse.

2. urbem deletam esse audivimus.

3. spero matrem donum mihi missuram esse.

4. dux custodum captivos fugisse cognovit.

5. sentio quondam me sequi.

6. ancilla promisit se cenam optimam paraturam esse.

7. nuntius rettulit exercitum superatum esse.

8. putasne tempestatem silvam delevisse?

9. credimus hanc ancillam fidelissimam esse.

10. multi nesciebant templum incensum esse.

80
Exercise 29: Purpose Clauses

1. omnes ad forum festinaverunt ut verba imperatoris audirent.

2. ego in taberna manebam ne verba imperatoris audirem.

3. pater laborabat ut liberi cibum haberent.

4. currebam ut domum celerius advenirem.

5. servus in silva se celabat ne a domino inveniretur.

6. ancilla cibum emere debebat ut cenam pararet.

7. exercitus missus est ut auxilium civibus ferret.

8. Romam redire constitui ut amicos iterum viderem.

9. captivi a milite custodiebantur ne nocte effugerent.

10. puer prope portam manebat ut puellam salutaret.

81
Exercise 30: Other ways of expressing Purpose; uses of dum

1. puer prope portam manebat ad puellam salutandam.

2. dum per silvam ambulamus hominem mortuum invenimus.

3. femina domi manere constituit ad epistulas scribendas.

4. cives in foro exspectabant dum imperator adveniret.

5. ancilla tabernam intravit ad cibum emendum.

6. navis dum Romam navigat tempestate deleta est.

7. senator surrexit ad cives de periculo belli monendos.

8. matres ad portam manebant dum nuntius rediret.

9. agrum emi ad villam aedificandam.

10. puella librum legere constituit dum omnia verba intellegeret.

82
Exercise 31: Verbs of Fearing

1. servus timebat ne a domino videretur.

2. timebam ne custos me vocantem non audiret.

3. senex periculum itineris timebat.

4. omnes timebamus ne urbs ab hostibus oppugnarentur.

5. num times in illam silvam ire?

6. liberti timebant ne numquam adveniremus.

7. nihil de exercitu nostro audiveram, sed iterum rogare timebam.

8. puer timebat ne domi relinqueretur.

9. puella timuit ne clamor senem terreret.

10. femina olim timuerat ne spectaretur; postea timebat ne non spectaretur.

83
Exercise 32: Indirect Commands

1. dominus servo imperavit ut celerius laboraret.

2. senator turbam tacere iubebat.

3. pater filiam monuit ne huic puero crederet.

4. puella patri persuasit ut pecuniam sibi daret.

5. imperator suos hortabatur ut pro patria fortiter pugnarent.

6. rex servos liberari iussit.

7. domina ancillis imperavit ut cibum atque vinum pararent.

8. pueri domum ire iussi sunt?

9. senex omnes rogavit ne in templo loquerentur.

10. cives deos oraverunt ut auxilium urbi ferrent.

84
Exercise 33: Result Clause

1. puella tam diligens erat ut omnia de hac re cognosceret.

2. captivus adeo clamabat ut a custode audiretur.

3. servus tam lente laborabat ut dominos eum puniret.

4. hortus villae tantus erat ut plures servos emere cogerer.

5. adeo timebamus ut dormire non possemus.

6. puer tam celeriter cucurrit ut praemium acciperet.

7. senex tot libros habebat ut maiorem domum quaereret.

8. tanta erat tempestas ut omnes naves delerentur.

9. senator ita locutus est ut cives ei crederent.

10. liber tam bene scriptus erat ut omnes intellegere possent.

85
Exercise 34: cum Clauses

1. cum nox esset, nihil videre poteramus.

2. cum nihil audivissem, imperatorem de proelio iterum rogavi.

3. senex, cum epistulam uxoris accepisset, multo laetior erat.

4. cum domina irata esset, ancillae laborantes tacebant.

5. cives, cum nuntius victoriam narravisset, diu gaudebant.

6. cum montem ascenderem, exercitum appropinquantem vidi.

7. cum Romam advenissem, forum templaque spectare constitui.

8. cum dominus dormiret, servi ad tabernam iverunt.

9. liberi, cum nihil facere deberent, laeti erant.

10. cum domum rediissem, de itinere nostro saepe cogitabam.

86
Exercise 35: Indirect Questions

1. militem rogavi num de victoria audivisset.

2. dominus servum rogavit cur non laboraret.

3. liberos rogavi quo festinarent.

4. dux mox cognovit quot milites abessent.

5. puerumne rogavisti ubi pecuniam celavisset?

6. puellam rogavimus quid ibi faceret.

7. custos nesciebat quomodo omnes captivi effugissent.

8. senem rogabam num cibum haberet.

9. difficile erat cognoscere quis epistulam scripsisset.

10. ancilla rogata est num pecuniam abstulisset.

87
Exercise 36: Words easily confused (i)

1. libertus novem novos libros liberis dedit.

2. in summo monte tandem sumus.

3. viam per totam vitam invenire conatus sum.

4. de verbis quae cognovistis cogitare cogemini, pueri.

5. senex nos monebat ne prope flumen maneremus.

6. dominus, quod domina donum rogaverat, novam domum aedificavit.

7. villam habeo, sed Romae habitare malo.

8. servus primo post ianuam iacebat; postea libros in flumen iaciebat.

9. miles fortis forte advenit et portam fortiter custodivit.

10. ubi regem conspexi, totam rem ei narrare constitui.

88
Exercise 37: Words easily confused (ii)

1. imperator nunc abest, sed heri aderat; hic est locus ubi locutus est.

2. hostes subito de monte descenderunt et statim discesserunt.

3. tandem profecti sumus; lente tamen progressi sumus.

4. per silvam solus ambulare soleo.

5. hi milites, ubi verba imperatoris audiunt, omnia facere audent.

6. ancilla cibum emere vult ut cenam pararet.

7. alter mons altior, alter difficilior est.

8. ubi gladium capio, pugnare cupio.

9. senex uxorem multos hostes vicit et multos annos vixit.

10. dux noster multos hostes vicit et multos annos vixit.

89
Exercise 38: Words easily confused (iii)

1. iter ad insulam iterum facere volo.

2. imperator dicit se optimos milites ducere.

3. femina laeta est quod trans flumen lata est.

4. malo pecuniam bono servo quam malo liberto dare.

5. amicus a taberna ridens rediit et pecuniam mihi reddidit.

6. senator semper ita loquitur; itaque saepe a civibus laudatur.

7. arma quae portare potui pro porta posui.

8. simulac Romam advenimus, amicos simul discessise cognovimus.

9. servos equum mortuum per agrum trahere et domino tradere iussimus.

10. hic miles, qui olim pugnare timebat, nunc omnes oppugnans terret.

90
Exercise 39: Words with more than one meaning (i)

1. ubi est puella quam heri conspexi?

2. pueri per vias quam celerrime currebant.

3. quam longum est iter nostrum!

4. quam longum erat iter vestrum?

5. iter quod facere debemus longum est.

6. quod iter longum facimus, multum cibum portamus.

7. quando adveniemus ad locum ubi antea habitabamus?

8. exercitus ad insulam missus est ad hostes capiendos.

9. iuvenis cum fratre Romam advenit.

10. iuvenis, cum frater advenisset, Romae manere constituit.

91
Exercise 40: Words with more than one meaning (ii)

1. servus celeriter laborabat ut laborem conficeret.

2. servo imperavi ut celeriter laboraret.

3. servus tam celeriter laborabat ut a domino laudaretur.

4. servus, ut antea dixi, celeriter laborabat.

5. servus celeriter laboraret ne a domino puniretur.

6. servo imperavi ne in agro dormiret.

7. servus, quamquam celeriter laborabat, timebat ne a domino puniretur.

8. laborasne, serve?

9. num in agro dormiebas, serve?

10. servum rogavi num in agro dormivisset.

92