The Copperbelt University

School of Engineering
EA311 Aerodynamics I
Introduction Lecture

By Andrew Wisdom Zulu

EA311: Introduction
What is Flight?
 ‘Flight’ in the dictionary
1. Movement of object through atmosphere or space sustained by aerodynamic,
aerostatic or reaction forces, or by orbital speed.
2. An instance of such movement.
3. Specified group of aircraft engaged in common mission.
4. Basic tactical unit of three or four aircraft.
5. Flight sergeant (colloq., abb.).
6. Radio call sign, Flight Directory (NASA).
7. Particular scheduled air-carrier service, with three or four-figure identifying
numbers, either routinely or on a particular day.
8. Fighting formation comprising two elements each of two aircraft (US, 1981
onwards).

(From The Cambridge Aerospace Dictionary .)

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 Forces on a flying object

~.
The object is flying with velocity V
R
V The gravitational force is W = mg.

~ from the
mg There is also a reaction force R
surrounding atmosphere.

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Our restricted definition of ‘Flight’
1. Movement of object through atmosphere of space
sustained by aerodynamic, aerostatic or reaction forces,
or by orbital speed.

2. An instance of such movement.

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Is a flying bird in ‘flight’ ?

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 Basic forces on an aeroplane in
steady and level flight
L R • There is also a reaction force R
 from
the surrounding atmosphere.
V T D
• The force R  has two components -
mg
the lift L and the drag D.

• The weight is balanced mainly by

• The aeroplane has the velocity V
.
the lift and to a small extent by the
• The gravitational force is mg. thrust.

• The propulsion system generates a • The drag is balanced by the main

thrust T . part of the thrust.

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 History of aviation

A concrete interpretation of the overall learning objectives here is that after

this part you shall be able, among else, to
- outline the main steps in the historical development of aviation,
especially during the 20th century, and
- identify the main breakthroughs in this development.
 Lift generation principles and
aircraft classification

A concrete interpretation of the overall learning objectives here is that after

this part you shall be able, among else, to

- explain the main principles for aircraft lift generation,

- identify which of these principles a specific aircraft makes use of, and
- exemplify aircraft utilizing these lift generation principles, and
- state and explain the concepts ‘aircraft’ and ‘aeroplane’.
 Definition of an Aircraft

Device designed to sustain itself in atmosphere above Earth’s

surface, to which it may be attached by tether that offers
no support. . . .

(From The Cambridge Aerospace Dictionary .)

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 Aircraft with static lift generation

buoyancy
buoyancy drag

thrust weight
weight

balloon airship

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Aircraft dynamic lift generation principles

(From Torenbeek & Wittenberg, Flight Physics, Figure 2.3.)

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 Definition of an Aeroplane

Mechanically propelled aerodyne sustained by wings which,

in any one flight regime, remain fixed.

(From The Cambridge Aerospace Dictionary .)

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The Man-powered aircraft ‘Daedalus’

(From New Scientist, March 31, 1988.)

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The swing-wing aircraft Gen. Dyn. F111

(From Janes All the Worlds Aircraft, 1978/79.)

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 The VTOL aircraft
BAe Sea Harrier FRS. Mk 2

(From Janes All the Worlds Aircraft, 1995/96.)

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 The convertiplane
Bell/Boeing V-22 Osprey

(From Janes All the Worlds Aircraft, 1993/94.)

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 An aircraft classification scheme

aircraft

aerostat aerodyne

balloon airship rotorplane aeroplane glider

blimp helicopter glider

non-rigid autogyro sailplane
semi-rigid
rigid

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 Definitions of some basic concepts

A concrete interpretation of the overall learning objectives here is that after

this part you shall be able, among else, to

- identify and describe those geometry concepts for the aeroplane and parts
of it which are taken up in this section and in those parts of the textbook
referred to below, as well as
- describe the function and/or purpose of these,
- calculate the aspect and taper ratios and the sweep angles for tapered
wings,
- interpret the numbering system of NACA and NASA aerofoil sections,
- identify and describe the speed domains relevant for aircraft as well as
- explain why these boundaries are not sharp, and
- deduce which approximate maximum speed a specific aeroplane is
designed for from its geometric appearance, especially the planform of the
main wing.
M1-1.4 Definitions of some basic concepts

M1-1.4.1 The aeroplane

The three main aeroplane axes

lateral axis

vertical axis

longitudinal axis

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 The main parts of a conventional
aeroplane
fin
wing
tail

engine
stabilizer
propeller

landing gear
fuselage

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Control surfaces of a conventional
aeroplane
flaps rudder

elevator

trim tabs

elevator

trim tab

aileron

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M1-1.4 Definitions of some basic concepts

M1-1.4.2 The main wing

The main wing planforms

straight wing

swept wing delta wing

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Overview of different wing planforms

(From Torenbeek & Wittenberg, Flight Physics, Figure 4.1.)

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Straight wing planform examples

rectangular wing

elliptical wing

tapered wing

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Wing planform geometry definitions

Λ l.e.
Λ 25% cr
c
ct
Λ t.e.
b

b (wing) span Λl.e. sweep angle of leading edge

c (wing) chord Λt.e. sweep angle of trailing edge
cr root chord Λ25% sweep angle of 25% line
ct tip chord

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Definitions of the aspect ratio
and the taper ratio

The aspect ratio: The taper ratio:

b2 ct
AR = λ=
S cr

b (wing) span ct tip chord

S (wing) reference area cr root chord

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The reference wing

cr cc

ct

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M1-1.4 Definitions of some basic concepts

M1-1.4.3 Aerofoil section geometry

Wing section of an aeroplane main wing

(From Torenbeek & Wittenberg, Flight Physics, Figure 4.2.)

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Aerofoil section axis system and geometry

(From Torenbeek & Wittenberg, Flight Physics, Figure 4.6.)

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M1-1.4 Definitions of some basic concepts

M1-1.4.4 Aerofoil section families,

development and designations
 Families of aerofoil sections

Classical:
• Göttingen (Gö)
• RAF (Royal Aircraft Factory)
• USA, M and Clark (Y)
• NACA 4-and 5-digit
• NACA 1- and 6-series
Modern:
• NASA LS and MS (Low and medium
speed, resp.)
• NASA SC and NLR (Supercritical
and Natural laminar flow, resp.)
• Wortmann and Eppler

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 NACA aerofoil section designations
4-digit sections: example NACA 2412
2 – maximum camber is 2% of chord
4 – maximum camber at 40% of chord
12 – maximum thickness 12% of chord
5-digit sections: example NACA 23012
230 – type of mean camber line
12 – maximum thickness 12% of chord
6-series sections: example NACA 653-218, a=0.5
6 – section from the 6-series
5 – minimum pressure at 50% of chord for basic symmetric section
3 – span in cl (here ∆cl = 0.3) in which a favourable
pressure gradient exists
2 – design cl = 0.2
18 – maximum thickness 18% of chord
a=0.5 – type of mean camber line

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M1-1.4 Definitions of some basic concepts

M1-1.4.5 Aircraft speed domains and

the Mach number
 The flight Mach number
• The speed of sound is given by
• The flight Mach number is
p
V∞ a∞ = γRT∞
M∞ =
a∞

• T∞ is the absolute temperature in

• V∞ is the aeroplane speed relative the surrounding atmosphere.
the surrounding atmosphere.
• γ is the ratio of the specific heat
• a∞ is the speed of sound in the capacities. For air γ = 1.40.
undisturbed atmosphere at the
• R is the gas constant. For air
flight altitude.
R = 287 J/(kg·K).

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 Estimation of density variations
• In isentropic flow • The relative change in density is

 −1/(γ+1)
ρ 1 ∆ρ ρ − ρ0 1
= 1 + (γ + 1) M 2 = ≈ − M2
ρ0 2 ρ0 ρ0 2

• A series expansion for small Mach • For M = M∞ (the flight Mach

numbers gives number) this also serves as an
estimation of the upper limit for
ρ 1 2 the density variation in the flow
≈1− M field around the aeroplane.
ρ0 2

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 Aircraft speed domains
These are defined out from the flight Mach number M∞

Low subsonic speed: M∞  0.5

Subsonic speed: M∞  0.7
High subsonic speed: 0.6  M∞  0.9
Transonic speed: 0.7  M∞  1.4
Supersonic speed: 1.5  M∞  5
Hypersonic speed: M∞  5

Here M∞ = V∞/a∞ where,

V∞ is the aircraft speed and
a∞ is the speed of sound in the surrounding atmosphere.

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M1-1.4 Definitions of some basic concepts

M1-1.4.6 Some aeroplane examples

A low-speed aeroplane with
a rectangular wing

(Socata TB21 Trinidad TC – AR = 8.00)

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An aeroplane with an extremely large
aspect ratio

(Rutan Model 76 Voyager AR = 33.8)

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A subsonic aeroplane with a tapered wing

(Saab 340B – AR = 10.89 λ = 0.44)

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A classical aeroplane with an elliptic wing

(Supermarine Spitfire VC – AR = 5.01)

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 An aeroplane with
a special straight wing planform

(Dornier Do-228-212 – AR = 9.00)

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An aeroplane with a swept tapered wing

(Gulfstream V – AR = 7.70 λ ≈ 0.3 Λ25% = 27.7◦ Mcruise = 0.85)

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Two aeroplanes with a clean delta wing

(Convair F-102A Delta Dagger – (Dassault Mirage 2000N (and 2000C) –

AR = 2.20) AR = 2.03)

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 A supersonic fighter with
a low aspect ratio straight tapered wing

(Lockheed F-104G Starfighter – AR = 2.41 λ = 0.5)

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 M1-1.5 National and international
organisations

A concrete interpretation of the overall learning objectives here is that after

this part you shall be able, among else, to

- identify the main national and international authorities and organizations

in the fields of aviation and aeronautics,
- state their main objectives, and
- locate their internet homepages to be able to search for more detailed
information.
 ICAO
• ICAO = The International Civil Aviation Organization.

• United Nation (UN) agency for civilian aviation and air transport.

• Founded in 1947 – The Chicago Convention.

• International Standards, Recommended Practices and Procedures

covering the technical fields of aviation.

• http://www.icao.int

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 EASA
• EASA = The European Aviation Safety Agency.

• European Union (EU) agency with regulatory and executive tasks

in the field of aviation safety.

• Became operational in September 2003.

• Responsible for the airworthiness and environmental certification.

• Approves and oversees all organizations involved in aviation.

• Rules and regulations from EASA are as laws in all EU countries.

• http://www.easa.eu.int

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 FAA
• FAA = Federal Aviation Administration.

• Federal Administration in United States (US) responsible for the

safety of civil aviation.

• Created in 1958.

• Issues and enforces regulations and minimum standards covering

all parts of aviation.

• FAR – Federal Aviation Regulations.

• http://www.faa.gov

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 IATA
• IATA = The International Air Transport Association.

• Mission is to represent, lead, and serve the airline industry.

• Members are the majority of the worlds passenger and cargo airline
companies.

• Founded in 1945.

• Develops the commercial standards for the international airliner

industry.

• http://www.iata.org

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 ICAS
• ICAS = The International Council of the Aeronautical Sciences.

• An international, non government and not-profit

scientific organization.

• Founded in 1956.

• Encourage the free interchange of information (in aeronautics).

• Promote international cooperation and sharing of information (in

aeronautics).

• http://www.icas.org

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 NACA – NASA
• NACA = National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
NASA = National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

• NACA was founded during WW1, the ‘momentrum’ of its activities

started to emerge around 1920.
NASA was founded in 1958 from NACA and several smaller
research facilities, mainly working with missiles and rockets.

• One of the worlds most important government research

organizations in aeronautics.

• A lot of scientific and technical papers, reports and other

publications, the main part open literature.

• http://www.nasa.gov

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 AIAA

• AIAA = American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.

• US (and international) organization for professionals in the field of

aerospace.

• Founded in 1963 through merging of Institute of Aerospace

Sciences (IAS), founded in 1932, and American Rocket Society
(ARS), founded in 1930.

• Publishing a lot of important scientific journals and books.

Organizing many very import science conferences.

• http://www.aiaa.org

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