Abstract

The project is aimed at designing a density based dynamic traffic signal

system where the timing of signal will change automatically on sensing the traffic
density at any junction. Traffic congestion is a severe problem in most cities across
the world and therefore it is time to shift more manual mode or fixed timer mode to
an automated system with decision making capabilities.
Present day traffic signaling system is fixed time based which may render
inefficient if one lane is operational than the others. To optimize this problem we
have made a framework for an intelligent traffic control system. Sometimes higher
traffic density at one side of the junction demands longer green time as compared
to standard allotted time We, therefore propose here a mechanism in which the
time period of green light and red light is assigned on the basis of the density of the
traffic present at that time. This is achieved by using PIR(proximity Infrared
sensors). Once the density is calculated, the glowing time of green light is assigned
by the help of the microcontroller. The sensors which are present on sides of the
road will detect the presence of the vehicles and sends the information to the
microcontroller where it will decide how long a flank will be open or when to
change over the signal lights. In subsequent sections, we have elaborated the
procedure of this framework.
 INDEX

SR.NO CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO

1 Introduction
2 Literature Survey
3 Block Diagram
4 Circuit Diagram
5 PCB Etching & Simulation layout
6 Programming & Simulation Flowchart &
Algorithm
7 Result Output
8 Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
9 Future Enhancement
10 Reference
11 Data Sheet
 INTRODUCTION

In today’s high speed life, traffic congestion becomes a serious issue in our
day to day activities. It brings down the productivity of individual and thereby the
society as lots of work hour is wasted in the signals. High volume of vehicles, the
inadequate infrastructure and the irrational distribution of the signalling system are
main reasons for this chaotic congestions. It indirectly also adds to the increase in
pollution level as engines remain on in most cases, a huge volume of natural
resources in forms of petrol and diesel is consumed without any fruitful
outcome.Therefore, in order to get rid of these problems or at least reduce them to
significant level, newer schemes need to be implemented by bringing in sensor
based automation technique in this field of traffic signalling system.
 literature review

Under present scenario, traffic control is achieved by the use of a system of hand signs by
traffic police personnel, traffic signals, and markings. A comparable and matching education
program is needed, through driver-licensing authorities, to assure that those who operate motor
vehicles understand the rules of the road and the actions that they are required or advised to take
when a particular control device is present. Each traffic control device is governed by standards
of design and usage; for example, stop signs always have a red background and are octagonal in
shape. Design standards allow the motorist to quickly and consistently perceive the sign in the
visual field along the road. Standard use of colours and shape aids in this identification and in
deciding on the appropriate course of action. Under current circumstances, traffic lights are set
on in the different directions with fixed time delay, following a particular cycle while switching
from one signal to other creating unwanted and wasteful congestion on one lane while the other
lanes remain vacant. The system we propose identify the density of traffic on individual lanes
and thereby regulate the timing of the signals’ timing. IR trans receivers count the obstructions
and provide an idea about the traffic density on a particular lane and feed this response to a
controller unit which will make the necessary decisions as and when required.
 METHODOLOGY

The traffic light issue is a critical problem in day to day life of that peoples and
governments. The proposed system consists of a traffic light controller that manages the traffic
lights of a ―+‖ junction of bidirectional roads. The system consists of a microcontroller which
does all the function according to code. Power supply is given to the microcontroller and the IR
sensor on both the side of the road sense the density of traffic and gives the information to
microcontroller. The controller provides output signal to traffic light. Display the waiting time
using LCD Display.
The intersection of four bidirectional roads. There are three IR sensors are
mounted on either sides of each road. The distance between each IR sensors depend on the
nature of the traffic density. These IR transceivers are used to detect the vehicles passed through
it. The IR transmitter generates a 38 kHz square wave signal while the IR receiver connected to
the traffic master controller receives the signal. When a vehicle passes the road between the IR
transceivers, the IR radiation spreads and the object is detected. And vehicle counter is
incremented. Then it will input to the microcontroller, it can change the time delay of signals
corresponds to the density value.
The IR transmitter looks like an LED. The white LED indicates IR transmitter and black
indicates receiver. This IR transmitter emits IR rays from it. The operating voltage of this IR
transmitter is 2 to3v. These IR (infra red) rays are invisible to the human eye. But we can view
these IR rays through camera.IR receiver receives IR rays that are transmitted by IR transmitter.
When it is receiving IR rays the resistance is very low. The operating voltage of IR receiver also
2 to 3V. We have to place these IR pair on either sides of each road. IR receiver should be able
to receive the IR rays. When we give the power, the transmitted IR rays hit the object and reflect
back to the IR receiver. Instead of traffic lights, we can use LEDs (RED, GREEN,YELLOW). In
normal traffic system, we have to glow the LEDs on time basis. If the traffic density ishigh on
any particular path, then glows green LED of that particular path and glows the red LEDs for
remaining paths.
 ARCHITECHTURE FOR THE CONTROL SYSTEM

In this architecture sensors is placed near to signal, to get the Density of

traffic on the particular side of the signal so that it will receive signal and analyze
the traffic in that particular side and get the count of the number of vehicle. With
this count the density of that particular side will be determined and corresponding
signal will be provided. Fig
BLOCK DIAGRAM
 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

IR TRANCEIVER

Symbol and operation of IR transmitter is very similar to ordinary LED

IR transmitter generates infrared. IR transmitter is made up of Gallium arsenide. If
we pass the current to gallium arsenide it produces IR rays. Current applied to the
sensor is directly proportional to the rays emitted. Though IR transmitter can
withstand up to 35mA, we have used 5mA due to shortest distance. If the distance
is more we have to increase the current flow to the transmitter Since IR can be
used only during proper alignment position IR receiver is having reverse
characteristics of the IR transmitter.

LED

The “Light Emitting Diode” or LED as it is more commonly called, is basically

just a specialized type of diode as they have very similar electrical characteristics
to a PN junction diode. This means that an LED will pass current in its forward
direction but block the flow of current in the reverse direction.

Light emitting diodes are made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped
semiconductor material and depending on the semiconductor material used and the
amount of doping, when forward biased an LED will emit a coloured light at a
particular spectral wavelength.

When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction
band recombine with holes from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to
produce photons which emit a monochromatic (single colour) of light. Because of
this thin layer a reasonable number of these photons can leave the junction and
radiate away producing a coloured light output.

POWER SUPPLY
We are using 8051 microcontroller (89S51) that require 5v input so we are
designing power supply module for 5v. Here we are using battery which gives 12v
output. We are using IC7805 that gives 5v at the output. This 5v applied to the
8051 microcontroller.

1) FILTER CAPACITOR:

As mentioned above we have to use filter capacitor to remove the signal

from the output of battery.

2) VOLTAGE REGULATOR:

Two separate voltage regulators are used after the filter capacitor so as to
generate constant DC voltage supply of 5 volts and 12 volts. We have used 7805
and 7812 as a voltage regulator. Both of them are three pin IC which are namely
input, ground and output. We have to give output of filter capacitor to the input of
regulator, and we get 5 volts and 12 volts supply at the output pin of the respective
regulator.

2.1.1.3 MICROCONTROLLER

The high-performance, low-power Microchip 8-bit AVR RISC-based

microcontroller combines 8KB ISP flash memory with read-while-write
capabilities, 512B EEPROM, 1KB SRAM, 23 general purpose I/O lines, 32
general purpose working registers, three flexible timer/counters with compare
modes, internal and external interrupts, serial programmable USART, a byte
oriented two-wire serial interface, 6-channel 10-bit A/D converter (8-channel in
TQFP and QFN/MLF packages), programmable watchdog timer with internal
oscillator, SPI serial port, and five software selectable power saving modes. The
device operates between 2.7-5.5 volts.

By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the device

achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz, balancing power consumption
and processing speed.

2.4 TYPICAL FEATURE OF ATmega8A

 The high-performance, low-power Microchip 8-bit AVR RISC-based

microcontroller.

 The device operates between 2.7-5.5 volts.

 It has 23 general purpose I/O lines.
 It combines 8KB ISP flash memory with read-while-write capabilities.
 It has 512B EEPROM and 1KB SRAM
 It has 6-channel 10-bit A/D converter (8-channel in TQFP and QFN/MLF
packages).
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
 WORKING

 The IR sensor senses how many vehicles are crossing on the corresponding
side. All the sensors send the corresponding output signal to microcontroller.
 The LCD display is used to indicate the side through which the vehicles has
to be passed.
 The microcontroller compares which road side is the highest density and it

delivers the corresponding signals to LED driver circuit. The LED drivers
circuit enables the LED to display for particular time depends on traffic
density.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

MICROCONTROLLER

Design specification of Microcontroller ATmega8

Features

• High-performance, Low-power Atmel 8-bit Microcontroller

• Advanced RISC Architecture

1) 130 Powerful Instructions – Most Single-clock Cycle Execution

2) 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers
3) Fully Static Operation
4) Up to 16MIPS Throughput at 16MHz
5) On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier

• High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments

1) 8KBytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory

2) 512Bytes EEPROM
3) 1KByte Internal SRAM
4) Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM

Data retention: 20 years at 85 C/100 years at 25 C(1)

 Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits

1) In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program

 2) True Read-While-Write Operation
3) Programming Lock for Software Security
4) Atmel Q Touch library support
5) Capacitive touch buttons, sliders and wheels
6) Atmel Q Touch and Q Matrix acquisition
7) Up to 64 sense channels

• Peripheral Features

1) Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler, one Compare

Mode
2) One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare
Mode, and Capture Mode
3) Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
4) Three PWM Channels
5) 8-channel ADC in TQFP and QFN/MLF package
6) Eight Channels 10-bit Accuracy
7) Six Channels 10-bit Accuracy
8) Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface
9) Programmable Serial USART
10) Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface
11) Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip
Oscillator
12) On-chip Analog Comparator

• Special Microcontroller Features

1) Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection

2) Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator
3) External and Internal Interrupt Sources
4) Five Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save,
Power-down, and Standby

• I/O and Packages

1) 23 Programmable I/O Lines

2) 28-lead PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, and 32-pad QFN/MLF
• Operating Voltages

1) 2.7 - 5.5V
2) 0 - 16MHz

• Power Consumption at 4MHz, 3V, 25 C

1) Active: 3.6mA
2) Idle Mode: 1.0mA
3) Power-down Mode: 0.5μA

Description

The high-performance, low-power Microchip 8-bit AVR RISC-based

microcontroller combines 8KB ISP flash memory with read-while-write
capabilities, 512B EEPROM, 1KB SRAM, 23 general purpose I/O lines, 32
general purpose working registers, three flexible timer/counters with compare
modes, internal and external interrupts, serial programmable USART, a byte
oriented two-wire serial interface.

It has 6-channel 10-bit A/D converter (8-channel in TQFP and QFN/MLF

packages), programmable watchdog timer with internal oscillator, SPI serial port,
and five software selectable power saving modes. The device operates between
2.7-5.5 volts. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the device
achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz, balancing power consumption
and processing speed.

The Atmel core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose
working registers. All the 32registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic
Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two independent registers to be accessed in one single
instruction executed in one clock cycle. The resulting architecture is more code
efficient while achieving throughputs up to ten times faster than conventional
CISC microcontrollers. The ATmega8A provides the following features: 8K bytes
of In-System Programmable Flash with Read-While-Write capabilities, 512 bytes
of EEPROM, 1K byte of SRAM, 23 general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose
working registers, three flexible Timer/Counters with compare modes, internal and
external interrupts, a serial programmable USART, a byte oriented Two-wire
Serial Interface, a 6-channel ADC (eight channels in TQFP and QFN/MLF
packages) with 10-bit accuracy, a programmable Watchdog Timer with Internal
Oscillator, an SPI serial port, and five software selectable power saving modes.

The Idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the SRAM, Timer/Counters,
SPI port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode
saves the register contents but freezes the Oscillator, disabling all other chip
functions until the next Interrupt or Hardware Reset. In Power-save mode, the
asynchronous timer continues to run, allowing the user to maintain a timer base
while the rest of the device is sleeping. The ADC Noise Reduction mode stops the
CPU and all I/O modules except asynchronous timer and ADC, to minimize
switching noise during ADC conversions. In Standby mode, the crystal/resonator
Oscillator is running while the rest of the device is sleeping. This allows very fast
start-up combined with low-power consumption. The device is manufactured using
Atmel’s high density non-volatile memory technology.

The Flash Program memory can be reprogrammed In-System through an SPI

serial interface, by a conventional non-volatile memory programmer, or by an On-
chip boot program running on the AVR core. The boot program can use any
interface to download the application program in the Application Flash memory.
Software in the Boot Flash Section will continue to run while the Application Flash
Section is updated, providing true Read-While-Write operation. By combining an
8-bit RISC CPU with In-System Self-Programmable Flash on a monolithic chip,
the Atmel ATmega8A is a powerful microcontroller that provides a highly-flexible
and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.
 PIN CONFIGURATION 28 PIN PDIP

Pin Descriptions

VCC

Digital supply voltage.

GND

Ground.

Port B (PB7:PB0) – XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2

Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the
pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes
active, even if the clock is not running. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can
be used as input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the
inverting Oscillator amplifier. If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock source,
PB7:6 is used as TOSC2:1 input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if the AS2 bit in ASSR is
set

Port C (PC5:PC0)

Port C is an 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the
pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes
active, even if the clock is not running.

PC6/RESET
If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the electrical
characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C. If the RSTDISBL Fuse is
unprogrammed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the
minimum pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are
not guaranteed to generate a Reset.

Port D (PD7:PD0)

Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the
pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes
active, even if the clock is not running. Port D also serves the functions of various special
features of the ATmega8A.

RESET

Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will
generate a reset, even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate
a reset.
AVCC

AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, Port C (3:0), and ADC (7:6). It
should be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should
be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that Port C (5:4) use digital supply voltage,
VCC.

AREF

AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

ADC7:6 (TQFP and QFN/MLF Package Only)

In the TQFP and QFN/MLF package, ADC7:6 serve as analog inputs to the A/D converter.
These pins are powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC channels.

BASIC CIRCUIT OPERATION

The main circuitries involved in it are: -

CRYSTAL CIRCUIT

This circuit gives the required clock pulses to the microcontroller to give it the sense of
the reference time.

XTAL1 - Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.

XTAL2 - Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier

DIAGRAM
Working

The circuit consists of one crystal and two capacitors. The crystal is used to give the
microcontroller the required periodic pulses to make it function properly. The crystal used in
the project is of 16MHz. The two capacitors are connected to two pins of the crystal and are
grounded at the other ends

Oscillator characteristics:

XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively of an inverting amplifier which
can be configured for use as an on chip oscillator. Either a quartz crystal or a ceramic resonator
may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left
unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of
the external clock signal, since the input to the external clock circuitry is through a divide by
two flip flops, but minimum & maximum voltage and high & low time specification must be
observed.

RESET CIRCUIT

This circuit gives microcontroller the starting pulse required to start the operation from
the start. Unless this pulse is given, microcontroller doesn’t start functioning.

A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the
device. This pin drives High for 98 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The DIS-RTO
bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state of bit
DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled.
DIAGRAM

Working

The circuit gives the required starting pulse to the

microcontroller to start the operation from the very beginning. The
ATmega8A microcontroller requires the active high reset pulse. So
the capacitor is connected to positive supply and the resistor is grounded.

CIRCUIT DESIGNING

This section describes how to generate +5V Power supply.

Fig.3.2 Power supply Module

2) Voltage Regulator (LM7805):

These voltage regulators are monolithic integrated circuits designed as fixed–

voltage regulators for a wide variety of applications including local, on–card
regulation. These regulators employ internal current limiting, thermal shutdown,
and safe–area compensation. With adequate heat sinking they can deliver output
currents in excess of 1.0 A. Although designed primarily as a fixed voltage
regulator, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable
voltages and currents.

Transformer selection: we require 12V for min input for IC 7805

= Drop across IC 7805 + Required Output voltage

= 3 V+ 5V

=8V

So at Input of 7805 we required 8 V with margin

Consider drop across diode 0.7V so 2 diode conducts drop is 1.4 V

= 1.4 V +8 V

= 9.4 V

So at secondary we required 10 V

3) Rectifier:

The secondary is connected to the Rectifier to convert 12V AC to 12V DC

voltage. Full wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveforms to
DC and is more efficient .However, in a circuit with a non-center tapped
transformer, four rectifiers are required instead of the one needed for half wave
rectification. This is due to each output polarity requiring two rectifiers each, for
example, one for when AC terminal ‘X’ is positive and one for when AC terminal
‘Y’ is positive. The other DC output requires exactly the same, resulting in four
individual junctions. Four rectifiers arranged this way are called a bridge rectifier.

A full wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of
constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output by reversing the negative (or
positive) portions of the alternating current waveform .The positive (negative)
portions thus combine with the reversed negative (positive) portions to produce an
entirely positive (negative) voltage/current waveform. For single phase AC is
center tapped, and then two diodes back to back (i.e. anode to anode or cathode to
cathode) form a full wave rectifier.

Rectifier designing 1N4007 diodes are used to build circuit of full wave bridge
rectifier.

• Surge overload rating - 50 amperes peak

• Ideal for printed circuit board
• Reliable low cost construction utilizing molded plastic technique results in
inexpensive product
• Mounting Position: Any

For diode design:-

PIV = Vm

Vm = E0 max + 2 Vf

= 10.7 + 1.4 V

= 12.1 V

I0 = Il/2

= 116.2mA/ 2

= 58.1mA

Peak repetitive current

Ifm = [Il (t1+t2)]/t2

T2 = time for 90° - time for θ1

= 5ms - 3.4ms

=1.2ms

Ifm = 116.2mA (8.6ms+1.2ms) /1.2ms

= 833mA
From above specification diode 1N4007 is selected
4) Filter:

Filter capacitor is used in order to remove ripples from the pulsating DC and
convert it to unregulated DC.

A capacitor is an electrical device that can store energy in the electric field
between a pair of closely spaced conductors (called ‘plates’). When voltage is
applied to the capacitor, electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity,
build up on the plate.

Capacitors are used in circuits as energy storage devices. They can also be used to
differentiate between high frequency and low frequency signals and this makes
them useful in electronic filters. These small deviations from the ideal behavior of
the device can become significant when it is operating under certain conditions, i.e.
high frequency, high current, or temperature extremes.

PIV =100V

I = 1A

For filter capacitor design:-

C= (I1 * t1)/Vr

Vr= ripple voltage

Il = load current

T1= time during which the capacitor being discharge by load current

Vr = ripple voltage 10% of output voltage

Vr = 1.0 V

Frequency 50 HZ

T1 = 1/50 = 20 ms

T for 360° = 20ms

For 180°= 10ms

 For 60°= 20ms * (60°/360)

= 3.4ms

For bridge:-

T1 = [time for 90° + time for θ1]

= 5ms + 3.4ms

= 8.4ms

I1 = load current supplied to various IC

I1 = current required for LCD + o/p current of 89S51 +

O /p current of max232 + current required for LM35 +

+ current required for heart beat sensor + current required

for GPS SR-87

= 3mA + 40mA + 8mA + 0.060mA + 22mA + 40mA

= 113.06Ma

C = I1 * T1/ Vr

= 113.06 * 8.4 * 10^-6 / 1

= 949.704 µF

Thus this 949.704 µF value can be approximated to 1000 µF. Thus we will use
1000 µF capacitor before IC 7805, which is used for improving Frequency
Response.

Fixed voltage regulator IC 7805 produces +5V regulated output voltage with
respect to the ground.

• Output Current in Excess of 1.0 A

• No External Components Required
 • Internal Thermal Overload Protection
• Internal Short Circuit Current Limiting
• Output Transistor Safe–Area Compensation
• Output Voltage Offered in 2% and 4% Tolerance

PCB LAYOUT

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and

electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or
traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is
also referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB
populated with electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also
known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA).

PCB LAYOUT DIAGRAM

 Printed Circuit Boards play a vital role here in determining the overall
performance of the electronic equipment. A good PCB design ensures that the
noise introduced as a result of component placement and track layout is held within
limits while still providing components years of assembly maintenance and
performance reliability.

Where and Why are PCB’s used?

Printed circuits boards are used to route electric signals through copper track which
are firmly bonded to an insulating base.
Advantages of PCB over common wiring are:

1. PCB’s are necessary for connecting a large number of electronic components in

a very small area with minimum parasitic effects.

2. PCB’s are simulated with mass production with less chance of writing error.

3. Small components are easily mounted.

4. Servicing in simplified.

Base Materials used for PCB

The base materials used for PCB’s are glass epoxy, epoxy paper, polyester etc.
Copper foil used for copper clad is manufactured by the process of electronic
deposition.
Preparation of Single Sided PCB

In single sided PCB conductor tracks are present on one side of copper clad
board. So crossing of conductors is not allowed. It is mechanically & chemically
cleansed. The photo resist is an organic solution which when exposed to light of
proper wavelength, changes their solubility in developer but after exposure to light
is not soluble.

Laminate coating of photo resist is done by: (i) Spray coating (ii) Dip coating (iii)
Roller coating.

The coated copper clad and laminated film negative is kept in intimate contact with
each other. The assembly is exposed to UV light and is rinsed in the developer
tank. Proper developer has to be used for a particular photo resist and then the PCB
is dyed in a tray. The dye reveals the flux to be used for a particular photo resist.
Then the PCB is dyed in a tray.

FABRICATION

The required circuit is designed and the layout of the circuit is done on the
component side as well as the copper clad side. Spaces are provided for holes to
insert the respective components. Etch resistant ink coatings are given on the
interconnecting marks.

ETCHING

The copper clad PCB is etched with ferrous chloride solution containing a
small amount of Hydro Chloric Acid for increasing activeness of Ferric Chloride in
etching. Wherever the varnish coating is there the copper remains. Then it is
washed with water and Oxalic Acid.

The vast majority of printed circuit boards are made by bonding a layer of
copper over the entire substrate, sometimes on both sides, (creating a "blank PCB")
then removing unwanted copper after applying a temporary mask (e.g. by etching),
leaving only the desired copper traces. A few PCBs are made by adding traces to
the bare substrate (or a substrate with a very thin layer of copper) usually by a
complex process of multiple electroplating steps.

There are three common "subtractive" methods (methods that remove copper)
used for the production of printed circuit boards:

1) Silk screen printing uses etch-resistant inks to protect the copper foil.
Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper. Alternatively, the ink
may be conductive, printed on a blank (non-conductive) board. The latter
technique is also used in the manufacture of hybrid circuits.

2) Photoengraving uses a photo mask and chemical etching to remove the

copper foil from the substrate. The photo mask is usually prepared with a
photo plotter from data produced by a technician using CAM, or computer-
aided manufacturing software. Laser-printed transparencies are typically
employed for photo tools; however, direct laser imaging techniques are
being employed to replace photo tools for high-resolution requirements.

3) PCB milling uses a two or three-axis mechanical milling system to mill

away the copper foil from the substrate. A PCB milling machine (referred to
as a 'PCB Prototyper') operates in a similar way to a plotter, receiving
commands from the host software that control the position of the milling
head in the x, y, and (if relevant) z axis. Data to drive the Prototyper is
extracted from files generated in PCB design software and stored in HPGL
or Gerber file format.
DRILLING

Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with tiny drill bits made of solid
tungsten carbide. The drilling is performed by automated drilling machines with
placement controlled by a drill tape or drill file. These computer-generated files are
also called numerically controlled drill (NCD) files or "Excellon files".
 The drill file describes the location and size of each drilled hole. These holes
are often filled with annular rings (hollow rivets) to create vias. Vias allow the
electrical and thermal connection of conductors on opposite sides of the PCB.

Plating and Coating

PCBs are plated with Solder, Tin, or Gold over Nickel as a resist for etching
(removal) away the (unneeded after plating) underlying copper. Matte solder is
usually fused to provide a better bonding surface or stripped to bare copper.

Treatments, such as benzimidazolethiol, prevent surface oxidation of bare copper.

The places to which components will be mounted are typically plated, because
untreated bare copper oxidizes quickly, and therefore is not readily solderable.
Traditionally, any exposed copper was coated with solder by hot air solder leveling
(HASL). This solder was a tin-lead alloy, however new solder compounds are now
used to achieve compliance with the RoHS directive in the EU and US, which
restricts the use of lead. One of these lead-free compounds is SN100CL, made up
of 99.3% tin, 0.7% copper, 0.05% nickel, and a nominal of 60ppm germanium.

SOLDERING
 Soldering is the process of joining of two metals using an alloy solder
consisting of Tin and Lead (Sn-Pb). Tin determines the melting whereas the Lead
is used to reduce the cost. After the PCB fabrication is done, the various
components are arranged at proper locations on the PCB and then the soldering is
done. All liquids consist of particles which attract each other. The surface is always
trying to shrink and this is because of surface tension. The principle behind
soldering is that when liquid particles are brought in contact with the walls of the
solid surface, it may happen that the solid attracts the liquid surface. This property
is called adhesive property. Care must be taken that the melting point of solder is
below that of the metal so that its surface is melted without melting without the
metal.

NEED FOR FLUX

During the soldering process the flux acts as a medium for improving the degree of
melting. The basic functions of flux are mentioned below:

• Removes oxide from the surface.

• It transfers heat from source to the joining & provide liquid cover including
air gap.

• Removal of residue after the completion of the soldering operation.

PCB LAYOUT SOFTWARE

The layout can be done either by hand or by using PCB designing software
mentioned below:

• EAGLE by Cad soft

• DipTrace by Novarm

• Free PCB by Allan Wright (open-source Win2K/XP)

• Free Routing by Alfons Wirtz (Java, Auto router with free angle support)

• Cads tar by Zuken

• gEDA, open-source PCB software project

• OrCAD by Cadence

• Allegro by Cadence

• TARGET 3001!

• Kicad, open-source suite

• PADS by Mentor Graphics

• PCB123 Design by Sunstone Circuits

• Proteus

ADVANTAGES

 Avoids wastage of time due to the traffic.

 It provides the efficient access in the traffic light.
 The system provides fully automatic operation.
 Due to use of microcontroller, we can create many more control to the
appliances.

FUTURE SCOPE

 IR receiver module extended with automatic turn off when no vehicles are
running on any side of the road which help in power consumption saving.
 The system can be replaced by image processing system which will give
efficient results.
 CONCLUSION

There is exigent need of efficient traffic management system in our country,

as India meets with 384 road accidents every day. To reduce this congestion and
unwanted time delay in traffic an advanced system is designed here in this project.
With field application of this technology, the maddening chaos of traffic can be
effectively channelized by distributing the time slots based on the merit of the
vehicle load in certain lanes of multi junction crossing. We have successfully
implemented the prototype at laboratory scale with remarkable outcome. The next
step forward is to implement this schema is real life scenario for first hand results,
before implementing it on the largest scale. We believe that this may bring a
revolutionary change in traffic management system on its application in actual
field environment.
 REFERENCES

[1] Vivek, Tyagi, Senior Member IEEE, Shivakumar Kalyanaraman, Fellow,

IEEE, and Raghuram Krishnapuram, Fellow, IEEE “Vehicular Traffic Density
State EstimationBased On Cumulative Road Acoustics” in IEEE Transaction
on Intelligent Transportation System.Vol.23. No.3 September2012

[2] MD.Hazrat ALI, Syuhei KUROKAWA, et

al,“Autonomous Road Surveillance System proposed Model
For Vehicle Detection and Traffic Signal Control “in
Procedia Computer Science 19(2013)