Proceedings of The NY2019 New York Conferences

Proceedings
of the NY2019 New York

Conferences
International New York Conference on Social Sciences & Engineering and

Technology Conference on November 15-17, 2019 in Albany, New York
Interdisciplinary Conference on Evolving Trends in Academic Research on

December 13-15, 2019 in New York City, New York
Edited By
Dr. Gul Dagci & Dr. Kaan Diyarbakirlioglu
ISBN: 978-0-578-61810-4
PROCEEDINGS
OF NY2019 NEW YORK
CONFERENCES
International New York Conference on Social Sciences

November 15-17, 2019, Albany, New York
International New York Conference on Engineering and Technology Conference

Interdisciplinary Conference on Evolving Trends in Academic Research

December 13-15, 2019, New York City, New York
Edited By
Dr. Gul Dagci, Dr. Kaan Diyarbakirlioglu
ICONSOS & Regional Development Studies Institute Inc.
New York, 2019.

International New York Conference on Social Sciences
International New York Conference on Engineering and Technology Conference

Interdisciplinary Conference on Evolving Trends in Academic Research

December 13-15, 2019, New York City, New York
Edited by Dr. Gul Dagci & Dr. Kaan Diyarbakirlioglu
Cover image by Kai Pilger from Pixabay
©2019 Regional Development Studies Institute Inc., New York.
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York Conferences. Regional Development Studies Institute Inc., New York, 2019. ISBN: 978-0-578-61810-4
Organizers of the NY2019 Conferences:
Regional Development Studies Institute Inc.
http://www.rdsinstitute.org
ICONSOS: International Academic Network
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ISBN: 978-0-578-61810-4 (e-book)
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COMMITTESS OF THE NY2019 NEWYORK CONFERENCES
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Kenan Dagci, Ph.D., Professor of International Relations, USA.
Kaan Diyarbakirlioglu, Ph.D., Yalova University, Turkey.
Sureyya Yigit, MA, UK.
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
Mohammad Alawamleh, Ph.D., American University of Madaba, Jordan
Lawrence Besra, Ph.D., USA.
Kenan Dagci, Ph.D., Professor of International Relations, USA.
Kaan Diyarbakirlioglu, Ph.D., Yalova University, Turkey.
Joy Ifeanyi Osarumwense Joseph, Ph.D., Rhodes University, South Africa.
Hasan Koni, Ph.D. Professor of International Relations, Istanbul Kultur University, Turkey.
Eul-Teo Lee, Ph.D. Professor of Business Administration, Kunsan National University, S. Korea.
Mammo Muchie, Ph.D., Professor, DST-NRF Research Chair in Innovation Studies at the Faculty of
Management Sciences, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa.
Natela Popkhadze, Ph.D., Georgia.
Meiqun Yin, Ph.D., Professor, Dean of Business School in Beijing International Studies University,
China.
Note: All full paper submissions have been peer reviewed and evaluated based on originality, technical
and/or research content/depth, correctness, relevance to conference, contributions, and readability.
Dear Colleagues,
ICONSOS is a New York (USA) based international academic network established in June 2015 holding
conferences and publishing academic research. ICONSOS provides the ideal opportunity to meet
experts in natural sciences, social sciences, engineering, architecture and medicine. The conference
provides an excellent venue for researchers to present their findings, find potential research partners,
and receive quality feedback.
International Academic Network (ICONSOS) and the Regional Development Studies Institute (RDSI)
organized the NY2019 New York Conferences in 2019: International New York Conference on Social
Sciences and Engineering and Technology Conference on November 15-17, 2019 in Albany, New
York, and Interdisciplinary Conference on Evolving Trends in Academic Research on December 13-
15, 2019 in New York City, New York.
The themes of the NY2019 Conferences were Immigration and Refugee Studies, Conflict Resolution
and Mediation, Peace Studies, Security Studies, Law, Gender Studies, Globalization and World Politics,
Area Studies, European Studies, U.S. in World Politics, Asian Studies, Democratization, Nationalism
and Ethnic Studies, Social Movements and Protests, Architectural, Automotive, Biomechanical,
Biomedical, Civil Engineering, Chemical, Computer Science Materials Science, Energy Generation,
and Transportation etc. All full paper submissions have been peer reviewed and evaluated based on
originality, technical and/or research content/depth, correctness, relevance to conference, contributions,
and readability. The conferences were well attended by the presenters, discussants and followers, and
hosted rich debates on the issues covered in them.
The speakers from the 7 different countries presented their papers in the NY2019 Conferences. The
Conferences provided an excellent opportunity for the exchange and transfer of information on new
developments in the related field of sciences. Selected presentations from the conferences have been
published as chapters in this proceedings e-book. We hope that this e-book will be a valuable source
of information for the researchers and the practitioners.
December 20, 2019, Albany New York.
Dr. Gul Dagci

Dr. Kaan Diyarbakirlioglu
Contents
Chapter I: Papers Presented in the NY2019 International New York Conference on Social
Sciences
Full-Text
1. Social Capital and Adolescent Suicidality: Assessing the Multidimensional Nature of Social
Capital and Its Effect on Suicidal Ideation and Suicidal Attempt Among Turkish Adolescents
Elif Erdem, Dolunay Senol...................................................................................................................8
Abstracts
2. The Impact of Gender on the Relationship Between Age and Family Support
Kenghuy Ung.....................................................................................................................................17
3. The Effect of Social Support on the Relationship Between Symptoms of Depression and Hours of
Sleep
Kenghuy Ung.....................................................................................................................................18
4. De-escalation Strategies for Kleptocracy in Nigeria’s Oil Industry
Vasudev Das......................................................................................................................................19
5. Fundamental Arguments of the Critical Law Studies Movement
Mustafa Dogan...................................................................................................................................20
6. Africa Beyond Aid Vision in the Era of Intensive China-Africa Engagement
Evans Tetteh.......................................................................................................................................21
Chapter II: Papers Presented in the NY2019 Engineering and Technology Conference
Full-Text
1. Engineering Economic Valuation of Ready-Made Design for Transportation Vehicles
Zhuoyi Zhao, John Jackman, and K. Jo Min.....................................................................................23
2. Logistic Depot Planning under Repair and Maintenance Cost Uncertainties under Changing
Zhuoyi Zhao, John Jackman, and K. Jo Min.....................................................................................33
Chapter III: Papers Presented in the NY2019 Interdisciplinary Conference On Evolving

Trends In Academic Research
Full-Text
1. Environmental Ethics: Issues And Possible Solutions
Aisha Singh........................................................................................................................................46
Democracy and Peace
Saroj Bala, Jannat Jannat..................................................................................................................51
Chapter I
Papers Presented in the International New York Conference on Social Sciences
November 15-17, 2019, Albany, New York.
Social Capital and Adolescent Suicidality:
Assessing the Multidimensional Nature of Social
Capital and Its Effect on Suicidal Ideation and
Suicidal Attempt Among Turkish Adolescents
Elif Erdem [ * ]
Dolunay Senol [ ** ]
Kirikkale University, Turkey
Abstract
Although numerous studies have addressed the relationship between social capital and suicidal behaviors among adolescents,
research focusing on the same relationship in non-Western countries is scarce. Also, these studies have mainly failed to
consider the multidimensional nature of social capital while examining its effect on adolescent suicidal tendencies. This
study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by first assessing the different aspects of social capital and then
investigating its effect on suicidal ideation and attempt among adolescents in Turkey. This study uses the 2008 Youth
in Europe Survey of Istanbul/Bagcilar to test its hypotheses. In this study, responses from a total of 2,046 students were
examined. Regarding the key findings, it was found that existing social connections is an important aspect of social capital
and an important protective factor against both suicidal ideation and attempt among adolescents. While it was expected
that generalized trust would act as a protective factor against suicidal ideation and attempt among adolescents, it was
found that generalized trust had no preventative effect on suicidal ideation and more interestingly had a stimulating effect
on suicidal attempt. Results showed that social capital could have both preventative and stimulating effects on adolescent
suicidality. Thus, it is implied that research on social capital should prioritize addressing the multidimensionality of social
capital before embarking on deeper investigations to better capture its true effects.
Keywords: Social Capital, Multidimensionality, Suicidal Ideation, Suicidal Attempt, Adolescents, Turkey.
Introduction
A dolescence represents a highly sensitive transition period for youth in which they struggle with
identity development issues and several other developmental problems while forming their social
networks. Due to its sensitivity both emotionally and physically, it is also a period in which adolescents
are at risk of incurring a range of psycho-social problems, including delinquency and suicide.
* PhD. Student, Social Science Institute Department of Sociology, Kırıkkale University. Correspondence concerning
this article should be addressed to Elif ERDEM, Social Science Institute Department of Sociology, Kırıkkale Univer-
sity. Contact: elif1986erdem@gmail.com
** Prof.Dr., Faculty of Science and Literature Department of Sociology, Kırıkkale University.
8
PROCEEDINGS OF THE NY2019 NEW YORK CONFERENCES
One of the most efficient protective factors against suicide that has gained popularity in recent years is
social capital. Social capital refers to an informal norm that promotes cooperation among individuals
(Fukuyama, 2001: 7).
However, due to the multidimensionality of social capital, any single measure is unlikely to capture
all its possible aspects (Sabatini, 2009). The issue here is that failing to consider the multidimensional
nature of social capital might lead researchers to regard social capital as an unfailing good for society.
However, social capital might also have some negative effects or dark sides (Portes, 1998).
Also, many of these studies have been conducted in developed Western countries, including the
U.S. and European countries. To our knowledge, there is no single study that has focused on the link
between social capital and suicide in countries that follow Islamic traditions, such as Turkey. Since
suicide is considered as a shameful and unacceptable behavior in those countries, there are very few
studies focusing on suicidal behaviors. And those few have been simple descriptive studies.
Considering the multidimensional nature of social capital and studying how social capital affects
adolescent suicidality in a non-Western country possibly represent an important effort in contributing
to the current literature. The aim of this study, therefore, is to focus on the relationship between
social capital and adolescent suicidality and examine how social capital affects suicidal ideation and
suicidal attempt among high school students in Turkey.
To do that, this study uses the 2008 Youth in Europe Survey, which was collected in the Bagcilar
district of Istanbul in 2007. This survey was administered to 14- to 15-year-old students attending
the 9th and 10th grades of the local secondary schools and hold measurements of several adolescent-
related issues, including delinquency, suicidal attitudes, social networks, social participation,
academic achievement, and health problems.
Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
Social Capital and Its Multidimensional Nature
The concept of social capital refers to an aspect of social structure that facilitates cooperation among
individuals and provides them with social and economic outcomes through social ties (Coleman,
1990).
Therefore, in the context of dramatically increasing adolescent suicidality in recent years (Bearman
and Moody, 2004), it has captured the attention of social scientists as a possible protective factor
against deviant health behaviors among adolescents, including suicide (Putnam, 2000; Bearman and
Moody, 2004).
Following Durkheim, many researchers have examined the relationship between social capital and
suicide and showed that social capital has a preventative effect against suicide. For instance, Mignone
and O’Neill (2005) assert that social capital is an important ecological determinant of health and an
effective protective factor against suicide. Also, Putnam (2000) argues that the declining rates of
social capital in the U.S. since 1960s might be the reason why there has been increasing prevalence
of suicide among adolescents in recent years.
Besides trust as social capital, Putnam (2000: 19) defines social capital as “connections among
individuals—social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them.”
Finally, according to Coleman (1990: 302), social capital consists of two elements: “it is an aspect of
social structure, and it facilitates certain actions of individuals within the structure.” In this regard,
whether any aspect of social structure is considered social capital depends on whether it serves a
function for certain individuals to attain certain interest.
To sum up, resulting from the multidimensionality of social capital, the aspects of social capital that
we would like to focus on in this study to address how social capital affects adolescent suicidality
9
SOCIAL CAPITAL AND ADOLESCENT SUICIDALITY
are: the usage of the existing social connections, the disappearance of the existing social connections,
trust, civicness, and informal social control. Following the above arguments, it can be asserted
that these aspects are representative sociological constructs of social capital and should prevent
adolescent suicidality.
The Effects of the Different Aspects of Social Capital on Adolescent Suicidality
While it is important to focus primarily on completed suicides to understand the preconditions and
risk factors of adolescent suicidality, to prevent suicide, it is also worth investigating how and why
adolescents consider and attempt suicide. The reason is that the immediate precursors of completed
suicide are suicidal ideation and suicidal attempt, and these are among the most powerful predictors
of subsequent suicide deaths (Nock et al., 2009).
According to Prinstein et al. (2000), family dysfunction has been found to significantly affect
adolescent suicidality and rates of suicidal ideation and attempt. Also, for Hawton et al. (1982),
an at-risk adolescent for suicide is the one who has poor communication with parents and receives
inadequate love, affection, and support from parents.
Rojas and Stickely (2014) argue that fostering important socio-emotional friendship relations
engenders a lower suicide rate among adolescents. Also, Johnson et al. (2002) found that lack of
close friends and poor relationships with friends and peers were risk factors for subsequent suicide
attempts. Therefore, we hypothesize that the higher an adolescent’s levels of parental and peer
attachment, the lower his/her likelihood of considering (Hypothesis 1) and attempting (Hypothesis
2) suicide.
For adolesences the acculturative stress resulting from losing friends and neighbors and finding and
getting used to new ones might generate a set of emotions including anxiety and depression and this
might strengthen the risk for suicidal behaviors (Stack, 2000). To illustrate, Hjern et al. (2002) show
that domestic and international migration significantly increase the odds of serious mental health
problems and suicide attempt in Sweden. Therefore, we hypothesize that adolescents who have
recently experienced a neighborhood or school change will have higher likelihoods of considering
(Hypothesis 3) and attempting (Hypothesis 4) suicide.
In Helliwell’s study (2006) found that high levels of social capital and high levels of trust in a
country are associated with lower national suicide rates. Also, Lindstrom and Rosvall (2015) suggest
that social capital in the form of trust is significantly and strongly associated with both ever having
experienced suicide thoughts and suicide attempts. Therefore, we hypothesize that the higher an
adolescent’s level of generalized trust, the lower his/her likelihood of considering (Hypothesis 5) and
attempting (Hypothesis 6) suicide.
Sabo et al. (2005) found that high school athletic participation was significantly associated with
reduced odds of considering suicide among both females and males, and reduced odds of planning
a suicide attempt among females only. Also, Taliaferro et al. (2008) show that for both males and
females, sport participation protects adolescents against suicide. I Therefore, we hypothesize that the
more frequent an adolescent engages in athletic, recreational, or extracurricular activities, the lower
his/her likelihood of considering (Hypothesis 7) and attempting (Hypothesis 8) suicide.
Lastly, as Mignone and O’Neill (2005: 53) indicate, “a culture where families can help each other due
to strong norms of reciprocity and where different community sectors and leadership offer support
to families in need, can have an important effect in diminishing suicide ideations and attempts.”
According to Berkman et al. (2014), the likelihood of this type of informal policing in the community
rises when there is network closure. Therefore, we hypothesize that the stronger the parental closure,
neighborhood closure, and cohesiveness an adolescent is exposed to, the lower his/her likelihood of
considering (Hypothesis 9) and attempting (Hypothesis 10) suicide.
10
Data and Measures

Data
This study uses the 2008 Youth in Europe Survey of Istanbul/Bagcilar to test its hypotheses. This
survey was conducted by the European Cities Against Drug Organization (ECAD)—a non-profit
organization serving with the purpose of drug-free European cities—in 11 European cities, including
Istanbul, Turkey in 2007. Bagcilar, where the survey was administered to high school students, is
one of the districts of Istanbul with a population of more than 719,000 in 2007 (TurkStat, 2017). The
survey questions were prepared by the Icelandic Center for Social Research and Analysis (ICSRA)
and measure several adolescent-related issues, including delinquency, suicidal attitudes, social
networks, social participation, academic achievement, and health problems. In this study, responses
from a total of 2,046 students were examined.
Dependent Variables
The dependent variables are suicidal ideation and suicidal attempt. Measurements for suicidal
ideation and suicidal attempt were adopted from Yildiz and Solakoglu (2017). Respondents’ suicidal
ideation was measured with two questions: (a) Have you ever thought about committing suicide? (b)
Have you ever seriously considered to commit suicide? Respondents’ suicidal attempt was measured
with two questions: (a) Have you ever made an attempt to commit suicide? (b) Have you made an
attempt to commit suicide this school year?
Independent Variables
The independent variables are parental attachment and peer attachment for the usage of the existing
social connections; neighborhood change and school change for the disappearance of the existing
social connections; generalized trust for trust; social participation for civicness; and parental closure,
neighborhood closure, and cohesiveness for informal social control.
Control Variables
The control variables included into the analyses are gender, age, religiosity, suicidal suggestion,
and depression. Descriptive statistics regarding dependent, independent, and control variables are
displayed in Table 1.
Table 1 Descriptive Statistics
Results
Table 2 shows the logistic regression results for suicidal ideation and attempt. Model 1 illustrates
the effects of control variables on suicidal ideation and attempt. Results indicate that being female
(b = .375; p < .01) is significantly associated with suicidal ideation only. Examining the predicted
probabilities when each observed variable moves from its minimum value to its maximum value
while holding all other variables constant at their means, it can be seen that female adolescents are
1.35 times more likely than male adolescents to report suicidal ideation.
11
Model 2 shows the results when the dependent variables are regressed on the predictors of the first
aspect of social capital—the usage of the existing social connections. Holding control variables
constant, parental attachment has negative significant impact on both suicidal ideation (b = -.501;
p < .001) and attempt (b = -.284; p < .05), while peer attachment is significantly associated with
suicidal attempt only (b = -.280; p < .05). Therefore, the first and second hypotheses, predicting that
adolescents, who have higher levels of parental and peer attachment will have lower likelihoods of
considering and attempting suicide, are supported, except for peer attachment for suicidal ideation.
Model 3 shows the results when suicidal ideation and attempt are regressed on the predictors of the
second aspect of social capital—the disappearance of the existing social connections. Controlling
for gender, age, religiosity, suicidal suggestion, and depression, the coefficients of school change are
significant and in the expected direction for both suicidal ideation (b = .364; p < .05) and attempt
(b = .536; p < .05), while the coefficients of neighborhood change do not have any significant
12
impact on either suicidal ideation or attempt. Thus, the third and fourth hypotheses, predicting that
adolescents who recently experienced a neighborhood or school change will have higher likelihoods
of considering and attempting suicide are partly supported.
Model 4 illustrates the coefficients when the dependent variables are regressed on the predictor of the
third aspect of social capital—trust. Holding control variables constant, the coefficient of generalized
trust is not significant for suicidal ideation, while it appears to be significant for suicidal attempt (b
= .172; p < .05). However, this significant effect on suicidal attempt is in the opposite direction than
what was expected
Therefore, the fifth and sixth hypotheses, predicting that adolescents, who have higher levels of
generalized trust will have lower likelihoods of considering and attempting suicide, are not supported.
Model 5 shows the results when the dependent variables are regressed on the predictor of the fourth
aspect of social capital—civicness. Holding control variables constant, the coefficient of social
participation is almost significant for suicidal ideation (b = .044; p = .066; z = 1.84) and is significant
for suicidal attempt (b = .076; p < .05). However, the effects for both suicidal ideation and attempt
are in the opposite direction than what was expected. Therefore, the seventh and eighth hypotheses,
predicting that adolescents, who frequently engage in athletic, recreational, or extracurricular
activities will have lower likelihoods of considering and attempting suicide, are not supported.
Lastly, Model 6 shows the results when the dependent variables are regressed on the predictors of
the fifth aspect of social capital—informal social control. Controlling for gender, age, religiosity,
suicidal suggestion, and depression, neighborhood closure (b = -.138; p = 0.064; z = 1.85) appears
to have an almost significant impact on suicidal ideation, while parental closure (b = -.245; p < .01)
has a significant impact on suicidal ideation. Neither of these variables have significant effects on
adolescent suicidal attempt. Also, cohesiveness does not have a statistically significant effect on either
suicidal ideation or attempt. Therefore, the ninth and tenth hypotheses, predicting that adolescents
who have higher levels of exposure to parental closure, neighborhood closure, and cohesiveness will
have lower likelihoods of considering and attempting suicide, are partly supported.
Discussions and Conclusion
First, it was shown that age is not a significant predictor of adolescent suicidality among Turkish
adolescents. However, gender seems to have an important effect on adolescent suicidal tendencies.
While past research found that females have higher rates of suicidal ideation and attempt than males
(Canetto and Sakinofsky, 1998), this study found that females have higher rates of only suicidal
ideation than males. As the seriousness of the action increases from ideation to attempt, the difference
between the genders disappeared. Religiosity also has an important function in explaining adolescent
suicidality. The preventative effect of religiosity increases as the seriousness of the action increases.
That is to say, while religious adolescents might consider suicide, they are more reluctant to attempt
suicide. Lastly, it was shown that suicidal suggestion and depression are very strong predictors of
adolescent suicidal ideation and attempt.
Regarding the key findings, it was found that existing social connections is an important aspect of
social capital and an important protective factor against both suicidal ideation and attempt among
adolescents. Adolescents who effectively use existing social connections in the form of parental
attachment were found to have lower tendencies to both consider and attempt suicide. However, peer
attachment has such a function only for suicidal attempt. Adolescents who effectively use peer bonds
(peer attachment) do.
not benefit from these bonds to reduce their tendencies to consider suicide. The reason for this might
be related to the level of seriousness of the action (in terms of outcomes), either considering or
attempting suicide. The less serious suicidal ideation requires a less determined person to be fulfilled
while the more serious suicidal attempt requires a more determined person.
13
It was shown that adolescents who changed schools and lost existing school bonds had higher levels
of both suicidal ideation and attempt. However, neighborhood change and consequently losing
existing neighborhood bonds seemed not to have a similar effect on adolescents. The reason might
be related to the importance of the bonds, school vs. neighborhood, for adolescents. Neighborhood
bonds mostly consist of adolescents’ neighborhood friends and adult neighbors.
While it was expected that generalized trust would act as a protective factor against suicidal ideation
and attempt among adolescents, it was found that generalized trust had no preventative effect on
suicidal ideation and more interestingly had a stimulating effect on suicidal attempt. This unexpected
finding might have resulted due to the conditional item through which adolescents’ levels of
generalized trust were measured. The statement, “it is difficult to trust anything, because everything
changes,” measures generalized distrust with the condition that “everything changes.”
Another unexpected finding was the positive significant effect of social participation on both suicidal
ideation and attempt among adolescents. While it was argued that social participation provides
opportunities for adolescents to socialize with pro-social others, mainly with peers, and thus may
have good effects on health status and preventative effects against suicide, social participation was
actually found to have a booster effect on adolescent suicidality.
Finally, it was shown that parental closure and neighborhood closure appeared to be significant
protectors against adolescent suicidal ideation. Strong traditions of family and collectivism in Turkey
ensure a close supervision on adolescents’ behaviors through families and also neighbors.
The main contribution of this study is that through addressing the multidimensional nature of social
capital, this study provided a more comprehensive perspective to the relationship between social
capital and suicide and a more distinct answer to how social capital affects adolescent suicidal
ideation and attempt. This comprehensive perspective showed us both the more well-known and
expected positive effects and relatively unnamed and unforeseen negative effects of social capital on
adolescent suicidality. In addition, much of the research on suicide in Muslim-populated countries
has been simple descriptive studies and has not considered more complex relationships between
suicidal behaviors and social factors, including social capital.
14
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Hjern, A., Lindblad, F., & Vinnerljung, B. (2002). Suicide, psychiatric illness and social maladjustment
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Lindstrom, M., & Rosvall, M. (2015). Parental separation in childhood, social capital, and suicide
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Mignone, J., & O’Neill, J. (2005). Social capital and youth suicide: Risk factors in first nations
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Nock, M. K., Hwang, I., & Williams, D. R. (2009). Cross-national analysis of the associations among
mental disorders and suicidal behavior: Findings from the WHO world mental health surveys. PLOS
Medicine, 6(8), 1-17.
Portes, A. (1998). Social capital: Its origins and application in modern sociology. Annual Review of
Sociology, 24, 1-24.
Prinstein, M. J., Boergers, J., Spirito, A., Little, T. D., & Grapentine, W. L. (2000). Peer functioning,
family dysfunction, and psychological symptoms in a risk factor model for adolescent in-patients’
suicidal ideation severity. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 29, 392-405.
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. NY:
Simon and Schuster.
Rojas, Y. & Stickley, A. (2014). Informal social capital in childhood and suicide among adolescent
and young adult women: A cross-sectional analysis with 30 countries. Women’s Studies International
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Sabatini, F. (2009). Social capital as social networks: A new framework for measurement and an
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participation and adolescent suicide. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 40(1), 5-23.
15
Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., & Earls, F. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel
study of collective efficacy. Science, 277, 918-924.
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16
The Impact of Gender on the Relationship
Between Age and Family Support [ * ]
Kenghuy Ung [ ** ]
California State University, Dominguez Hills, USA.
Abstract
Social support is a crucial factor that can determine the well-being and life satisfaction of an individual as he or she ages
(Lai & Ma, 2016). Previous studies showed that family support was associated with life satisfaction (Nickerson and
Nagle, 2004), lower depression (Rueger, Malecki, & Demaray, 2010), and lower level of suicidal ideation (Kerr, Preuss,
& King, 2006). The current study focuses on how age affects the relationship between gender and family social support.
Participants were sixty-nine college students at a university in Southern California. There were 49 females and 20 males
whose age ranged from 18-55. Participants were given several tests to complete, which included the Multidimensional
Scale of Perceived Social Support and background questionnaires to collect demographic data. The PROCESS macro for
SPSS was used to test a mediation model with the antecedent variable of gender, the mediator of age, and the outcome
variable of family social support. There was no direct relationship between gender and social support suggesting that
gender did not affect social support, b = -.46, p = .81. There was an indirect relationship between age and family social
support, b = -.26, p = .006, such that older individuals reported higher levels of family support. The current study showed
that age affected an individual’s level of family support while gender did not.
Keywords: Gender, Social Support, Family Support, Age.
* Poster presentation.
** Student, California State University, Dominguez Hills, USA. Correspondence concerning this poster should be
addressed to Kenghuy Ung, California State University, Dominguez Hills, USA. Contact: kung4@toromail.csudh.edu
17
The Effect of Social Support on the Relationship Between
Symptoms of Depression and Hours of Sleep [ * ]
Kenghuy Ung [ ** ]
California State University, Dominguez Hills, USA.
Abstract
Depression is a mood disorder that causes an individual to experience a loss of pleasure, sadness, or both (Ng, How, &
Ng, 2016). The symptoms of depression can interfere with one’s sleep as well as the motivation to interact with others.
Previous studies have concluded that students with poor sleep quality were 3.28 times more likely to experience depressive
symptoms (Çelik, Ceylan, Ünsal, & Çagan, 2018). The current study focuses on the relationship between the symptomology
of depression and hours of sleep with social support as a mediator. Participants were sixty-nine college students at a
university in Southern California. There 49 females and 20 males whose age ranged from 18-55. Participants were given
several tests to complete which included the Beck’s Depression Inventory-II, the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived
Social Support, and background questionnaires that assessed the number of hours slept per night. The PROCESS macro
for SPSS was used to test a mediation model with the antecedent variable of depression symptoms, the mediator of social
support, and the outcome variable of hours of sleep. There was a direct relationship between depression symptoms and
hours of sleep, indicating that individuals who experienced more symptoms of depression slept fewer hours b= -.04, p
= .001. There was an indirect relationship between depression symptoms and social support b= -.55, p = .008. Thus,
individuals who experienced more symptoms of depression reported having less social support. The current study showed
that depression symptoms affect both sleep and social support in college students.
Keywords: Depression, Social Support, Sleep, Beck’s Depression Inventory-II.
* Poster presentation.
** Student, California State University, Dominguez Hills, USA. Correspondence concerning this poster should be
addressed to Kenghuy Ung California State University, Dominguez Hills, USA. Contact: kung4@toromail.csudh.edu
18
De-escalation Strategies for Kleptocracy
in Nigeria’s Oil Industry
Vasudev Das [ * ]
Walden University, USA.
Abstract
The rise of kleptocracy in the oil industry necessitates Nigerian leaders to implement de-escalation strategies to enable
sustained economic development. Several Nigerian political stalwarts faced corruption charges of $22 trillion related to
oil revenues between 1997-2014. The purpose of this qualitative case study is to explore strategies for the de-escalation
of kleptocracy in the oil sector of Nigeria. The crime framework of Gottfredson and Hirschi grounded the study. The data
collection methods were semi-structured interviews of purposeful samples and document review, which were analyzed
utilizing Yin’s 5-step approach. The themes that emerged were anti-corruption reorientation, ethical leadership, high self-
control practice, stiffer penalties for corrupt officials, sonic therapeutic intervention, education and training, and traditional
African oath of office. The results of the study are expected to contribute to positive social change in the oil industry by
enlightening government leaders and anti-corruption agencies on strategies to de-escalate kleptocracy in Nigeria’s oil sector.
Key words: Corruption, Nigeria, Oil Industry, Sonic Therapeutic Intervention, Traditional African Oath.
* Student, Walden University, USA. Correspondence concerning this presentation should be addressed to Vasudev Das,
Walden University, USA. Contact: vasudev.das@waldenu.edu
19
Fundamental Arguments of the Critical
Law Studies Movement
Mustafa Doğan [ * ]
Anadolu University, Turkey.
Abstract
In this study, I will discuss the emergence and characteristics of the Critical Legal Studies Movement, and then I will
examine the main arguments. Critical legal studies movement was born and developed in America in the 70s and affected
legal thinkers globally. Even though the critical legal studies movement is considered in the postmodern legal theories,
Marxist theory has a serious weight on the thinkers of this movement. They also influenced by the Frankfurt School and
the American Legal Realists. In particular, they inherited the claims of the Realists regarding the uncertainty of the law,
and they took this idea further. Critical legal studies, as the name implies, is based on the application of critical thinking
to legal thought. Although it is not possible to provide a general list of their ideas, but I can say that they are focused on
these ideas: They deny the rational causality of legal reasoning; accept that ‘law is politics’; reject the logical positivist
epistemology; apply the techniques of the social sciences, especially sociology and economics, to legal studies; and
ultimately criticize the traditional liberal formalist legal thought. Within this framework, the movement has three main
arguments: First, the law is neither definite or knowable. For instance, the same concrete event may end up with different
decisions by different judges. Cultural, political, and economic identity and even the physiological situation of the
judge can be determinative in this process. Second, the law is not impartial but biased. Social hierarchies in society will
inevitably be reflected in the law, and therefore the law cannot be considered apart from society and social values. Third
and the last, the law is ideological, and even an ideology itself. Law imposes on society that the lawful is legitimate and
that no alternative order is possible.
Keywords: Critical Legal Studies, Legal Uncertainty, Law and Politics.
* Research Assistant, Anadolu University, Turkey. Correspondence concerning this presentation should be addressed to
Mustafa Doğan, Anadolu University, Turkey. Contact: mustafa_dogan@anadolu.edu.tr
20
Africa Beyond Aid Vision in the Era of
Intensive China-Africa Engagement
Evans Tetteh [ * ]
Hong Kong Baptist University, China.
Abstract
Africa is still highly dependent on aid despite the independence from colonial rule decades back. In the globalized world,
social and political engagements among countries should be leading to economic freedom, sustainability and empowerment
but the case is different for most of the countries in Africa. It is rather as it seems, leading to more dependence on foreign
aid for essential social services and economic interventions. China’s engagement in Africa is at an unprecedented level
with most of the African development assistance in the form of aid and loans coming from China. There is a growing
agitation about Chinese aid relative to the claims that aid for a long time could not help Africa’s development. The situation
has necessitated a rejuvenated call for Africa beyond aid. This study qualitatively analyzes the vision for Africa beyond
aid in relation with the nature and characteristics of Chinese aid policies and practice towards Africa. It is found out that,
Chinese aid by surface rhetoric tend to be fitting well into Africa beyond aid agenda, but on the contrary its implementation
could in the long term mitigate against achieving an Africa beyond aid. This article thus concludes by recommending
that, policy makers understand Chinese aid through academic analysis and interpretation such as illustrated in the study,
to be able to align China’s aid well to the vision of Africa beyond aid. It then points out to some specific policy ideas that
could help in applying Chinese aid in moving Africa beyond aid.
Keywords: Africa, China, Foreign Aid, Vision.
* Student, Hong Kong Baptist University, China. Correspondence concerning this presentation should be addressed to
Evans Tetteh, Hong Kong Baptist University, China. Contact: Email 18481221@life.hkbu.edu.hk
21
Chapter II
Papers Presented in the NY2019 Engineering and Technology Conference
November 15-17, 2019, Albany, New York.
Engineering Economic Valuation of Ready-Made Design for
Transportation Vehicles
Zhuoyi Zhao [ * ], John Jackman [ ** ], and K. Jo Min [ *** ]

Iowa State University, USA.
Abstract
Nowadays, transportation vehicles are upfront equipped with fuel saving devices such as winglets in airplanes so as
to reduce fuel consumption. By ready-made design, we mean this approaching of equipping upfront on transportation
vehicles. In this article, under the reasonable assumption that the fuel cost is volatile and follows a geometric Brownian
motion (GBM) process, we use the theory of stochastic optimal control (1) to determine the threshold of fuel cost to
decommission such a transportation vehicle, and (2) to determine the engineering economic valuation of such a design.
For the threshold and the valuation, we proceed to obtain the analytical solutions to our approach, followed by sensitivity
analyses as well as the derivation of the total expected operation lifetime until decommissioning. Finally, for the managerial
insights and economic implications, we present an extensive numerical example with numerous empirical data sets from
publicly available sources. For instance, as the fuel cost becomes more uncertain, economically rational decision makers
will defer the decommissioning of a vehicle.
Keywords: Ready-Made Design, Fuel Saving Devices, Volatile Fuel Cost, Engineering Valuation, Transportation Vehicles
Introduction
G iven that fuel saving devices reduce the fuel consumption of transportation vehicles, manufacturers
tend to install fuel saving devices in the design of transportation vehicles. In this article, a
vehicle equipped with fuel saving devices at the initial manufacturing stage is referred as “ready-
made” design. For aging vehicles with such designs, the end-of-life (EOL) decisions are often made
under uncertainties with economic consequences. Furthermore, an optimal EOL decision under given
uncertainty can lead to the maximization of EOL value of the transportation vehicle. In practice,
facing the increasing fuel cost in the long term with fluctuation over time, the decision makers can
opt to decommission an aging transportation vehicle at certain time, and that invites us to view its
decommissioning problem from a real options perspective. In this article, we aim to determine the
optimal threshold of fuel cost to decommission such a transportation vehicle as well as to determine
the engineering economic valuation of such a design.
* Ph.D. Candidate, Iowa State University.

** Associate Professor, Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Iowa State University.
Contact: jkj@iastate.edu.
*** Associate Professor & Associate Chair for Undergraduate Education, Department of Industrial and Manufacturing
Systems Engineering, Iowa State University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to K. Jo Min,
Iowa State University. Contact: jomin@iastate.edu.
23
The rest of the article is organized as follows. A brief review of related literature on ready-made
design of transportation vehicles and real option analysis is introduced in the next section. We then
provide the definitions and assumptions, as well as the formulation and analyses of the mathematical
model for the decommissioning decision. Sequentially, we conduct a numerical study on airplanes
that is equipped with winglets to further illustrate the insights of the analytical results and sensitivity
analysis. Finally, conclusions and future research are presented.
Literature Review
Ready-Made Design of Transportation Vehicles
Fuel saving devices have been commonly implemented in the design of transportation vehicles on the
land, under the water, and in the air because of the reduction in fuel consumption.
For vehicles that travel on the ground, MirrorEye Camera Monitor System (CMS) reduces fuel
consumption from aerodynamic design by removing traditional mirrors during fleet trials and replacing
with integrated external digital cameras and internal digital monitors (Stoneridg, 2018). A roughly
two to three percent per year of fuel cost savings has been demonstrated in European trucks.
In terms of ships, various advanced technologies have been invented and applied to reduce the fuel
consumption as well. For instance, Air Lubrication System - also known as the “Bubble technology”
– significantly saves the fuel consumption by reducing the resistance between the ship’s hull and
seawater using air bubbles (MI News Network, 2019). This technology can be added to new ship or
retrofitted to an existing ship within just 14 days. In practice, it has been successfully installed on the
vessel of Norwegian Cruise Line.
As for airplanes, the Aviation Partners Boeing (APB)’s Blended Winglet reduces drag and takes
advantage of the energy from wingtip vortices, generating additional forward thrust (NASA Spinoff,
2010). Its employment has been proved to reduce fuel consumption by 3 percent, or about 100,000
U.S. gallons of fuel a year, per Boeing 737 airplane (Freitag & Schulze, 2009).
Real Options Approach
Real option approach is useful to decision making in capturing and valuing the flexibility inherent
in many operating decisions that decision makers encounter (Trigeorgis & Tsekrekos, 2018). It has
been widely applied in the content of investment under uncertainty, production and manufacturing,
innovation and technology, supply chain and logistics, energy, natural resources and environment,
valuation models and others, etc.
The examples of literature on transportation vehicles using a real options approach are as follows.
Given the fuel flexibility (choice between electricity and gasoline), Lemoine (2010) evaluated the
battery capacity of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) under a real options framework. In 2018,
Kang, Bayrak, & Papalambros presented an optimization framework for redesigning or investing in
future vehicles using real options to address the uncertainty in gas price and regulatory standards.
Agaton, Guno, Villanueva, & Villanueva (2019) studied the decision making on investment between
modernized diesel jeepney and the e-jeepney fleet. They evaluated the option values and investigated
the optimal investment strategies under multiple uncertainties (i.e., uncertainties in diesel prices,
jeepney base fare price, electricity prices, and government subsidy) using real options approach.
Model and Analyses

Definitions and Assumptions
In this section, we determine the threshold of fuel cost at which level it is optimal to decommission
a transportation vehicle with read-made design, as well as the corresponding total operation lifetime
until decommissioning.
24
ENGINEERING ECONOMIC VALUATION OF VEHICLE DESIGN
The timeline of a vehicle starts from the time point at which a vehicle is manufactured to the time point
at which the vehicle is decommissioned, and its revenue-generating operation is in progress at the
same time. Based on these simplifying assumptions, the timeline for ready-made design is shown in
Figure 1, where t=0 is both the time point a vehicle is manufactured and the start of revenue-generating
operation (i.e., when it is ready for operation, it will be used to generate revenue instantaneously),
and t=τ is the time point to decommission.
D
Figure 1. The timeline for vehicle under ready-made design

For vehicle under ready-made design, we assume that the fuel cost is characterized by a geometric
Brownian motion (GBM) process as follows:
dC = αC dt+ σC dz (1)
t t t
where C is the fuel cost at a time of day t (unit: $ per seat-mile). α is the instantaneous growth rate of
t
the fuel cost (unit: %), and it is assumed to be positive. σ is the instantaneous volatility of the fuel cost
(unit: %). Finally, dt is the increment of time while dz is the increment of a standard Wiener process
z(t). That is, dz=ε √dt where ε ~ N(0,1).
t t
The rest notations are given as follows.
ρ: the discount rate for money (unit: %).
P: the revenue per seat-mile net of non-fuel costs such as labor costs (unit: $ per seat-mile). For
simplicity, we assume it is unrelated to the changing fuel cost.
K: the total seat miles of operation per day (unit: seat-mile), which is assumed to remain unchanged
over time.
W: the salvage cost associated with decommissioning (unit: $). It is defined as the dismantling cost
net of the salvage value, and assumed to be a constant.
C : the initial fuel cost (unit: $ per seat-mile).
0
Model Formulation
During the operating process, the value of this project V obeys a Bellman optimality principle equation
as follows:
Equation (2) indicates that the total return for this project consists of the net revenue that is currently
generated from the operation plus the expected future appreciation in the value of the project. By
applying Ito’s Lemma on dV, equation (2) yields a second order differential equation as follows:
25
which is subject to the following two boundary conditions:

V (C*)= -W (4)
V’ (C*)= 0 (5)
where C* denotes the optimal threshold of the fuel cost at which point a vehicle with ready-made design
is decommissioned. Boundary condition (4) is the value matching condition, implying that the value
of the project at the time of decommissioning is equal to the negative value of the decommissioning
cost. Boundary condition (5) is the smooth pasting condition, requiring that the slope of the left-hand
side and the right-hand side of equation (4) be equal at the optimal point C*.
To solve the differential equation (3), we first note that a particular solution to equation (3) can be
verified to be:
with a technical condition of ρ-α>0 (Dixit and Pindyck, 1994).

Next, a homogeneous solution to equation (3) can be verified to be:
From the particular and homogeneous solutions, the general solution to equation (3) is given by:
To analytically solve for A and C*, we should utilize the two boundary conditions as follows. First,
1
using the smooth pasting condition equation (5), by differentiating both sides of equation (9) with
respect to C , at C*, we have
t
Next, using the value matching condition equation (4) and the expression of A given in equation
1
(10), we can solve for C* such that:
26
It can be verified that for Ct given by equation (1) dCt=αCtdt+σCtdz, F(Ct)=ln Ct is the following
simple Brownian motion with drift (Dixit & Pindyck, 1994).
Over finite time interval t, the change in the logarithm of Ct is normally distributed with mean
and variance of σ2t. Hence, the total expected operation lifetime until decommissioning
T*, i.e., the expected time for fuel cost Ct to evolve from the initial fuel cost C0 to the optimal
decommissioning threshold C*, can be calculated as:
Analytical Sensitivity Analysis

In this section, we conduct the analytical sensitivity analysis for the decommissioning threshold
C* and the total expected operation lifetime until decommissioning T* by differencing them with
respect to the decommissioning cost W, the revenue net of non-fuel costs P, and the total seat-miles
of operation K, respectively. As for the discount rate for money ρ, the growth rate α and the volatility
σ of fuel cost, the results are not amenable to straightforward analyses, the corresponding numerical
sensitivity analysis will be given in the numerical study section instead.
When the decommissioning cost increases, the decision maker is inclined to stay within the project
and not to decommission the vehicle as it requires a larger payment for the exiting fee. The value of
decommissioning cost W can be either positive or negative depending on the definition. In this paper,
W is justified as the dismantling cost net of the salvage value of the vehicle. Specifically, a positive
decommissioning cost implies that the decision maker loses money in the vehicle decommissioning. An
increase in such positive W corresponds to more money lost in the decommissioning, which discourages
the decision maker to decommission vehicles. On the other hand, a negative decommissioning cost
suggests that the decision maker makes money from the vehicle decommissioning. An increase in
such negative W brings less profit from the decommissioning, so the economically rational decision
is to postpone the decommissioning of vehicle.
As the revenue net of non-fuel costs increases, the decision maker tends to keep the vehicle operating
to collect more revenue and not to pull it out of operation. Hence, as P increases, the optimal
decommissioning threshold of fuel cost C* increases, and the total expected operation lifetime T* is
extended.
In terms of the decommissioning, it is comprehensible that a vehicle with higher daily total seat-miles
of operation is apt to exit the operation earlier. As a result, as K increases, the optimal decommissioning
threshold of fuel cost C* decreases, and the total expected operation lifetime T* is shortened.
27
Numerical Study
In this section, a numerical study on airplanes with winglets is introduced to demonstrate the results
and findings from previous sections.
Parameters Values and Numerical Results
The parameter values used in the numerical example are summarized in Table 1. The sources of
parameter values are justified as follows.
The growth rate and volatility of fuel cost α and σ are adopted from the GBM parameters estimation of
oil price (Croghan, Jackman, & Min, 2017). This is because, typically, higher oil prices result in higher
jet fuel prices (JPMorgan, 2018). Also, the correlation coefficient between the price rate of jet fuel
and crude oil is up to 0.959857 (IndexMundi, 2019). The Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC)
as of October 25, 2019 (5.59%) for American Airlines Group is used as the value of discounted rate
of money ρ (GuruFocus, 2019).
The revenue per seat-mile net of non-fuel costs such as labor costs P is calculated by subtracting system
total labor and related expense per available seat mile and system management and other expense
per available seat mile from system passenger revenue per available seat mile of total all sectors in
2018 (Swelbar & Belobaba, 2018a, 2018b, 2018c), i.e., P=11.70-4.7-0.69=6.31 cents per available
seat mile=0.0631 $ per available seat mile. Note that we assume the value of seat mile and available
seat mile are the same for simplicity.
The initial fuel cost C0 is estimated from the fuel expense per available seat mile as of total all sectors
in 2018, 0.030 $ per available seat mile (Swelbar & Belobaba, 2018d). The unit transformation of
fuel cost from $ per gallon to $ per available seat mile can be obtained using
Since Southwest Airlines has almost exclusively operated Boeing 737 aircrafts after it was founded
(Wikipedia, 2019), we estimate the total available seat-miles of operation per day K by dividing the
total system available seat miles of Southwest Airlines as of 2018 (Swelbar & Belobaba, 2018e)
(159,920 million) by the number of operating fleets as of 2018 (Swelbar & Belobaba, 2018f) (722)
and 365 days in a year, i.e.,
The decommissioning cost W is evaluated by subtracting the salvage value of the recycled products
and the reused products from the cost of aircraft dismantling service (Bouzarour-Amokrane, Tchangani,
& Peres, 2012). The sixth alternative was selected and the value of W has been transformed from
Euro to US Dollars using 1 Euro=1.11 USD. The negative value ($-211,129) implies that the airline
company makes money in the airplane decommissioning.
Table 1
28
Applying the above parameter values, the coefficient values are calculated as β1=1.0947 and
A1=1.2403×108. The solutions for C* and T* can be obtained by implementing the analytical results
presented in the previous section, as are shown in Table 2.
Table 2
Numerical Sensitivity Analysis

The influence of growth rate and volatility of fuel cost, a and s, as well as the discount rate of money
r on the optimal time to decommission an airplane is investigated through the numerical sensitivity
analysis.
Growth rate of fuel cost α. As is shown in Figure 2, as the growth rate of fuel cost increases, the airline
company spends more money on the fuel expenses. Therefore, the airline company is recommended
to decommission an end-of-life airplane earlier from an economic perspective.
Figure 2. Variation in C* and T* with α

Volatility of fuel cost s. From Figure 3, a significant implication that can be derived is the airline
company should wait longer before exercising the option to decommission an aging airplane when
the fuel cost is uncertain. The implication is straightforward because the high volatility contributes to
an unpredictable fuel cost in the future, so the airline company would prefer to operate the airplane
longer before decommissioning it.
Figure 3. Variation in C* and T* with σ
29
Discount rate for money r. Figure 4 demonstrates the influence of discount rate for money on the
decommissioning decision. In this case, since the airline company makes money from the airplane
decommissioning, when the discount rate of money increases, the airline company makes less money
in the airplane decommissioning. Stated otherwise, decommissioning the airplane at a lower level
discount rate of money is proposed. On the other hand, if the airline company loses money in the
airplane decommissioning, operating the airplane longer before decommissioning would be more
economically rational when the discount rate of money increases.
Figure 4. Variation in C* and T* with ρ

Conclusion
In summary, this paper presents a comprehensive framework for decision makers regarding the optimal
timing to implement the end-of-life decision (i.e., decommissioning) of transportation vehicles under
the fuel cost uncertainty. By assuming the fuel cost follows a GBM process, we solve for the optimal
fuel cost threshold to decommission a transportation vehicle and the total expected operation lifetime
using the theory of stochastic optimal control. The analytical analysis and numerical study illustrate
critical economic implications and managerial insights. For instance, as the fuel cost becomes more
volatile, the decision maker has a higher tolerance towards the fuel cost before decommissioning.
What makes this study advantageous is that we incorporate economic uncertainties (i.e., uncertainty in
fuel cost) whereas many of the current valuation approaches simply assume deterministic frameworks.
Another strength of our study is that our approach is not dependent on an accurate prediction of fuel
cost. Instead, considering such quantities are unpredictable, we provide economic threshold to optimally
take actions that one typically would not regret. In addition, decision makers can take economically
rational reactions towards the decommissioning of vehicle when a change in any of the parameters
(e.g., fuel cost becomes volatile, discount rate for money increases) is observed by referring to our
findings derived in previous sections.
Our research can be employed as a basis for future research in quantitative valuation of the properties
of transportation vehicle design such as flexibility and reliability under economic uncertainties.
Specifically, one can study the fuel saving efficiency by incorporating a fuel saving coefficient, and
how that will influence the decision of vehicle decommissioning. Furthermore, the choice for the
design of a new transportation vehicle among various designs can be extensively studied as it might
be affected by the fuel cost uncertainty as well.
30
References
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31
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wiki/Southwest_Airlines_fleet on October 1, 2019.
32
Logistic Depot Planning under Repair and Maintenance
Cost Uncertainties under Changing Climate
Zhuoyi Zhao [ * ], John Jackman [ ** ], and K. Jo Min [ *** ]

Iowa State University, USA.
Abstract
With the changing climates, numerous broadly defined logistical depots ranging from air and sea ports to bus and train
stations all suffer from volatile repair and maintenance costs that are fluctuating and on average increasing over time.
At the same time, human-made (i.e., typically governments) policies often influences the repair and maintenance costs
as well (e.g., the environmentally friendly disposal policies for the repair and maintenance components). Under these
circumstances, we first construct stochastic control models based on binomial lattices when the repair and maintenance
costs are following geometric Brownian motion processes while the human-made policies follow Poisson jump processes.
From the subsequent analyses, we aim to produce economic implications and managerial insights so as to enhance decision
and policy making such as whether and when to expand, contract, mothball, and/or decommission such logistical depots.
By conducting a numerical study on the airport re-location, we empirically show how to derive the most economically
rational strategy, and to determine the optimal re-location time.
Keywords: Logistic Depot Planning, Repair and Maintenance Cost Volatility, Changing Climate, Stochastic Optimal
Control, Lattice.
Introduction
N owadays, global warming has resulted visible changes to the infrastructure due to its impact on
the thawing of the permafrost regions. Because of the corresponding effects, such as ice melts,
sea level rises, the buildings in Arctic regions suffer significant weakening of their foundations.
Meanwhile, this arouses the problem of increasing repair and maintenance (R&M) cost which,
typically, fluctuates substantially over time. Consequently, critical decisions need to be made. For
example, what is the most economically rational strategic planning for logistic depots? When is the
optimal time to implement such strategic planning?
Under such framework, the research problem we aim to solve is, given the R&M cost uncertainty,
what is the optimal time for an airport in the Arctic region to be re-located? The approach to be used
* Ph.D. Candidate, Iowa State University.

** Associate Professor, Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Iowa State University.
Contact: jkj@iastate.edu.
*** Associate Professor & Associate Chair for Undergraduate Education, Department of Industrial and Manufacturing
Systems Engineering, Iowa State University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to K. Jo Min,
Iowa State University. Contact: jomin@iastate.edu.
33
is binomial lattice model discretized from geometric Brownian motion (GBM) process based on the
stochastic optimal control theory.
The rest of this article is organized as follows. Related literature on the repair and maintenance of
logistic depots and real option approach is introduced in the next section. In the modelling section,
binomial lattices mimicking the evolution of airport R&M cost before and after re-location are
constructed separately. The options that the decision makers have are examined, and the lattices are
valuated to find the economic strategy and the optimal time to re-locate the airport. A numerical study
is conducted to demonstrate our findings. Finally, conclusions and future research are presented.
Literature Review
Repair and Maintenance of Logistic Depots
Airport in Arctic Regions. Airfield pavements inspection is conducted every three years and the condition
is measured by the average pavement condition index (PCI). Typically, runway rehabilitation (e.g., a
pavement overlay) is required when PCI drops below 70, and reconstruction is in need when PCI falls to
55-60 (Anderson, 2019). Permafrost degradation and increase in the active permafrost layer undermine
the stability of paved airport runways in the Canadian (and likely Alaskan) north (Mills & Andrey,
2002). In fact, every year, Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (DOT&PF), the
largest airport owner in the United States, spends $34M on operations and maintenance on its 240
rural airports (Anderson, 2019). To adjust to the changing climate, the transportation infrastructure
maintenance costs in Alaska is expected to increase to an even higher level (Smith & Levasseur, 2002).
Other adaption options to climate change for airport would be major refurbishment (with a life span
of 10-20 years), and reconstruction or major upgrade (with a life span of 50 years) (Auld, Maclver, &
Klaassen, 2006). Moreover, considering the uncertainty of climate change in the future, Dobes (2010)
suggested three alternatives for airport runways, i.e., to build a longer runway immediately, to purchase
additional land for a runway extension but to wait until temperatures increased significantly before
undertaking its construction, as well as to purchase a financial option to buy the land if temperatures
rise by a specific date in the future.
Furthermore, the changing coastlines and rising sea levels might lead to the relocation of airport runways
in the long term (Potter, 2002). According to Northwest Arctic Borough (2019), Alaska DOT&PF has
been cooperating with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to re-locate the Noatak Airport in
the Village of Noatak from perspective of safety, reliability and cost-effectiveness. In the long run, the
re-location of airport appears to be the most efficient way, and thus, it will be the focus of this paper.
Harbor Maintenance Trust Fund (HMTF) Expenditures. Harbor Maintenance Trust Fund (HMTF)
functions as appropriation from the Congress for harbor dredging (Frittelli, 2010). The HMTF balance
(in million $) from 1988 to 2011 are plotted in Figure 1, where HMTF expenditure is colored in red.
Figure 1. HMTF balance (in million $) (Frittelli, 2010)

34
LOGISTIC DEPOT PLANNING UNDER R&M COST UNCERTAINTY
By converting the data from plot to numeric values in Table 1 using WebPlotDigitizer (Rohatgi,
2019), and re-plotting HMTF expenditure data over time (Figure 2), it can be observed that, HMFT
expenditure has a positive growth rate in the long term and fluctuates over time.
Table 1
Figure 2. HMFT expenditure from 1988 to 2011

Real Options Approach
Real options approach has been widely applied in areas such as investment under uncertainty, supply
chain and logistics, innovation and technology as it incorporates the flexibility the decision makers face
in many operating decisions (Trigeorgis & Tsekrekos, 2018). Specifically, in terms of the application
of real options in infrastructure, fruitful literature can be found in the field of parking garage, toll road,
highway, real estate, hospital, power plant, airport, etc. (Martins, Marques, & Cruz, 2013). In 2003,
Smit analyzed the optional and strategic features of European airport expansion using real options
35
theory and game theory. Chambers (2007) conducted a comprehensive study on the uncertainty in
airport design and investigated the airport flexible design strategies using a real options approach.
Kwakkel, Walker, & Marchau (2010) investigated the airport strategic planning problem incorporating
the uncertain factors such as fuel price, new type of aircraft, the liberalization and privatization of
airlines and airports. In 2014, Park, Kim, & Kim estimated the value of wait option for the improvement
investment on drainage system under the flood damage uncertainty using binomial model.
Modelling
To start, the R&M cost of an existing airport in the Arctic region at year t, dC1t (unit: $) is modeled
as a GBM process.
where α1 is the growth rate of the R&M cost of the existing airport (unit: % per year), while σ1 is the
volatility of the R&M cost of the existing airport (unit: % per square root of year). dt is the increment
of time, while dz is the increment of a standard Wiener process zt. That is,
Similarly, the R&M cost of a new airport after re-location at year t, dC_2t (unit: $) is assumed to
follow a GBM process as well with different parameters.
where α2 is the growth rate of the R&M cost of the new airport (unit: % per year), while σ1 is the
volatility of the R&M cost of the new airport (unit: % per square root of year). dt and dz have the
same meaning as it in dC2t.
The parameters in both GBM process are different is because there is no proportional relationship
between the two R&M costs due to lack of evidence. Furthermore, the new airport should be embedded
with more reinforced infrastructure that has longer life cycle. Therefore, the annual R&M cost is
expected to be reduced and to have a lower volatility. As a result, there is no closed form solution
when solving the optimal threshold of R&M cost, and that invites us to implement the binomial lattice
model to obtain the solution.
The continuous R&M cost evolution can be discretized using binomial lattice model, where the up
multiplier u, the down multiplier d, and the risk neutral probability q are defined as follows (White,
2016).
where ∆t is the time interval, and ρ is the annual discount rate for money (unit: %).
Considering the demerit of binomial lattice model, i.e., computation complexity, a three-phase
binomial lattice model is constructed to demonstrate the evolution of airport R&M cost before and
after re-location (Figure 3).
36
Figure 3. A three-phase binomial lattice of R&M cost before and after re-location
For planning purposes, the following assumptions are proposed.
Assumption 1: The re-location fee is paid by the decision maker at the time when the re-location
decision is made.
Assumption 2: The re-location process will take one time period to complete after the re-location
decision is made.
Assumption 3: The R&M cost at the decision-making time follows the cost evolution before re-
location, and that afterwards will follow the cost evolution after re-location.
Let Cti denote the R&M cost at time ti (i =1,2,3). R is the re-location fee (R=0 if no re-location occurs).
For instance, if the decision maker decides to re-locate an airport at time ti, a re-location fee R will
be paid by the decision maker at time ti. The re-location will take the period from time ti to time ti+1
to complete. Cti follows the cost evolution before re-location, while C t follows the cost evolution
i+1
after re-location.
In a three-phase binomial lattice model, the decision maker can opt to re-locate the airport either at
time 1 or at time 2 with certain re-location strategies. The exhaustive and mutually exclusive option
sets the decision maker has are as listed below, followed by the corresponding valuation equation.
The valuation of lattice is measured by the sum of Net Present Value (NPV) of R&M costs at each
time point plus the discounted re-location fee if there is an airport re-location.
Option 1. At time 1, decide to re-locate (Figure 4).
Figure 4. R&M cost lattice for option 1
Option 2. At time 1, decide not to re-locate; at time 2, decide to relocate regardless of the R&M level
at time 2 (Figure 5).
37
Option 3. At time 1, decide not to re-locate; at time 2, decide to relocate only when R&M cost increases
from C1 to u1C1, i.e., no actions will be taken if R&M cost decreases from C1 to d1C1 (Figure 6).
Option 4. At time 1, decide not to re-locate; at time 2, decide to relocate only when R&M cost decreases
from C1 to d1C1, i.e., no actions will be taken if R&M cost increases from C1 to u1 C1 (Figure 7).

38
Option 5. At time 1, decide not to re-locate; at time 2, decide not to relocate regardless of the R&M
level at time 2 (Figure 8).
The optimal timing can be determined by the option that gives a minimal lattice value because we
are minimizing the cost.
Numerical Study
In this section, we conduct a numerical study to illustrate how to utilize our model to identify the
optimal re-location time. The hypothetical parameter values used in the numerical example are listed
in Table 2 and Table 3.
Table 2
39
Table 3
The R&M cost lattice before and after re-location are presented in Figure 9.
Figure 9. Numerical example for R&M cost lattice before and after re-location
Sequentially, the R&M cost lattice for each of the five options are calculated in Figure 10 – Figure 14.
Figure 10. Numerical example for R&M cost lattice for option 1
40
Using equation (6) – (10), the value of lattice for the five options can be obtained, and the results are
summarized in Table 4.
41
Table 4
In this three-phase lattice model, the 5th option (airport will never be re-located) turns out to optimal.
However, this decision might not be economically rational in the long run when more phases are
included in the lattices. This is because as the time goes by, the R&M cost saved by the airport re-
location accumulates, and it might exceed the one-time expense on airport re-location at certain time
points in the future.
Additionally, suppose the airport re-location has to happen, the most economic strategy for re-location
is to decide at time 2 and re-location will be completed by time 3, regardless of the R&M cost level
at time 2. The optimal time to re-locate is time 2.
Conclusion
In summary, this paper examines the strategy, e.g., the optimal time, for airport re-location in Arctic
regions given the uncertain R&M cost using binomial lattice. We start with modeling R&M cost as
GBM process followed by discretization. We then derive the mutually exclusive option sets that the
decision maker has and propose the valuation of lattice for each option. The most economic strategy
can be selected by minimizing the value of cost, and the optimal time to re-locate will be identified
accordingly. We note that the economically rational strategy and the optimal time for airport re-location
depend on the parameter values such as the volatility of R&M cost, airport re-location fee, discount
rate for money.
This paper can be viewed as a preliminary exploration on the logistic depot planning under the R&M
cost uncertainty under climate change. For future research, the influence of the aforementioned
parameters on the re-location decision will be examined. For instance, under which circumstances,
the airport should be re-located. Or when the discount rate for money decreases, should the decision
maker re-locate the airport earlier or later? We will also incorporate the uncertainty of government
policies by embedding a jump in diffusion process referring to Amin’s (1993) work. Furthermore,
empirical approach will be implemented so that more phases can be included.
42
References
Amin, K. I. (1993). Jump diffusion option valuation in discrete time. The journal of finance, 48(5),
1833-1863.
Anderson T. (2019). Alaska Infrastructure Report Card. ASCE’s 2017 Infrastructure Report Card.
Retrieved from https://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Alaska-RC.
pdf on October 14, 2019.
Auld, H., Maclver, D., & Klaassen, J. (2006, May). Adaptation options for infrastructure under changing
climate conditions. In 2006 IEEE EIC Climate Change Conference (pp. 1-11). IEEE.
Chambers, R. D. (2007). Tackling uncertainty in airport design: A real options approach (Doctoral
dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Engineering Systems Division, Technology and
Policy Program).
Dobes, L. (2010). Notes on applying ‘real options’ to climate change adaptation measures, with
examples from Vietnam. Crawford School Research Paper.
Dmouj, A. (2006). Stock price modelling: Theory and Practice. Masters Degree Thesis, Vrije Universiteit.
Frittelli, J. (2010). Harbor maintenance trust fund expenditures. Congressional Research Service.
Kwakkel, J. H., Walker, W. E., & Marchau, V. A. W. J. (2010). Adaptive airport strategic planning.
European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research, 10(3).
Martins, J., Marques, R. C., & Cruz, C. O. (2013). Real options in infrastructure: Revisiting the
literature. Journal of Infrastructure Systems, 21(1), 04014026.
Mills, B., & Andrey, J. (2002). Climate change and transportation: potential interactions and impacts.
The potential impacts of climate change on transportation, 77.
Montgomery, M. (2019). Arctic airport, upgrades to deal with climate change. Retrieved from https://
www.rcinet.ca/en/2019/07/02/arctic-airport-upgrades-to-deal-with-climate-change/ on October 15, 2019.
Northwest Arctic Borough. (2019). Noatak Airport Relocation. Retrieved from https://www.nwabor.
org/about/projects/noatak-airport-relocation/ on October 14, 2019.
Park, T., Kim, C., & Kim, H. (2014). Valuation of drainage infrastructure improvement under climate
change using real options. Water resources management, 28(2), 445-457.
Potter, J. R. (2002). The Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Transportation. Federal Research
Partnership Workshop. Workshop Summary.
Rohatgi, A. (2019, April). WebPlotDigitizer. Retrieved from https://automeris.io/WebPlotDigitizer
on October 1, 2019.
Rossetti, M. A. (2002, October). Potential impacts of climate change on railroads. In The Potential
Impacts of Climate Change on Transportation: Workshop Summary and Proceedings.
Smit, H. T. (2003). Infrastructure investment as a real options game: the case of European airport
expansion. Financial Management, 27-57.
Smith, O. P., & Levasseur, G. (2002). Impacts of climate change on transportation infrastructure in
Alaska. The Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Transportation, 151.
Thurnton, D. (2015). Runway sinkhole cancels Canadian North flight to Inuvik. Retrieved from https://
www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/runway-sinkhole-cancels-canadian-north-flight-to-inuvik-1.3044768
on October 15, 2019.
Trigeorgis, L., & Tsekrekos, A. E. (2018). Real options in operations research: A review. European
Journal of Operational Research, 270(1), 1-24.
White Jr, J. A. (2016). Using a Real-Options Analysis Tutorial in Teaching Undergraduate Students.
43
Appendix A
The estimation of parameters (i.e., volatility and growth rate) of the GBM process of HMTF expenditure
is based on Dmouj (2006)’s work on stock price modelling. A stochastic process S_t is considered to
follow a GBM process when it satisfies the following the stochastic differential equation,
where Bt is a random walk process or Brownian motion with a drift.
Suppose the initial value is S0, the future values can be expressed as
First, we denote Si as the HMTF expenditure at year i (unit: million $). We assume the R&M cost at
year 1988 as the initial value, S0=70.1754.
1. τ is defined as the length of time interval between two consecutive measured periods whereas
τ=ti -ti -1, for i =1,2,…,n (n=23). In this case, τ=1 year.
2. Let α_i be the logarithm of the costs over the short time interval τ, i.e.
3. The unbiased estimator α̅ of the logarithm of the costs αi is given by
4. The estimator of the of the standard deviation of the αi’s is given by
5.
6. Since the estimator of the standard deviation of the yearly cost is equal to σ√dt, it follows that σ
can be simply estimated by with a standard error equal to
7. The growth rate is given by: Hence,

8. The estimated growth rate and volatility can be calculated using the following equations.
We have σ̂ =0.3250 with a standard error of 0.0479, and α̂ =0.1604. Therefore, the HMTF expenditure
at a year is estimated as
44
Chapter III
Papers Presented in the NY2019 Interdisciplinary Conference On Evolving
Trends In Academic Research
December 13-15, 2019, New York City, New York.
Democracy and Peace
Dr. Saroj Bala [ * ] and Jannat Jannat [ ** ]

Gandhi Memorial National College, India.
Abstract
It is widely believed that democracy and peace are linked together inextricably and the peace cannot be achieved in the
absence of democracy. In fact, it is said that democracy leads to and causes peace.
Various conflict which have taken place in most of the democratic countries may be the most dramatic and horrific examples
of the international community’s failure to successfully advance peace and democracy in a divided society. majority of
countries that fight internal conflicts and then sign peace agreements remain unstable. Notwithstanding the best efforts
of the International community to assist in their post-war reconstruction these countries often return to hostilities within
a few-years. In such a situation, this is the time to seriously question whether the political technology of democracy can
possibly keep the peace in tomorrow’s world. Thus, a through reconsideration of the relationship between democracy and
peace is essential. This paper is an attempt to make a beginning in this direction.
The principal challenge in building peace and democracy in all divided societies, lies not in abstract, sector-specific
institutional ‘Fixes’ but rather in bringing key leaders together in a long-term process designed to resolve the tensions and
mistrust that are the inevitable by product of conflict and war, and to build (or rebuild) their capacity to work effectively
together across all of the country’s lines of ethnic and political division. Failing that, institutional transformation will have
little substance and no sustainability.
This analysis suggests that the global revolution will only be consolidated when a stronger, more coherent new structure of
state relations and forms replaces those of the national-international order which is disintegrating. Further major upheavals
are inevitable before the global revolution can be consolidated in anything like a stable order, in which conflict is managed
institutionally rather than erupting in widespread violence. In this sense, the contradictory relations of democracy and
war are likely to continue to mark the history of the early twenty-first century.
Keywords: Democracy, Peace.
I t is widely believed that democracy and peace are linked together inextricably and the peace cannot
be achieved in the absence of democracy. In fact, it is said that democracy leads to and causes peace
(Ostrowski, 2002:1)
Since the 1980s there has been a ‘new turbulence’ in world politics (Rosenau, 1990) Fundamental
processes of change have affected both the internal politics and external relation of nation-states.
Although these processes have been complex and contradictory, two major trends i.e. democratisation
within states, and the pacification of relations between them have been widely welcomed by liberals
* Assistant Professor of Political Science, Gandhi Memorial National College. Correspondence concerning this article
should be addressed to Dr. Saroj Bala, GMN College. Contact: lohan07saroj@yahoo.com.
** Student of Political Science, Gandhi Memorial National College. Contact: jannatnain4@gmail.com.
46
and democratic opinion. Since 1989, the number of formally democratic or at least democratizing-
states has increased rapidly. At the same time inter-state war-at least between central states in the
international system has become increasingly unlikely (Shaw, 2000). In reality, the main threat to world
peace today is not war between two nation-states, but (1) nuclear arms proliferation, (2) terrorism and
(3) ethnic and religious conflict within states. In fact, India the world’s largest democracy appeared
to be itching to start a war with Pakistan, bringing the world closer to nuclear war than it has been for
many years. The United States, the world’s leading democracy, is waging war in Afghanistan, which
is related to the terrorism and ethnic/religious conflict. Therefore, the vaunted political machinery
of democracy has failed to deliver on its promises. The United States, the quintessential democracy,
was directly and indirectly involved in most of the major wars in the 20th century. On September 11,
2001, the 350 year experiment with the modern nation - state ended in failure (Ostrowski, 2002:2) .
Various conflicts which have taken place in most of the democratic countries may be the most dramatic
and horrific examples of the international community’s failure to successfully advance peace and
democracy in a divided society. Majority of countries that fight internal conflicts and then sign peace
agreements remain unstable. Notwithstanding the best efforts of the International community to
assist in their post-war reconstruction these countries often return to hostilities within a few-years
(Wolpe, and Mcdonald, 2008:1). In such a situation, this is the time to seriously question whether the
political technology of democracy can possibly keep the peace in tomorrow’s world. Thus, a through
reconsideration of the relationship between democracy and peace is essential. This paper is an attempt
to make a beginning in this direction.
The more interesting issue is therefore how to develop a more holistic conception of contemporary
worldwide social and political change in which the relations of democracy and peace can be understood
(Shaw, 2000: 1). This is the time to re-examine the assumptions underlying the relationship between
the peace-building and democratic promotion. Typically, peace agreements are the product of extensive
external pressure on the belligerent parties to a conflict. That pressure may in fact yield an agreement
to sign a peace accord. But there is no reason to believe that the signatories of such a externally
induced (or imposed) agreement see each other any differently the day after they have signed the
agreement, or understand their conflict any differently. Nor is there any reason to believe, the leaders
are any more willing to address the underlying structural inequalities-economic inequalities, the
political exclusion of one party or another-that gave rise to the conflict in the first instance (Wolpe
and McDonald, 2008: 138).
Policy-makers often speak of the ‘institutional’ prerequisites of transparent, democratic governance:
multiparty electoral competition, a separation of powers, the rule of law, a free and vigorous press and
the like. The policy dialogue seems to reflect little appreciation of the dependence of institutions on the
individuals that comprise their constituent elements. Indeed, institutional transformation requires in
the first instance the personal transformation of individual leaders – in the way they understand their
conflict, in how they relate to one another and in their capacity for collaborative decision – making
(Wolpe and McDonald, 2008: 138).
The principal challenge in building peace and democracy in all divided societies, lies not in abstract,
sector-specific institutional ‘Fixes’ but rather in bringing key leaders together in a long-term process
designed to resolve the tensions and mistrust that are the inevitable by product of conflict and war,
and to build (or rebuild) their capacity to work effectively together across all of the country’s lines of
ethnic and political division. Failing that, institutional transformation will have little substance and
no sustainability (Wolpe and McDonald, 2008: 138).
Modern democracy is, ‘of cause’ very different from that of classical democracy. It is taken for granted
that democracy involves an open representative system based on elections through universal suffrage,
with entrenched freedom of expression and association, within a nation-state. This is indeed the dominant
model of the Western bloc of states, approximated in a number of other states worldwide, and rapidly
47
DEMOCRACY AND PEACE
becoming (since the end of the Cold War) the norm to which most states pay lip-service, as well as
the object of American as well as general Western policy throughout the world (Robinson, 1996).
Even if, however, we agree some such definition of modern democracy, it tells us relatively little about
the nature and changing role of democracy in the emerging twenty-first century world, including its
relation to peace. Democracy has always been both an institutional form and a social movement - often
even a revolutionary movement. In the contemporary world, while democracy is becoming normal,
it is also contested - notably between those who wish to use democratic forms to maintain largely
authoritarian elite rule, and those wish to enlarge popular freedoms and control. Democracy is part
of the great changes of our times and as such is often partial and compromised as well as insecure
and unstable (Shaw, 2000:2).
“Today’s was are very different from these of the recent historical past. Warfare can be defined as
organized violence between two parties in which each seeks to compel the other to submit to its will
(Small and Singer (1982). Warfare has undergone such huge transformations in modern times, and taken
so many diverse forms that it is difficult to agree on standard modern form. In such, circumstances,
to define ‘Peace’ is also less clear. Many defined cold war, despite its perpetual war-preparation and
proxy wars, as a form of peace. While clearly non-warlike relations have been consolidated between
the formed cold war adversaries, and war appears to be in the process of abolition between the major
states or group of states, the world wide extent of warfare in still alarming (Shaw, 2000:2).
Therefore, at the heart of these uncertainties about democracy, peace and war lies the conundrum
of the modern state. What these uncertainties tell us is that democracy, war and peace, and state or
nation- state, are all concepts which need to be grasped in the context of successive changes in social
and political relations in general.
The relations of war and democracy in the cold war flowed from the realities of bloc-competition.
Democracy became a line of Division and an ideology of the cold war. But surprisingly, democracies
in this era did not fight each other. But this was hardly because they were democracies. Rather, they
did not fight and were democracies for a common set of reasons i.e. their mutual subordination to the
major victor of the war (America) and their common rivalry with the soviet block. However, during
the cold war, democratic movements within both the soviet block and the IIIrd world – and even
social movements for democractic change within the west- often came up against the limits of the
democratic western state (Shaw, 2000:2).
In the global era, established liberal democratic states do not fight each other. But once again, it is
obvious that this is not simply because of their being democracies, but because they are embedded
in the raft of common western and global state institutions. Indeed it is not just liberal democracies
which do not fight each other: the major non-western states (Russia, China, India, Brazil etc.), whether
democratic or not, are not likely to fight with the dominant western powers (Shaw, 2000:2).
Outside the Western core of global state power, however, national centres are more weakly integrated
with its institutional structures, and regional institutions which might inhibit local conflicts are much
weaker than they are in the core. In the Cold War era, interstate rivalries between major regional
powers - such as between Russia and China, India and Pakistan and China, Indonesia and Malaysia,
Iran and Iraq, Israel and the Arab states - led to wars and border incidents. While the integrative
tendencies in the emerging global polity, including the democratization trends, may increasingly inhibit
wars, it clearly remains possible that such interstate rivalries will generate new wars. It is clear that
democratization in itself is not a guarantee of war-avoidance in such conflicts
The renewed global institutions remain far too accommodating to states and parties which launch
wars. They largely failed to manage the outbreak of new, genocidal wars in the 1990s, and have
managed the aftermath in ways which have offered little to victimized populations. The development
of international legal institutions, especially the International Tribunal for Yugoslavia and Rwanda
and the proposed permanent International Criminal Court, has been important, but slow and uncertain.
48
(The United States has scandalously refused to cede even minimal authority to the proposed court.)
Although there is some evidence that the numbers of wars in Europe and the former Soviet area is
declining, with the stalemating of post-Cold War conflicts (Smith, 1998), the progress of global order
so far offers little hope of any fundamental advance in the control of violence.
This analysis suggests that the global revolution will only be consolidated when a stronger, more
coherent new structure of state relations and forms replaces those of the national-international order
which is disintegrating. Further major upheavals are inevitable before the global revolution can be
consolidated in anything like a stable order, in which conflict is managed institutionally rather than
erupting in widespread violence. In this sense, the contradictory relations of democracy and war are
likely to continue to mark the history of the early twenty-first century.
On the one hand, there are forces in global state institutions and civil society which are pushing
towards the creation of a genuine, stable democracy both within national units and in expanded
global state institutions. On the other, there are powerful forces in national states and societies which
will continue to use war to counter this democratic revolution, and who will abuse democratic forms
to create and legitimate their power. On the evidence to date, the dominant Western state-bloc and
its American centre will continue to vacillate between these contending forces, often much more
concerned with their own local interests than with global principles. The demonstration that there
is a causal link between democratic government within states and peaceful relations between them
may support the reorientation of Western - especially American - foreign policy towards the belated
promotion of democracy, but it neatly returns the primary responsibility for a peaceful world order to
local state elites. In an era when Western leaders are more willing to talk global and democratic than
to commit real resources and effort to the construction of global democratic institutions, this may be
a reassuring doctrine.
This is a situation in which the equation of democracy and peace is more a historic promise, which
we are beginning to realise through global movements and institutions, than a settled pattern which
we can identify with established democratic nation-states and their inter-relations. The given historic
pattern, indeed, which continues to this day, is one in which democracy has been implicated too often
in war, violence and even genocide. Overcoming this legacy, rather than complacently affirming the
superiority of Western democratic states, is the real challenge.
49
DEMOCRACY AND PEACE
References
Ostrowski, James (2002). The myth of Democractic peace: why democracy cannot deliver peace in
the 21st century, p. 1. www.lewrockwell.com
Robinson, William (1996). Promoting Polyarchy: Globlization, US intervention and hegemony,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rosenau, James N. (1990). Turbulence in world politics, Princeton: Princeton university press.
Shaw, Martin (2000). Democracy and peace in the global revolution, eds. I, Making global spaces,
lynne rienner critical security studies series, Boulder.
Small and Singer (1982). Resort to Arms: International and civil wars, 1860-1980, London : Sage.
Smith, Dan (1998). Europe’s suspended conflicts. War Report, 58, February-March, 11-16.
Wolpe, Howard and Mcdonald, Steve (2008). Democracy and peace-building: rethinking the conventional
wisdom in The Round Table, Vol. 97, No. 394, 137-145, p.1.
50
Environmental Ethics: Issues and Possible Solutions
Aisha Singh [ * ]
Panjab University, Chandigarh, India.
Abstract
Environmental ethics deals with issues that are related to the resources which we utilize and distribute. Can individuals
justifiably use resources so differently that one individual uses resources many times more lavishly than other individuals
who have barely enough to survive? The just distribution of resources has global, national and local concerns that we need
to address. There are rich and poor nations, communities and families. In this era of modern economic development,
the disparity between the haves and have-nots is widening. This unequal distribution of wealth and access to land and its
resources is a serious environmental concern. The question arises is who pays for the cost of environmental degradation?
Most sections of the society do not feel the direct effects of degradation of the environment till it is too late. The most
sufferers are the poor, especially rural women, and tribal people who are dependent on forests. . All these effects can be
linked to unsustainable increasing pressures on land and natural resources. These people thus require a different pattern
of environment education related to their gaps in information. With the rapidly changing rural scenario the development
that is thrust on unsuspecting rural communities needs to be addressed through locale specific environment awareness
programs designed specifically for rural school children and adults. This must also use their local traditional knowledge
systems as a base on which modern concepts can be built, rather than by fostering concepts that are completely alien
to their own knowledge systems. Therefore there is a need for some possible solutions which are admissible for all the
nations and communities in the world.
Keywords: Environmental Ethics, Rural Equity Issues, Environmental Values.
E nvironmental ethics deals with the issues that are related to the rights of individuals that are
fundamental to life and well being. This concerns not only the needs of each person today, but
also the need of those who will come after us. It also deals with the rights of other living creatures
that inhabit our earth. Environmental ethics deals with issues that are related to the resources which
we utilize and distribute. Can individuals justifiably use resources so differently that one individual
uses resources many times more lavishly than other individuals who have barely enough to survive?
In a just world, there has to be a more equitable sharing of resources. The just distribution of resources
has global, national and local concerns that we need to address. There are rich and poor nations,
communities and families. In this era of modern economic development, the disparity between
the haves and have-nots is widening. This unequal distribution of wealth and access to land and its
resources is a serious environmental concern. An equitable sharing of resources forms the basis of
sustainable development for urban, rural and wilderness dwelling communities. As the political power
base is in the urban centers, this itself leads to inequalities and a subsequent loss of sustainability in
resource management in the rural and even more so for forest dwelling people. India’s environmental
* Law Student, Department of Law, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India. Correspondence concerning this article
should be addressed to Aisha Singh, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India. Contact: aishalohan123@gmail.com.
51
problems were caused by the excessive consumption patterns of the rich that makes the poor poorer.
It was appreciated for the first time that tribals, especially women and other marginalized sectors of
our society, were being left out of economic development. There are multiple stakeholders in Indian
society who are dependent on different natural resources which cater directly or indirectly to their
survival needs.
There are some propositions which are of great relevance to the ethical issues that are related to
environmental concerns. These include:
1. Environmental destruction is largely caused by the consumption of the rich.
2. The worst sufferers of environmental destruction are the poor.
3. Even where nature is being ‘recreated’, as in afforestation, it is being transformed away from the
needs of the poor and towards those of the rich.
4. Even among the poor, the worst sufferers are the marginalized cultures and occupations, and most
of all, women
5. No proper economic and social development can be possible without a holistic understanding of
society and nature.
6. If we care for the poor, we cannot allow the Gross Nature Product to be destroyed any further.
Conserving and recreating nature has become our highest priority.
7. Gross Nature Product will be enhanced only by arresting and reversing the growing alienation
between the people and the common property resources.
8. It is totally inadequate to talk only of sustainable rural development, as the World Conservation
Strategy does. One cannot save the rural environment or rural people dependent on it, without
sustainable urban development.
Now the question arises is who pays for the cost of environmental degradation? Most sections of
the society do not feel the direct effects of degradation of the environment till it is too late. The
most sufferers are the poor, especially rural women, and tribal people who are dependent on forests.
Traditional fishermen who are dependent on streams and rivers, and coastal people who fish and catch
rustacea, are seriously affected by the degradation of aquatic ecosystems. Fuel wood gatherers from
different types of forests and pastoralists who are dependent on common grazing lands suffer by the
depletion of resources. Several marginalized sectors of society are most affected by deforestation,
or by the loss of grassland tracts, or by the deterioration of perennial water sources. All these effects
can be linked to unsustainable increasing pressures on land and natural resources. As compare to the
traditional rural individual the well to do educated urban dweller consumes much larger quantities
of resources and energy. Urban dwellers who are far removed from the source of natural resources
that sustain their lives thus require exposure to a well-designed environment education program to
appreciate these issues. While the rural people have a deep insight on the need for sustainable use
of natural resources and know about methods of conservation, there are however several newer
environmental concerns that are frequently outside their sphere of life experiences. Their traditional
knowledge of environmental concerns cannot be expected to bring about an understanding of issues
such as global warming, or problems created by pollution, pesticides, etc. These people thus require
a different pattern of environment education related to their gaps in information. With the rapidly
changing rural scenario the development that is thrust on unsuspecting rural communities needs to
be addressed through locale specific environment awareness programs designed specifically for rural
school children and adults. This must also use their local traditional knowledge systems as a base on
which modern concepts can be built, rather than by fostering concepts that are completely alien to their
own knowledge systems. Therefore there is a need for some possible solutions which are admissible
for all the nations and communities in the world.
52
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: ISSUES AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
Possible solutions
1. Equity: Disparity in the Northern and Southern countries Environmental ethics are concerned with,
who owns resources and how they are distributed. This can be looked upon at different levels. At the
global level it deals with the great North – South divide between the rich industrialized nations of
North America and Europe, as against such as in South and Southeast Asia and South America. People
living in the economically advanced nations use greater amounts of resources and energy per individual
and also waste more resources. This is at the cost of poor people who are resource dependant and live
in developing nations. The economically advanced West has exploited their own natural resources to
such an extent that they have exhausted them nearly everywhere. They now buy their resources from
resource rich but economically deprived nations at a low cost. This depletes the developing nations
of natural resources on which their poor depend for their livelihood. Changing this unfair economic
practice to a more just and fair way in managing trade would require a new thinking on the part of
people who live in the super rich countries. the needs of developing countries of the South.
2. Urban – rural equity issues: The common property of rural communities has increasingly been
used to supply the needs of the urban sector. Land itself that was once held as a common property
resource of villages is being taken over by the urban and industrial sectors as it expands. The rural
sector not only supplies food, but also a part of the energy needs (mainly fuelwood) to most towns
and cities in India, at a pittance. As a result, the commons of the rural sector are being depleted of
their resources. Thus while the cities get richer, the rural sector, especially the landless, get poorer.
The urban rich must appreciate where their resources are derived from and be willing to pay a fair
price for using them.
3. The need for Gender Equity: All over India, especially in the rural sector, women work on the
whole longer hours than men. The life of a woman is enmeshed in an inextricable cycle of poverty.
In attempting to eke out a living from their environment, they must constantly collect fuelwood for
their homes and for sale to nearby urban areas. They laboriously collect fodder for their cattle. They
have to trudge several kilometers to reach a reasonably clean water source. And finally must cook
meals in a smoky unhealthy atmosphere on crop waste or other inefficient sources of energy. All this
can take 10 to 12 hours a day of very hard work, every day of the year. There is thus the question of
who should control the environmental resources of a rural community. Unfortunately it is the men
who play a decisive role in managing the village commons and its resources whereas it should be the
local women whose lives are deeply linked with the utilisation and conservation patterns of natural
resources, who should be decision makers at the local level. Unfortunately women have not been given
an equal opportunity to develop and better their lot. This begins with the lack of attention given to
girls whose education is always given less attention than the boys in the family. Unless society begins
to see that development cannot be planned by a male dominated society from the male perspective
alone, will we be able to create a better living environment for women and their children? The great
divide between women and men is most apparent in communities that live near forests and have by
tradition made the woman play a greater role than men in collection of natural resources. Women fetch
water, collect fuelwood, fruit, medicinal products, etc. day in and day out, while the men work only
sporadically in the fields. This disparity in the lives of women and men has also led to a lower access
to education and health care for girl children. This has deep implications for the rate of utilization
of natural resources and its conservation. Rural women, who are intimately connected to resources,
appreciate the value of conserving natural resources more deeply than men. Thus several environmental
movements such as Chipko have been more strongly supported by local women folk rather than men.
4. Preserving resources for future generations: Can we use up all the resources of the world,
leaving nothing for our future generations? This ethical issue must be considered when we use
resources unsustainably. If we overuse and misuse resources and energy from fossil fuels, our future
generations would find survival much more difficult. A critical concern is to preserve species and
natural undisturbed ecosystems that are linked with bioresources, which must be protected for the use
53
of future generations. Our generation does not own the world’s resources to do whatever we please
with them. Just as our ancestors have left resources for us, it is our duty to leave them behind for our
future generations. These unborn people have a right to these resources. We only hold the world as
trustees so that future generations can also survive. Our current development strategies have led to
environmental resources being overused and misused by our present generation, without a thought
for the needs of future unborn generations. We need to appreciate that the next generation and those
that will come later also have a right to the earth’s natural resources. As they are not here today to
exercise their rights, it is our generation’s responsibility to appreciate the needs of future generations.
We have no right to destroy their claim to the use of the earth’s resources just because of the accident
of being born before them. Development strategies have not looked at the sustainable levels at which
we can use resources so that the rights of future generations are protected. We are not given the earth
so that we can use up its resources. It is given to us to hold in trust so that future generations are given
their just share of the earth’s resources.
5. The rights of animals: Can man, a single species, use and severely exploit the earth’s resources
which we share with billions of other plant and animal species? Within our world there are a variety
of living beings. The plants and animals that share the earth with us too have a right to live and share
our earth’s resources and living space. We have no right to push a species that has taken millions of
years to evolve towards extinction. Not only do wild and domesticated animals have a right to life,
but have the right to a dignified existence. Cruelty to an animal is no different ethically from cruelty
to another human being. Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy was based on the assumption that human
beings were not masters of the other forms of life. He believed that humans were ‘trustees of the lower
animal kingdom’. Human beings are one small cog in the wheel of life on earth. We frequently forget
that man has learned to exploit nature and other species well beyond what we should use justifiably.
Every plant and animal has a right to life as a part of our earth’s community of living things. While
nature by itself has natural prey-predator relationships, left to itself, nature maintains a balance in
each ecosystem. While evolution has developed a system whereby species become extinct and new
ones evolve to fill the world’s ecosystems with new plant and animal species, it is man alone that has
been responsible for the recent rapid decline in the number of species on earth. Much more important
man is now reducing the abundance levels of so many species that in the near future we will in all
probability create a major extinction spasm on earth that will seriously endanger the existence of
mankind. Thus endangering the existence of wild plants and animals and bringing them close to the
brink of extinction is not only unfair to a species but also to future generation of people who may
find them of great use. Quite apart from the use of these species, there is a strong ethical basis for the
rights of animals and plants to exist on earth. Every individual, human or animal, that is living has
feelings and emotions. Cruelty to animals is a crime that must be regarded seriously and action must
be taken against offenders. Animals have a right to a dignified existence, and their life, well-being and
liberty must be respected. While dominating over the animal world due to his superior intelligence,
man cannot remain unfeeling to the right to life and well being of other species. There is a growing
awareness of animal rights in our country and cruelty to animals is being increasingly regarded as a
criminal offence.
6. The ethical basis of environment education and awareness: Perhaps the most important concern
is related to creating an ethos that will support a sustainable lifestyle in society. This brings us to the
need for environmental education. The Honorary Supreme Court of our country has thus ordered that
every young individual at school and college level be exposed to a course on environment. It is not to
create only an awareness of environmental issues, but also to bring about pro environmental action.
Among the variety of tools that can bring home the ethical issues of the environment, no solution
is as powerful as real life experiences in nature. Creating a love for nature brings about strong pro
environmental action. Our current educational processes at school and college level are being reoriented
to bring this about.
54
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: ISSUES AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
References
Des Jardins, J. R. 1997: Environmental Ethics: An Introduction to Environmental Philosophy,

2nd edn. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Environmental Ethics, Environmental Values, Ethics and the Environment, Journal of Agricultural
and Environmental Ethics.
Johnson, L. E. 1991: A Morally Deep World: An Essay on Moral Significance and Environmental
Ethics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Norton, B. G. 1991: Toward Unity Among Environmentalists, New York: Oxford University Press.
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 1992: The Rio Declaration. UNCED
Document A/CONF.151/5/Rev. 1, June 13.
United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development 1987a: Our Common Future,
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Vardy, Peter and Grosch, Paul (1994, 1999), ‘The Puzzle of Ethics’, p.231
55

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International New York Conference on Social Sciences & Engineering and

Interdisciplinary Conference on Evolving Trends in Academic Research on

Dr. Gul Dagci & Dr. Kaan Diyarbakirlioglu

International New York Conference on Social Sciences

International New York Conference on Engineering and Technology Conference

Interdisciplinary Conference on Evolving Trends in Academic Research

Dr. Gul Dagci, Dr. Kaan Diyarbakirlioglu

ICONSOS & Regional Development Studies Institute Inc.

New York, 2019.

International New York Conference on Engineering and Technology Conference

Interdisciplinary Conference on Evolving Trends in Academic Research

Edited by Dr. Gul Dagci & Dr. Kaan Diyarbakirlioglu

Cover image by Kai Pilger from Pixabay

©2019 Regional Development Studies Institute Inc., New York.

How to cite this e-book:

Organizers of the NY2019 Conferences:

Regional Development Studies Institute Inc.

ICONSOS: International Academic Network

ISBN: 978-0-578-61810-4 (e-book)

December 20, 2019, Albany New York.

Dr. Gul Dagci

Chapter III: Papers Presented in the NY2019 Interdisciplinary Conference On Evolving

Data and Measures

Keywords: Gender, Social Support, Family Support, Age.

Keywords: Depression, Social Support, Sleep, Beck’s Depression Inventory-II.

Keywords: Critical Legal Studies, Legal Uncertainty, Law and Politics.

Keywords: Africa, China, Foreign Aid, Vision.

Zhuoyi Zhao [ * ], John Jackman [ ** ], and K. Jo Min [ *** ]

* Ph.D. Candidate, Iowa State University.

Model and Analyses

Figure 1. The timeline for vehicle under ready-made design

which is subject to the following two boundary conditions:

with a technical condition of ρ-α>0 (Dixit and Pindyck, 1994).

Analytical Sensitivity Analysis

Numerical Sensitivity Analysis

Figure 2. Variation in C* and T* with α

Figure 3. Variation in C* and T* with σ

Figure 4. Variation in C* and T* with ρ

Zhuoyi Zhao [ * ], John Jackman [ ** ], and K. Jo Min [ *** ]

* Ph.D. Candidate, Iowa State University.

Figure 1. HMTF balance (in million $) (Frittelli, 2010)

Figure 2. HMFT expenditure from 1988 to 2011

Figure 4. R&M cost lattice for option 1

Figure 5. R&M cost lattice for option 2

Figure 6. R&M cost lattice for option 3

Figure 7. R&M cost lattice for option 4

Figure 8. R&M cost lattice for option 5

where Bt is a random walk process or Brownian motion with a drift.

3. The unbiased estimator α̅ of the logarithm of the costs αi is given by

4. The estimator of the of the standard deviation of the αi’s is given by

7. The growth rate is given by: Hence,

Dr. Saroj Bala [ * ] and Jannat Jannat [ ** ]

Keywords: Democracy, Peace.

Keywords: Environmental Ethics, Rural Equity Issues, Environmental Values.

Des Jardins, J. R. 1997: Environmental Ethics: An Introduction to Environmental Philosophy,

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