MODULE QUANTITATIVE METHOD

CHAPTER 2: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION AND

GRAPHICAL METHODS

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

OBJECTIVE:
➢ Construct group frequency distribution.
➢ Describe different graphing frequency distribution.
➢ Construct a graphing frequency distribution.

Lesson 2.1 Constructing Frequency Distribution

Table
In statistics, a frequency distribution is a list, table or graph that displays the frequency of
various outcomes in a sample. Each entry in the table contains the frequency or count of the
occurrences of the values within a particular group or interval.

Raw data are data collected in an investigation and they are not organized systematically.
These are presented in the form of a frequency distribution called grouped data.

One way of presenting raw data is the frequency table. When the data are arranged in
tabular form by the frequencies, the table is called frequency table. The arrangement itself is
called frequency distribution.

It would be difficult to determine by scanning the mass of numerical data unless they
are organized into a frequency distribution table where drawing generalization will be readily
drawn. The construction of frequency distribution consists essentially of three steps;

1) Deciding on a set of groupings called classes,

2) Sorting or tallying the data into classes, and
3) Counting the number of tallies in each class called frequency

Rules in the construction of Frequency Distribution

1. We seldom use fewer than 5 or more than 15 classes. We note that it is impractical to group a
thousand measurements into 4 classes or to group 10 observations to 7 classes.

2. Whenever possible we make the classes cover equal ranges of values and make ranges
multiple of numbers that are easy to work with. Open classes should be avoided such as classes if
“less than,” or “more than.”

3. We make sure that each item goes only into one class. It means that classes should overlap.

4. In the final presentation of the table tally is usually omitted.

In deciding the number of classes, the statisticians Freud and Simon suggested the following:

Highest observed value−Lowest observed value

Suggested Class Interval =
Number of classes

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However, if we cannot decide on the number of classes to be used, the suggested formula is:

Highest observed value−Lowest observed value

Suggested Class Interval =
1+3.322 log N

Where N denotes the number of observations.

Raw Data (Array of numbers arranged in smallest to largest)

18 26 34 36 38 41 43 44

45 50 50 51 52 52 53 53

54 54 55 58 58 59 60 60

61 61 62 62 62 62 63 63

66 66 66 71 71 77 79 80

For example, using the data in a given array of numbers above, the class interval is
80−18 62
= =9.8∨10, approximate size of class interval.
1+3.332 log 40 6.322

We note that:

1. This approximate value means that the number of class intervals maybe more than 10 may
be less than 10. If the highest value in the array of numbers is not yet included in the last class
interval, then we add some more intervals until all the scores or items in the list of raw data are
already included.

2. In Statistics, the value 1+3.322 log N is called the Slovin’s Formula.

Each category or class has two limits – a lower stated class limit and an upper stated class limit.
A common practice is to let the lower limit of the first class be a number below the lowest
observation and to make all the classes in equal lengths of class size. A convenient value to start
the first class is 10, o we may start with the smallest value of the array of numbers. Thus, the first
class would be 10-19. The resulting frequency distribution is given in the Table below.

Cumulative
Lower
Class Tally Frequency Frequency
Boundaries
(<cf)
10-19 I 1 1 9.5
20-29 I 1 2 19.5
30-39 III 3 5 29.5
40-49 IIII 4 9 39.5
50-59 IIIII IIIII III 13 22 49.5
60-69 IIIII IIIII III 13 35 59.5
70-79 IIII 4 39 69.5
80-89 I 1 40 79.5
Total 40

True Limits and Class Marks

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A point that represents the halfway point between successive classes is called a true limit or a
class boundary. It is obtained by adding the upper limit of the class and the lower limit of the
next class and then divided by 2. The table below shows the true limits of classes given on the
previous example. Note that the upper boundary of one class is the lower boundary of the next
class Thus,

19+20
=19.5
2

A class mark is the midpoint of a class. It is determined by going halfway between the stated
class limits or the class boundaries. To obtain the class mark, the lower and upper stated class
limits or class boundaries are added and divided by two. Class marks are used to construct a
frequency polygon, which will be discussed in the graphical representation of data. Thus,

10+19
=14.5
2

is the class mark of the first class.

Class Limits, Class Boundaries and Class Marks

Stated Lower Upper Class

Classes
Lower Limit Upper Limit Boundary Boundary Mark
10-19 10 19 9.5 19.5 14.5
20-29 20 29 19.5 29.5 24.5
30-39 30 39 29.5 39.5 34.5
40-49 40 49 39.5 49.5 44.5
50-59 50 59 49.5 59.5 54.5
60-69 60 69 59.5 69.5 64.5
70-79 70 79 69.5 79.5 74.5
80-89 80 89 79.5 89.5 84.5

Lesson 2.2 Graphical Representation of Data

Graphical Representation is a way of analyzing numerical data. It exhibits the relation
between data, ideas, information and concepts in a diagram. It is easy to understand and it is one
of the most important learning strategies. It always depends on the type of information in a
particular domain.

There are different types of graphical representation. Some of them are as follows;

Line Graphs – Linear graphs are used to display the continuous data and it is useful for
predicting the future events over time.

Bar Graphs – Bar Graph is used to display the category of data and it compares the data using
solid bars to represent the quantities.

Histograms – The graph that uses bars to represent the frequency of numerical data that are
organized into intervals. Since all the intervals are equal and continuous, all the bars have the
same width.

Line Plot – It shows the frequency of data on a given number line. ‘ x ‘ is placed above a
number line each time when that data occurs again.

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Frequency Table – The table shows the number of pieces of data that falls within the given
interval.

Circle Graph – Also known as pie chart that shows the relationships of the parts of the whole.
The circle is considered with 100% and the categories occupied is represented with that specific
percentage like 15%, 56%, etc.

Stem and Leaf Plot – In stem and leaf plot, the data are organized from least value to the
greatest value. The digits of the least place values from the leaves and the next place value digit
forms the stems.

Box and Whisker Plot – The plot diagram summarizes the data by dividing into four parts. Box
and whisker show the range (spread) and the middle (median) of the data.

General Rules for Graphical Representation of Data

There are certain rules to effectively present the data and information in the graphical
representation. They are:

Suitable Title: Make sure that the appropriate title is given to the graph which indicates the
subject of the presentation.

Measurement Unit: Mention the measurement unit in the graph

Proper Scale: To represent the data in an accurate manner, choose a proper scale.

Index: Index the appropriate colors, shades, lines, design in the graphs for better understanding

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Data Sources: Include the source of information wherever it is necessary at the bottom of the
graph.

Keep it Simple: Construct a graph in an easy way that everyone can understand.

Neat: Choose the correct size, lettering, colors etc. in such a way that the graph should be a
visual aid for the presentation of information.

Generally, frequency distribution is represented in four methods, namely:

▪ Histogram
▪ Smoothed frequency graph
▪ Pie diagram
▪ Cumulative or ogive frequency graph
▪ Frequency Polygon

Frequency Polygon

A frequency polygon is a graphical form of representation of data. It is used to depict the

shape of the data and to depict trends. It is usually drawn with the help of a histogram but can be
drawn without it as well. A histogram is a series of rectangular bars with no space between them
and is used to represent frequency distributions.

Steps to Draw a Frequency Polygon

• Mark the class intervals for each class on the horizontal axis. We will plot the frequency
on the vertical axis.

• Calculate the classmark for each class interval. The formula for class mark is:
Classmark = (Upper limit + Lower limit) / 2

• Mark all the class marks on the horizontal axis. It is also known as the mid-value of every
class.

• Corresponding to each class mark, plot the frequency as given to you. The height always
depicts the frequency. Make sure that the frequency is plotted against the class mark and not
the upper or lower limit of any class.

• Join all the plotted points using a line segment. The curve obtained will be kinked.

• This resulting curve is called the frequency polygon.

Note that the above method is used to draw a frequency polygon without drawing a histogram.
You can also draw a histogram first by drawing rectangular bars against the given class intervals.
After this, you must join the midpoints of the bars to obtain the frequency polygon. Remember
that the bars will have no spaces between them in a histogram.

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Example:

Construct a frequency polygon using the data given below:

Test Scores Frequency

49.5-59.5 5

59.5-69.5 10

69.5-79.5 30

79.5-89.5 40

89.5-99.5 15

Answer: We first need to calculate the cumulate frequency from the frequency given.

Test Scores Frequency Cumulative Frequency

49.5-59.5 5 5
59.5-69.5 10 15
69.5-79.5 30 45
79.5-89.5 40 85
89.5-99.5 15 100

We now start by plotting the class marks such as 54.5, 64.5, 74.5 and so on till 94.5. Note that
we will also plot the previous and next class marks to start and end the polygon, i.e., we plot
44.5 and 104.5 as well.

Then, the frequencies corresponding to the class marks are plotted against each class mark. Like
you can see below, this makes sense as the frequency for class marks 44.5 and 104.5 are zero and
touching the x-axis. These plot points are used only to give a closed shape to the polygon. The
polygon looks like this:

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Histogram

▪ Grouped data are often represented graphically by histograms. A histogram consists of

rectangles, each of which has breadth equal or proportional to the size of the concerned
call interval, and height equal or proportional to the corresponding frequency. In a
histogram, consecutive rectangles have a common side. For this, the class intervals are
made overlapping in all cases.

Method of constructing a histogram:

▪ Step I: Observe the class intervals of the distribution. If they are nonoverlapping
(discontinuous), Change them into overlapping (continuous) classes.

▪ Step II: Locate the class boundaries on the x-axis (horizontal axis).

▪ Step III: Construct a vertical rectangle on each line segment representing a class interval
such that the height of the rectangle represents frequency of the class interval.
▪ Step IV: Put a kink mark (N) on the horizontal axis, between the vertical axis and the
first rectangle if the leftmost rectangle does not have the vertical axis on its side.
▪
▪ Note: For drawing graphs, a scale of representation is required. Unless given, the choice
of scale is made of suit the data.
▪
▪ Different scales can be taken for the two axes.
▪
▪ In the scale for the x-axis is “1 mm = an interval of 5” then the class interval 20 – 40 will
be shown by 4-mm-long line segment on the x-axis.
▪
▪ If the scale for the y-axis is “1 mm = frequency 1” (i.e., frequency of 1 is denoted by 1
mm) then the frequency 10 will be shown by 1-cm-long line segment on the y-axis.

Example: Construct a histogram for the following frequency distribution.

Height (in cm) Number of children

101 – 110 15
111 – 120 18
121 – 130 12
131 – 140 6
141 -150 9
Solution:

Here, the distribution is discontinuous. So, first we write the frequency distribution with
overlapping intervals to make it continuous.

Height (in cm) Number of children

100.5-110.5 15
110.5–120.5 18
120.5–130.5 12
130.5–140.5 6
140.5-150.5 9

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Following the above-mentioned steps, the histogram will be as shown below.

Scale: On the x-axis, 1 cm = height of 10 cm. On the y-axis, 0.5 cm = frequency 3

Ogive Curve

The Ogive is defined as the frequency distribution graph of a series. The Ogive is a graph
of a cumulative distribution, which explains data values on the horizontal plane axis and either
the cumulative relative frequencies, the cumulative frequencies or cumulative percent
frequencies on the vertical axis. Cumulative frequency is defined as the sum of all the previous
frequencies up to the current point. To find the popularity of the given data or the likelihood of
the data that fall within the certain frequency range, Ogive curve helps in finding those details
accurately. Create the Ogive by plotting the point corresponding to the cumulative frequency of
each class interval. Most of the Statisticians use Ogive curve, to illustrate the data in the pictorial
representation. It helps in estimating the number of observations which are less than or equal to
the particular value.

Ogive Graph
The graphs of the frequency distribution are frequency graphs that are used to exhibit the
characteristics of discrete and continuous data. Such figures are more appealing to the eye than

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the tabulated data. It helps us to facilitate the comparative study of two or more frequency
distributions. We can relate the shape and pattern of the two frequency distributions. The two
methods of Ogives are

• Less than Ogive

• Greater than or more than Ogive

The graph given below represents less than and the greater than Ogive curve. The rising
curve (Brown Curve) represents the less than Ogive, and the falling curve (Green Curve)
represents the greater than Ogive.

Less than Ogive

The frequencies of all preceding classes are added to the frequency of a class. This series is
called the less than cumulative series. It is constructed by adding the first-class frequency to the
second-class frequency and then to the third-class frequency and so on. The downward
cumulation results in the less than cumulative series.

Greater than or More than Ogive

The frequencies of the succeeding classes are added to the frequency of a class. This series is
called the more than or greater than cumulative series. It is constructed by subtracting the
first-class second-class frequency from the total, third class frequency from that and so on.
The upward cumulation result is greater than or more than the cumulative series.

Ogive Chart

An Ogive Chart is a curve of the cumulative frequency distribution or cumulative relative

frequency distribution. For drawing such a curve, the frequencies must be expressed as a
percentage of the total frequency. Then, such percentages are cumulated and plotted as in the
case of an Ogive. Here, the steps for constructing the less than and greater than Ogive are given.

How to Draw Less Than Ogive Curve?

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• Draw and mark the horizontal and vertical axes.

• Take the cumulative frequencies along the y-axis (vertical axis) and the upper-class limits
on the x-axis (horizontal axis).
• Against each upper-class limit, plot the cumulative frequencies.
• Connect the points with a continuous curve.
How to Draw Greater than or More than Ogive Curve?

• Draw and mark the horizontal and vertical axes.

• Take the cumulative frequencies along the y-axis (vertical axis) and the lower-class limits
on the x-axis (horizontal axis).
• Against each lower-class limit, plot the cumulative frequencies
• Connect the points with a continuous curve.

Example:

Construct the more than cumulative frequency table and draw the Ogive for the below-given
data.

Marks 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80

Frequency 3 8 12 14 10 6 5 2

Solution:
“More than” Cumulative Frequency Table:
More than Cumulative
Marks Frequency
Frequency
More than 1 3 60
More than 11 8 57
More than 21 12 49
More than 31 14 37
More than 41 10 23
More than 51 6 13
More than 61 5 7
More than 71 2 2

Plotting an Ogive:
Plot the points with coordinates such as (70.5, 2), (60.5, 7), (50.5, 13), (40.5, 23), (30.5, 37),
(20.5, 49), (10.5, 57), (0.5, 60).

An Ogive is connected to a point on the x-axis, that represents the actual upper limit of the last
class, i.e.,( 80.5, 0)

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Take x-axis, 1 cm = 10 marks

Y-axis = 1 cm – 10 c.f

More than the Ogive Curve:

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For further understanding and example check the following link below:

▪ http://jukebox.esc13.net/untdeveloper/RM/RM_FR_P2/RM_FR_P22.hhtml
▪ https://byjus.com/maths/graphical-representation/
▪ www.math-only-math.com/histogram.html
▪ https://byjus.com/maths/ogive/

For further understanding and example check the following link below:

▪ https://youtu.be/j6ftiC2o6O4
▪ https://youtu.be/sVwOUcxPX98
▪ https://youtu.be/Rx8wSEDq5Hs
▪ https://youtu.be/JVaKq-oJnFs
▪ https://youtu.be/0ZKtsUkrgFQ

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