Applied Physics (Merged)

BS Information Technology Applied Physics First Semester
ELECTROSTATICS
The study of electric charges at rest under the action of electric forces is called
electrostatics. Electric force holds the positive and negative charges together,
which make up the atoms and molecules. Everything in this universe is thought
to be composed of atoms and molecules; therefore, existence of this universe is
due to electric force.
ELECTRIC CHARGE:-
Charge is an intrinsic (physical) property of matter due to which it applies an
attractive or repulsive force on other objects.
TYPES OF CHARGE:-
Conventionally, there are two types of charges:-
(i) Positive
(ii) Negative
Conventionally, charge on an electron is considered to be negative while that on
a proton is considered to be positive.
A single electric charge is also called an electric monopole.
ATTRACTION OR REPULSION BETWEEN CHARGES:-
Like charges (charges of same nature) always repel each other i.e. a proton repels
a proton & an electron repels another electron.
Unlike charges (charges of different nature) always attract each other i.e. an
electron will be attracted towards a proton.
CONSERVATION OF ELECTRIC CHARGE:-
We have discussed that all matter is composed of atoms. An atom is smallest
building block of matter. An atom contains equal number of negative charges
(electrons revolving in shells) and positive charges (protons inside its nucleus),
thereby making it neutral as a whole. This universal structure gives us an idea
that net charge of all entities of this universe may add up to zero.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ELECTRIC CHARGE:-
Law of conservation of electric charge states that the net quantity of electric
charge, the amount of positive charge minus the amount of negative charge in
the universe, is always conserved.
It further elaborates that charges are always produced in pairs i.e. equal in
amount and opposite in nature.
Prof. Izhar Sagheer and Prof. Shahzad Ali Nasir, Government Postgraduate College, Sahiwal
You have studied in Intermediate Physics about a phenomenon “Pair Production”

in which a high energy gamma ray photon when passes by a heavy nucleus, ends
up in two particles, an electron and a positron. Both these particles have charge
equal in magnitude but opposite in nature.
Similarly, we have studied about annihilation of matter in which an electron
annihilates its anti-particle positron to produce two gamma ray photons (which
are electrically neutral) moving in opposite directions.
QUANTIZATION OF CHARGE:-
Millikan proved experimentally that charge in this universe is quantized i.e. there
is a minimum amount of charge that may be carried by an object. This minimum
amount of charge will be called quantum of electric charge and is represented by
e = 1.6022 x 10-19 C i.e. the magnitude of charge on an electron.
No object will have a charge that is fraction of this minimum charge e instead
charge on all other objects will be integral multiple of this minimum charge.
Mathematically, we can write as charge Q on any object will be Q = n e.
When some object changes its charge, it means charge is neither created nor
destroyed, rather the object has transferred its charge to another object or it has
gained some amount of charge from another object.
NEGATIVE CHARGE:-
Excess of electron on an object produces negative charge on it.
POSITIVE CHARGE:-
Deficiency of electron on an object produces positive charge on it.
COULOMB’S LAW:-
Charles Coulomb performed a series of experiments to measure the force of
attraction or repulsion between two charged objects. He arranged the results of
his experiments in the form of a law, known as Coulomb’s law.
According to Coulomb’s law, the magnitude of force of attraction or repulsion
between two charges is directly proportional to the product of magnitude of both
charges and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Suppose, we have two point charges q1 and q 2 are placed such that distance
between their centers is r. Mathematically, we can express electric force between
them as under:-
F 𝛼 q1 q 2
1
F𝛼
r2
q1 q2
F=k
r2
The constant of proportionality k is called Coulomb’s constant. Its value depends
upon the systems of units and the nature of medium between these two charges.
If medium between the charges is free space (perfect vacuum) and we use system
1
international of units, the value of k is expressed as k = = 9 x 109 N m2 C-2.
4 π εo
Where ɛo = 8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2 is called permittivity of free space.

Coulomb’s force between the two charges is a mutual
force i.e. both charges exert equal and opposite forces
on each other.
In the diagram, we can see that ⃗⃗⃗
𝐅𝟏 = − ⃗⃗⃗
𝐅𝟐
When we replace the medium between the two
charges, the magnitude of force is always reduced by a
factor ɛr which is called relative permittivity of that
medium.
This constant is equal to 1 for free space and for all other material media, its
value is greater than 1. For example, its value of 1.0006 for air and 78.5 for
distilled water.
Exercise 1:- Calculate the force of repulsion on an object of mass = 10.0 g
and charge = 20.0 µC applied by an identical object that is placed 10.0 cm
from the first.
Solution:- Mass of both objects = m1 = m2 = 10.0 g = 0.01 kg
Charge on both objects = q1 = q2 = 20.0 µC = 20.0 x 10-6 C = 2.0 x 10-5 C
Distance between the charges = r = 10.0 cm = 0.10 m
q1 q2
F=k where k = 9 x 109 N m2 C-2
r2
(2.0 x 10−5 )(2.0 x 10−5 )
F = (9 x 109) 0.102
F = 3.6 x 102 N
Exercise 2:- Two positive point charges q1 = 16.0 µC and q2 = 4.0 µC are
separated by a distance of 3.0 m. Find the spot on the line joining the two
charges where the net force on another charge q3 will be zero.
Solution:-
Charge on first charge = q1 = 16.0 µC = 16.0 x 10-6 C
Charge on second charge = q2 = 4.0 µC = 4.0 x 10-6 C

Distance between the charges = r = 3.0 m
The net force on the third charge q3 will be zero if both charges q1 & q2 apply
equal and opposite forces on it.
Assume that q3 is placed at a distance d from
q2 where net force on it is zero. It means its
distance from q1 will be 3.0 – d.
If F1 be the force applied by q1 on q3 and F2 be
the force applied by q2 on q3, we can equate as under:-
F1 = F2
q1 q3 q2 q3
k =k
(3.0−d)2 d2
q1 q2
=
(3.0−d)2 d2
16 x 10−6 4 x 10−6
=
(3.0−d)2 d2
4 1
=
(3.0−d)2 d2
4 d2 = 9 + d2 – 6 d
3 d2 + 6 d – 9 = 0 or d2 + 2 d – 3 = 0
d2 + 3 d – d – 3 = 0
d (d +3) – (d + 3) = 0
(d – 1) (d + 3) = 0
d = +1.0 m or -3.0 m
There are two values of d on which force applied by q1 and q2 on q3 will be same.
The negative value corresponds to a location off to right of both charges, where
force applied by both charges is equal in magnitude but in the same direction
and hence cannot cancel each other. The positive value corresponds to the
location between the both charges where forces are equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction.
d = + 1.0 m is the correct option as shown in figure.
Exercise 3:- Two point charges q1 = -1.0 x 10-6 C and q2 = +4.0 x 10-6 C, are
separated by a distance of 3.0 m. Find and justify the zero-force location on
another charge.
Solution:- q1 = -1.0 x 10-6 C
q2 = +4.0 x 10-6 C
Distance = 3.0 m
Suppose q1 and q2 are placed horizontally 3.0 m apart as shown in figure.
Electric force on another charge cannot be zero between these two opposite
charges. Because, it is zero either on a point left side of q1 or on right side of q2
because forces applied by both charges are in opposite direction on these points.
In this case magnitude of q1 is less than q2, therefore, zero-force location lies near
q1 i.e. on left side of q1.
Consider a point P on left side of q1 at a distance x. Electric fields due to q1 and
q2 on this point are in opposite direction. The net electric field on this point will
be zero if electric fields due to q1 and q2 on this point are equal in magnitude.
𝐹1 = 𝐹2
q1 q3 q2 q3
k =k
r21 r22
We can see that r1 = x and r2 = 3 + x

1.0 x 10−6 4.0 x 10−6
=
x2 (3 + x)2
Rearranging as (3+x)2 = 4x2
9 + x2 + 6x = 4x2
3x2 – 6x – 9 = 0
x2 – 2x – 3 = 0
x2 – 3x + x – 3 = 0
x (x-3) + 1 (x-3) = 0
(x + 1) (x – 3) = 0
x = - 1.0 m & 3.0 m
We can choose x = 3.0 m as negative distance is neglected.
Electric field is zero at distance of 3.0 m on left side of q1.
Exercise 4:- Charges q1 = 100 µC and q2 = 50 µC
are located in xy-plane at positions ⃗⃗⃗
𝐫𝟏 = 3.0 𝐣̂ and
𝐫𝟐 = 4.0 𝐢̂ respectively, where the distances are
⃗⃗⃗
measured in meters. Calculate the force on q2.
Solution:- q1 = 100 µC
q2 = 50 µC
r1 = 3.0 ĵ
⃗⃗⃗
r2 = 4.0 î
⃗⃗⃗
Position vector of q2 relative to q1 = r21= r2 - r1 = 4 î - 3 ĵ
r = Magnitude of r21 = √(4)2 + (−3)2 = 5 m
4 î – 3 ĵ
r̂21 = r21/r = 5
⃗ = k q1 q2 r̂21 =
F
(9 x 109 )(100 x 10−6 )(50 x 10−6 ) 4 î – 3 ĵ
( )
r2 52 5
⃗F = (1.44 î – 1.08 ĵ) N
Magnitude of force = F = √(1.44)2 + (−1.08)2 = 1.8 N

−1.08
Direction of ⃗F = tan-1 ( 1.44 ) = -37o w.r.t. positive x-axis.
Exercise 5:- Two pith balls of mass 0.1 g each

are suspended on 50 cm threads. They are given
equal charges and assume a position in which
each makes an angle of 20° with the vertical, as
shown in figure. What is the charge on each?
Solution:-
Mass of each bob = m = 0.1 g = 0.1 x 10-3 kg
Length of the thread = l = 50 cm = 0.5 m
The vector diagram of the forces on the right-hand ball is shown in figure, where
F is the Coulomb force of repulsion between the
two charged pith balls. Because the balls are in
equilibrium, we may apply first condition of
equilibrium.
ΣFx = 0
F – T cos 70o = 0
F = T cos 70o
F = 0.34 T
ΣFy = 0
T sin 70o – mg = 0
T sin 70o = mg
mg 0.1 x 10−3 x 9.8
T= = = 1.04 x 10-3 N
sin 70o 0.94
Substitute the value of T in relation of F,
F = 0.34 T = 0.34 (1.04 x 10-3) = 3.5 x 10-4 N
The distance between the two balls is r = 2 l sin θ
r = 2 (0.50) sin 20o

r = 0.34 m
Since q1 = q2 = q (say)
q2
F=k
r2
F r2 3.5 x 10−4 x 0.34 2

q=√ =√
k 9.0 x 109
q = 6.7 x 10-8 C
ELECTRIC FIELD
Newton’s law of gravitation and Coulomb’s law enable us to determine the
magnitudes and directions of gravitational and electric forces between two point
masses and two point charges, respectively. These laws are silent about the
origin of these two forces. Scientists still believe that there is a grand unified
force which is origin of all basic forces of nature i.e. gravitational force,
electromagnetic force, weak nuclear force and strong nuclear force. However,
there are several interpretations regarding transmission of these forces from one
mass to another or from one charge to another.
Michael Faraday introduced the concept of electric field to describe the
mechanism by which electric force is transmitted. According to this theory, it is
intrinsic property of nature that an electric field exists in the space around the
electric charge. This electric field is considered to be a force just like the
gravitational field, and it exerts a force on other charges placed in that field.
For example, an electric charge produces an electric field in the space
surrounding it. The field exists whether the other charges are present in space or
not. However, the presence of such field can only be tested by bringing some
other electric charge in that field, usually called test charge. A test charge is
always taken as positive by convention.
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A POINT CHARGE:-
Suppose, we want to determine electric field strength at a point which is distance
r away from a point charge q. We will bring a test charge qo in the field of charge
q. The interaction between q and qo will take place in two steps: (a) the charge q
produces a field around it and (b) the field interacts with the charge qo to produce
a force ⃗F on qo.
The force experienced by unit positive charge placed in the vicinity of point
charge is called electric field strength or electric field intensity.
Mathematically, we can write it as under:-
𝐅
⃗ =
𝐄
𝐪𝐨
where ⃗F is the force experienced by the test positive charge qo placed at that
point. It must be taken into account that magnitude of test charge must be much
less than the original charge so that it may not distort its electric field pattern.
The SI units of electric field intensity is N C-1 and it is a vector quantity and its
direction is same as that of ⃗F.
The force experienced by test charge qo placed in the field of a charge q in
vacuum can be determined by using the Coulomb’s law as under:-
𝐪𝐪𝐨
𝐅=𝐤 𝐫̂
𝐫𝟐
1
where k = = 9 x 109 N m2 C-2
4 π εo
𝐫̂ gives the direction of applied

force on qo and it is directed from
that point charge q towards test
charge qo, i.e. the point where electric field is to be determined.
⃗ = 𝐅
Now, we know that 𝐄
𝐪𝐨
𝟏 𝐪𝐪𝐨
⃗ =
𝐄 (𝐤 𝐫̂)
𝐪𝐨 𝐫𝟐
𝐪
⃗ =𝐤
𝐄 𝐫̂
𝐫𝟐
𝟏 𝐪
⃗ =
𝐄 𝐫̂
𝟒 𝛑 𝛆𝐨 𝐫 𝟐
The relation implies that electric field intensity at a point due to a point charge q
directly depends on the magnitude of the charge q and is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance from that charge.
It means electric field intensity obeys inverse square law just like the Coulomb’s
force does.
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION:-
In order to find electric field intensity at a particular point due to several point
charges say n i.e. q1, q2, q3 ….... qn, we apply principle of superposition. We can
find electric field due to each point charge at desired point separately and then
add them to find the overall electric field intensity.
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐄 𝐄𝟏 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐄𝟐 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐧
𝐄𝟑 + …………… + 𝐄
𝟏 𝐪𝟏 𝟏 𝐪𝟐 𝟏 𝐪𝟑 𝟏 𝐪𝐧
⃗ =
𝐄 𝒓̂𝟏 + 𝒓̂𝟐 + 𝒓̂𝟑 + ………………. + 𝒓̂𝒏
𝟒 𝛑 𝛆𝐨 𝐫𝟏 𝟐 𝟒 𝛑 𝛆𝐨 𝐫𝟐 𝟐 𝟒 𝛑 𝛆𝐨 𝐫𝟑 𝟐 𝟒 𝛑 𝛆𝐨 𝐫𝐧 𝟐
𝟏 𝐪𝐢
⃗ = ∑𝐧𝐢=𝟏
𝐄 𝒓̂𝒊
𝟒 𝛑 𝛆𝐨 𝐫𝐢 𝟐
Exercise 1:- Find the electric field strength required to hold suspended a particle of mass 1.0 x
10-6 kg and charge 1.0 µC between two plates 10.0 cm apart.
Solution:- Mass = m = 1.0 x 10-6 kg
Charge = q = 1.0 µC = 1.0 x 10-6 C
Distance = d = 10.0 cm = 0.1 m
The particle will suspend if the magnitudes of
gravitational force (weight) acting downwards will be
equal to magnitude of electric force acting upwards.
Fe = Fg
qE = mg
𝑚𝑔 (1.0 𝑥 10−6 )(9.8)
E= ⁄𝑞 = (1.0 𝑥 10−6 )
E = 9.8 V m-1 = 9.8 N C-1
ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE

Michael Faraday proposed the idea of electric field lines to visualize the
representation of electric field. He explained that electric field lines can be
considered as map which gives the information about the direction and intensity
of electric field at various points. These lines are called “lines of force” because
these lines give information about the force exerted on a charge.
POSITIVE POINT CHARGE:
To visualize electric field lines due to a positive point charge, we place several test
charges around it at different places but at equal distances from positive point
charge +q. Each test charge will experience a repulsive force, which will be
indicated by arrows directed in outward direction. Therefore, electric field created
by the charge +q is directed radially outwards as shown in the figure.
NEGATIVE POINT CHARGE:

To visualize electric field lines due to a negative point
charge, we place several test charges around it at
different places but at equal distances from negative
point charge −q. Each test charge will experience an
attractive force, which will be indicated by arrows
directed in inward direction. Therefore, electric field
created by the charge −q is directed radially inwards
as shown in the figure.
The visualization shown is two dimensional picture, however, electric field lines
emerge in three dimensions.
The electric field lines also give an idea about the electric field strength. We can
see that field lines are closed near the charge indicating a stronger field while
they spread out in space as we move away from the charge indicating a
continuous decrease in the field strength. We can conclude that:-
“The number of electric field lines per unit area passing
perpendicularly through an area is proportional to the
magnitude of electric field”.
TWO IDENTICAL POINT CHARGES:-
The electric field lines are curved
in case of two identical point
charges. The field pattern shown
in the figure is for two identical
positive point charges of same
magnitude. It clearly indicates
that field lines are curved due to
force of repulsion between the like
charges. The behavior of two
identical negative charges would
also be same except the field lines
will be directed inwards towards
the point charges. The middle region shows the presence of zero field region or
neutral zone due to equal opposite repulsive force resulting in no net force.
TWO OPPOSITE POINT CHARGES (DIPOLE):-
The electric field lines due to two
oppositely charged point charges
are also curved. However, the
lines are originating from positive
charge terminate on negative
charge. The direction of electric
field intensity at any point can be
determined by drawing a tangent
line at these points.
PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR:

In the regions, where the electric field lines are paralle and
equally spaced, the same number of lines pass per unit area
and therefore, electric field is uniform on all points. The field
lines between the plates of a paralle plate capacitor are
shown in the figure. The field lines are equidistant and
parallel in the middle region indicating a uniform field.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRIC FIELD LINES:-

We can summarize the characteristics of electric field lines as under:-
1) Electric field lines always originate from positive charges and
terminate on negative charges.
2) The tangent to a field line at any point gives the direction of electric
field at that point.
3) The lines are closer where the field is strong and the lines are
spaced apart where the field is weak.
4) The electric field is uniform where lines are parallel and
equidistant.
5) Two or more electric field lines cannot cross each other. This is
because electric field intensity is a single-valued and unidirectional
quantity. If two or more lines cross at a single point, E could have
more than one values and direction, which is not possible.
CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTON

It is not necessary that electric charge is present in the form of point charges.
Electric charge may be distributed continuously on a line, surface or inside a
volume. In such cases, electric charge is represented by relevant charge density
instead of charge. There are three kinds of electric charge distributions described
as under:
1) LINE CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
When charges are distributed on a line of negligible width, this is called line
charge distribution. Such distributions are represented by line charge density
q
which is denoted by λ and is defined as charge per unit length i.e. λ = L. It is
measured in C m-1.
In order to apply, principle of superposition on such uniform geometries, line
charge distribution is divided into small length elements say each of length ds
dq
having a differential charge dq and λ is defined as λ = .
ds
2) SURFACE CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

When charges are distributed on a surface of negligible volume, this is called
surface charge distribution. Such distributions are represented by surface charge
q
density which is denoted by σ and is defined as charge per unit area i.e. σ = A. It
is measured in C m-2.
In order to apply, principle of superposition on such uniform geometries, surface
charge distribution is divided into small area elements say each of area da having
dq
a differential charge dq and σ is defined as σ = .
da
3) VOLUME CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

When charges are distributed inside a volume, this is called volume charge
distribution. Such distributions are represented by volume charge density which
q
is denoted by ρ and is defined as charge per unit volume i.e. ρ = V. It is measured
in C m-3.
In order to apply, principle of superposition on such uniform geometries, volume
charge distribution is divided into small volume elements say each of volume dv
dq
having a differential charge dq and ρ is defined as ρ = .
dV
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A RING OF CHARGE

We have already determined the relation for electric field intensity due to a point
charge q at some distance r away from it. In case of continuous charge
distribution, we apply principle of superposition to find the electric field intensity
at a particular point.
We assume that the whole charge distribution is divided into small elements each
having a differential charge ‘dq' on it. We find the electric field intensity at desired
point due to this differential charge and apply principle of superposition on the
whole geometry by integrating it over the limits.
Consider a ring of charge of radius R having charge q distributed over its
boundary is placed in xy-plane as shown in the figure. The
line charge density is λ. We want to find electric field at a
point on the axis of this ring i.e. z-axis. The point P is at a
distance z from the centre of this ring on its axis.
q
Line charge density = λ =
L
Total charge on the ring = q = λ L = λ (2 π R)

Take a length element of length ds having charge dq as
shown in the figure at left of the ring. The electric field due to
this length element at point P is dE. We can divide this
electric field dE in two components i.e. dE cos θ along the axis and dE sin θ
perpendicular to the axis (rightwards).
Now, consider another length element ds having charge dq on symmetrically
opposite side i.e. at right of the ring. The electric field due to this length element
at point P is dE. We can also divide this electric field dE in two components i.e.
dE cos θ along the axis and dE sin θ perpendicular to the axis (leftwards).
The symmetry of this case indicates that dE sin θ components cancel each other.
The only effective component is dE cos θ. It means we can find total electric field
E at point P by integrating the dE cos θ over the boundary of this ring.
𝟐𝛑𝐑
E = ∫𝟎 𝐝𝐄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
𝐤 𝐝𝐪
dE =
𝐫𝟐
𝟏
r2 = R2 + z2  r = (𝐑𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 )𝟐
z
we can also see from right angled triangle that cos θ =
r
𝟐𝛑𝐑 𝐤 𝐝𝐪 𝐳 𝟐𝛑𝐑 𝐤 𝐳 𝐝𝐪
E = ∫𝟎 = ∫𝟎
𝐫𝟐 𝐫 𝐫𝟑
𝐝𝐪
Since, λ =  dq = λ ds
𝐝𝐬
𝟑
r3 = (𝐑𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 )𝟐
𝟐𝛑𝐑 𝐤 𝐳 𝛌 𝐝𝐬
E = ∫𝟎 𝟑
(𝐑𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 )𝟐
𝐤𝐳𝛌 𝟐𝛑𝐑
E= 𝟑 ∫𝟎 𝐝𝐬
(𝐑𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 )𝟐
𝐤𝐳𝛌
E= 𝟑 |𝐬|𝟐𝛑𝐑
𝟎
(𝐑𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 )𝟐
𝐤𝐳𝛌
E= 𝟑 (2πR)
(𝐑𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 )𝟐
Replace the value of q = λ (2 π R), we get electric field as under:-
𝐤𝐪𝐳
E= 𝟑
(𝐑𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 )𝟐
In vector form, we can write as under:-

𝐤𝐪𝐳
⃗ =
𝐄 𝟑
̂
𝐤
(𝐑𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 )𝟐
SPECIAL CASE:- When we want to find electric field very far away from the ring
3
i.e. z >> R, we can say that (R2 + z 2 )2 = z3
⃗ = 𝐤 𝟐𝐪 𝐤
𝐄 ̂
𝐳
The relation is same as that of point charge. It means a ring of charge behaves
like a point charge for points of observation very far away from it.
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A DISK OF CHARGE

Consider a disk of radius R on which charge is
uniformly distributed such that the surface charge
𝐪
density is σ = . The disk is placed in xy-plane and
𝐀
its axis is along z-axis. We want to find electric field
at a point which is a distance z away from its centre.
We can consider the disk of radius R in the forms of
rings, each of width dR’ and radius 𝑹′ where 𝑹′
varies from 0 to R.
We can find electric field dE due to one such ring of radius 𝑹′ and width d𝑹′
which has charge dq on it. Integrate the component of this electric field which
contributes towards the final electric field by keeping in the mind the symmetry
of disk.
Take a ring of radius R’ and width d𝑹′ having charge dq on it as shown in the
figure. The electric field due to small length element
on left of centre at point P is dE. We can divide this
electric field dE in two components i.e. dE cos θ
along the axis and dE sin θ perpendicular to the axis
(rightwards).
Now, consider another length element on the same
ring on symmetrically opposite side i.e. at right of the
center. The electric field due to this length element at
point P is dE. We can also divide this electric field dE
in two components i.e. dE cos θ along the axis and
dE sin θ perpendicular to the axis (leftwards).
The symmetry of this case indicates that dE sin θ components cancel each other.
The only effective component is dE cos θ. It means we can find total electric field
E at point P by integrating the dE cos θ from centre to the boundary of the disk.
𝐑
E = ∫𝟎 𝐝𝐄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
𝐤 𝐝𝐪
dE =
𝐫𝟐
𝟏
r2 = R’2 + z2  r = (𝐑′𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 )𝟐
𝐳 𝐳
we can also see from right angled triangle that cos θ = = 𝟏
𝐫
(𝐑′𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 )𝟐
𝐑 𝐤 𝐝𝐪 𝐳 𝐑 𝐤 𝐳 𝐝𝐪
E = ∫𝟎 = ∫𝟎
𝐫𝟐 𝐫 𝐫𝟑
𝐝𝐪
Since, σ =  dq = σ dA
𝐝𝐀
Charge on each ring = dq = σ (2πR’) d𝑹′

𝟑
r3 = (𝐑′𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 )𝟐
𝐑 𝐤 𝐳 𝛔 (𝟐𝛑𝐑’) 𝐝𝐑’
E = ∫𝟎 𝟑
(𝐑′𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 )𝟐
𝐑 (𝟐𝐑’) 𝐝𝐑’
E = 𝛑 𝐤 𝐳 𝛔 ∫𝟎 𝟑
(𝐑′𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 )𝟐
𝟏 𝐑
−
(𝐑′𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 ) 𝟐
E=𝛑𝐤𝐳𝛔| 𝟏 |
−
𝟐 𝟎
𝟏 𝟏
E = (− 𝟐 𝛑 𝐤 𝐳 𝛔) [ 𝟏 - ]
𝐳
(𝐑𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐 )𝟐
𝛔 𝐳
E= [1 - ]
𝟐𝛆𝐨 √𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐
In vector form, we can write as under:-

𝛔 𝐳
⃗ =
𝐄 [1 - ̂
]𝐤
𝟐𝛆𝐨 √𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐
SPECIAL CASE:- When we want to find electric field due to an infinite sheet, we
𝐳
can say that R = ∞. In this case, the term reduces to zero. The relation for
√𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐳 𝟐
⃗ = 𝛔 𝐤
electric field reduces to 𝐄 ̂ for an infinite sheet of charge.
𝟐𝛆𝐨
POINT CHARGE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD

We have studied about the electric field and electric force. When we place any
point charge in an electric field, it experiences an electric force. When a force is
applied on a point charge, it accelerates the point charge.
Consider a point charge q is placed in a uniform electric field E, the force
experienced by the electric charge q will be F = q E. The force will be in the
direction of electric field, if the charge is positive and vice versa. Here we will
discuss different cases of point charge in an electric field.
CASE 1:- (STATIONARY POINT CHARGE IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD)
Suppose a positive point charge q is placed in a
uniform electric field E as shown in the figure.
The electric field will exert a force on the point
charge q in the direction of E i.e. form plate A
towards plate B.
F=qE
𝐅 𝐪𝐄
a= =
𝐦 𝐦
Acceleration can be defined as time rate of
𝐝𝐯
change of velocity, so we can write it as a = 𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝐯 𝐪𝐄
=
𝐝𝐭 𝐦
𝐪𝐄
𝐝𝐯 = 𝐝𝐭
𝐦
Integration on both sides gives:
𝐪𝐄
∫ 𝐝𝐯 = ∫ 𝐝𝐭
𝐦
𝐪𝐄
𝐯= 𝐭+𝐂
𝐦
We can apply initial condition to find the value of constant of integration C.
Since, charge was stationary initially, v = 0 at t = 0.
𝐪𝐄
𝟎= (𝟎) + 𝐂
𝐦
C=0
𝐪𝐄
𝐯= 𝐭
𝐦
This relation indicates that speed of particles increases linearly from rest as long
as it remains in the region where electric field is present.
CASE 2:- (POINT CHARGE MOVING IN THE DIRECTION OF UNIFORM ELECTRIC

FIELD)
Suppose a positive point charge q is moving in the
direction of uniform electric field E with some initial
velocity vi as shown in the figure. The electric field
will exert a force on the point charge q in the
direction of E i.e. form plate A towards plate B.
F=qE
𝐅 𝐪𝐄
a= =
𝐦 𝐦
Acceleration can be defined as time rate of
𝐝𝐯
change of velocity, so we can write it as a = 𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝐯 𝐪𝐄
=
𝐝𝐭 𝐦
𝐪𝐄
𝐝𝐯 = 𝐝𝐭
𝐦
𝐪𝐄
∫ 𝐝𝐯 = ∫ 𝐝𝐭
𝐦
𝐪𝐄
𝐯= 𝐭+𝐂
𝐦
We can say that v = vi at t = 0.
𝐪𝐄
𝐯𝐢 = (𝟎) + 𝐂
𝐦
C = 𝐯𝐢
𝐪𝐄
𝐯 = 𝐯𝐢 + 𝐭
𝐦
This relation indicates that speed of particles increases linearly from vi as long as
it remains in the region where electric field is present.
CASE 3:- (POINT CHARGE MOVING OPPOSITE TO THE DIRECTION OF UNIFORM
ELECTRIC FIELD)
Suppose a positive point charge q is moving opposite to the direction of uniform
electric field E with some initial velocity vi as shown in the figure. The electric
field will exert a force on the point charge q in the direction of E i.e. form plate A
towards plate B.
F=qE
𝐅 𝐪𝐄
a= =
𝐦 𝐦
Acceleration can be defined as time rate of change of velocity, so we can write it
𝐝𝐯
as a = 𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝐯 𝐪𝐄
=
𝐝𝐭 𝐦
𝐪𝐄
𝐝𝐯 = 𝐝𝐭
𝐦
𝐪𝐄
∫ 𝐝𝐯 = ∫ 𝐝𝐭
𝐦
𝐪𝐄
𝐯= 𝐭+𝐂
𝐦
We can apply initial condition to find the value
of constant of integration C. In such situation,
we can consider the direction of electric field as
reference direction. Since initial velocity is
directed opposite to electric field, it will be
assigned a negative sign.
We can say that v = -vi at t = 0.
𝐪𝐄
−𝐯𝐢 = (𝟎) + 𝐂
𝐦
C = −𝐯𝐢
𝐪𝐄
𝐯 = −𝐯𝐢 + 𝐭
𝐦
This relation indicates that speed of particles decreases linearly from vi till it
becomes zero after sometime t’. We can calculate time t’ as under:-
𝐪𝐄
𝟎 = −𝐯𝐢 + 𝐭′
𝐦
𝐦 𝐯𝐢
𝐭′ =
𝐪𝐄
After the velocity becomes zero, the charge will start moving in the direction of
𝐪𝐄
electric field as discussed in case 1 with velocity 𝐯 = (𝐭 − 𝐭 ′ ).
𝐦
CASE 4:- (POINT CHARGE MOVING PERPENDICULAR TO THE DIRECTION OF
UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD)
Suppose a positive point charge q is moving perpendicular to the direction of
uniform electric field E (directed along y-axis) with some initial velocity vx (along
x-axis) as shown in the figure. The electric field will exert a force on the point
charge q in the direction of E i.e. form plate A towards plate B (along y-axis).
Fy = q E
𝐅𝐲 𝐪𝐄
ay = =
𝐦 𝐦
Acceleration can be defined as
time rate of change of velocity,
𝐝𝐯𝐲
so we can write it as ay = 𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝐯𝐲 𝐪𝐄
=
𝐝𝐭 𝐦
𝐪𝐄
𝐝𝐯𝐲 = 𝐝𝐭
𝐦
𝐪𝐄
∫ 𝐝𝐯𝐲 = ∫ 𝐦
𝐝𝐭
𝐪𝐄
𝐯𝐲 = 𝐭+𝐂
𝐦
Particle was moving along x-axis initially, its initial velocity along y-axis will be
zero.
We can say that viy = 0 at t = 0.
𝐪𝐄
𝟎= (𝟎) + 𝐂
𝐦
C=0
𝐪𝐄
𝐯𝐲 = 𝐭
𝐦
The component of electric field along x-axis is zero, it means there is no force
along x-axis. In this situation, velocity along x-axis will remain constant.
vfx = vix = vx
Magnitude of final velocity at any instant can be obtained by using the relation
𝟐 𝟐
𝐯𝐟 = √𝐯𝐟𝐱 + 𝐯𝐟𝐲
𝐪𝐄 𝟐
𝐯𝐟 = √𝐯𝐱𝟐 + ( 𝐭)
𝐦
𝐯
The direction of velocity at any instant can be found as θ = tan-1 ( 𝐟𝐲 )
𝐯𝐟𝐱
CASE 5:- (POINT CHARGE MOVING OBLIQUELY IN UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD)

Suppose a positive point charge
q is moving at angle θ w.r.t. x-
axis with some initial velocity vi
in a region where uniform
electric field E is directed along
y-axis as shown in the figure.
The initial velocity may be
resolved in two components as
under:-
vix = vi cos θ and viy = vi sin θ
The electric field will exert a force on the point charge q in the direction of E i.e. form
plate A towards plate B (along y-axis).
Fy = q E
𝐅𝐲 𝐪𝐄
ay = =
𝐦 𝐦
Acceleration can be defined as time rate of change of velocity, so we can write it
𝐝𝐯𝐲
as ay =
𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝐯𝐲 𝐪𝐄
=
𝐝𝐭 𝐦
𝐪𝐄
𝐝𝐯𝐲 = 𝐝𝐭
𝐦
𝐪𝐄
∫ 𝐝𝐯𝐲 = ∫ 𝐝𝐭
𝐦
𝐪𝐄
𝐯𝐲 = 𝐭+𝐂
𝐦
We can apply initial condition to find the value of constant of integration C. The
initial velocity of charge along y-axis is viy = vi sin θ.
We can say that viy = vi sin θ at t = 0.
𝐪𝐄
𝐯𝐢 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 = (𝟎) + 𝐂
𝐦
C = 𝐯𝐢 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
𝐪𝐄
𝐯𝐲 = 𝐯𝐢 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 + 𝐭
𝐦
The component of electric field along x-axis is zero, it means there is no force
along x-axis. In this situation, velocity along x-axis will remain constant.
vfx = vix = 𝐯𝐢 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉

Magnitude of final velocity at any instant can be obtained by using the relation
𝟐 𝟐
𝐯𝐟 = √𝐯𝐟𝐱 + 𝐯𝐟𝐲
𝐪𝐄 𝟐
𝐯𝐟 = √(𝐯𝐢 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉)𝟐 + (𝐯𝐢 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 + 𝐭)
𝐦
𝐯
The direction of velocity at any instant can be found as θ = tan-1 (𝐯𝐟𝐲 ).
𝐟𝐱
ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD

ELECTRIC DIPOLE:-
Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance constitute an
electric dipole.
ELECTRIC DIPOLE MOMENT:-
The product of magnitude of one charge and distance between the charges is
called dipole moment. It is measured in C m (Coulomb Meter). Its direction is
taken from negative to positive pole of the dipole. Mathematically, we can write
⃗ = 𝐪 𝐝 where 𝐝 is directed from negative to positive end of dipole.
𝐩
EXAMPLE:-
In a water molecule, the two hydrogen atoms
and the oxygen atom do not lie on a straight
line but form an angle of about 105o, as shown
in figure. As a result, the molecule has a
definite “oxygen side” and “hydrogen side.”
Moreover, the 10 electrons of the molecule tend
to remain closer to the oxygen nucleus than to
the hydrogen nuclei. This makes the oxygen side of the molecule slightly more
negative than the hydrogen side and creates an electric dipole moment that
points along the symmetry axis of the molecule as shown. If the water molecule is
placed in an external electric field, it behaves as like a dipole is placed in an
electric field.
To examine this behavior, we now consider
such an abstract dipole in a uniform external
electric field as shown in figure. We assume
that the dipole is a rigid structure that
consists of two ends of opposite charge, each
of magnitude q, separated by a distance d.
The dipole moment makes an angle θ with
field. Electrostatic forces act on the charged ends of the dipole. The electric field
is uniform, those forces act in opposite directions but with the same magnitude F
= q E. Thus, because the field is uniform, the net force on the dipole from the
field is zero and the center of mass of the dipole does not move.
However, the forces on the charged ends do produce a net torque τ on the dipole
about its center of mass. The center of mass lies on the line connecting the
charged ends, at some distance x from one end and thus a distance (d – x) from
the other end.
Total torque on dipole = Torque of positive pole + Torque of negative pole
τ = τ1 + τ2
τ = (F) (x) sin θ + (F) (d - x) sin θ
τ = F d sin θ
τ = (q E) d sin θ
τ = p E sin θ
We can write it in vector form as 𝛕 ⃗
⃗ 𝐱𝐄
⃗ = 𝐩
⃗ , thereby
The torque acting on the dipole tends to rotate it in the direction of 𝐄
reducing θ. This is clockwise rotation which gives rise to negative torque as
under:-
τ = - p E sin θ
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A DIPOLE:-
Potential energy can be associated with the orientation of an electric dipole in an
electric field. The dipole has its least potential energy when it is in its equilibrium
orientation, which is when its moment 𝐩 ⃗ . It has
⃗ is lined up with the field 𝐄
greater potential energy in all other orientations. Thus, the dipole is like a
pendulum, which has its least gravitational potential energy in its equilibrium
orientation i.e. at its lowest point. To rotate the dipole or the pendulum to any
other orientation requires work by some external agent.
In any situation involving potential energy, we are free to define the zero potential
energy configurations in an arbitrary way because only differences in potential
energy have physical meaning. The expression for the potential energy of an
electric dipole in an external electric field is simplest if we choose the potential
energy to be zero when the angle θ is 90o. We then can find the potential energy
U of the dipole at any other value of θ with ΔU = - W by calculating the work W
done by the field on the dipole when the dipole is rotated to that value of θ from
90o. With the aid of W = ∫ 𝛕 𝐝𝛉, we find that the potential energy U at any angle θ
𝛉
as U = - W = - ∫𝟗𝟎𝐨 𝛕 𝐝𝛉
Put the value of τ = - p E sin θ and apply limits after integration gives
𝛉
U = ∫𝟗𝟎𝐨 𝐩 𝐄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 𝐝𝛉
U = - p E cos θ
U=-𝐩 ⃗
⃗ .𝐄
APPLICATION IN MICROWAVE COOKING:-
Food can be warmed and cooked in a microwave oven if the food contains water
because water molecules are electric dipoles. When you turn on the oven, the
microwave source sets up a rapidly oscillating electric field within the oven and
thus also within the food. We just studied that any electric field produces a
torque on an electric dipole moment to align 𝐩 ⃗ . Because the oven’s 𝐄
⃗ with 𝐄 ⃗
oscillates, the water molecules continuously flip-flop in a frustrated attempt to
⃗.
align with 𝐄
Energy is transferred from the electric field to the thermal energy of the water
(and thus of the food) where three water molecules happened to have bonded
together to form a group. The flip-flop breaks some of the bonds. When the
molecules reform the bonds, energy is transferred to the random motion of the
group and then to the surrounding molecules. Soon, the thermal energy of the
water is enough to cook the food.
FLUX OF A VECTOR FIELD

Consider a surface S is placed in a vector field 𝐅 as shown in
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ of this surface. The
the figure. Take a small area element 𝐝𝐚
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is a vector quantity having magnitude equal to area of
area 𝐝𝐚
element of surface and direction is outward drawn normal
and written as
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂
𝐝𝐚 = 𝐝𝐚 𝐧
The normal 𝐧
̂ to element da and vector 𝐅 makes angle θ. The amount of flux of
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ of surface is
vector field 𝐅 through area element 𝐝𝐚
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Flux of vector 𝐅 : 𝐅. 𝐝𝐚
The net flux through the whole surface S is
Net flux of vector 𝐅 = ∫ 𝐅. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐝𝐚 = ∫ 𝐅. 𝐧
̂ 𝐝𝐚
This net flux of vector 𝐅 through whole surface S is called surface integral.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐅. 𝐧
Net flux of vector 𝐅 = Surface integral of vector 𝐅 = ∫ 𝐅. 𝐝𝐚 ̂ 𝐝𝐚
Net flux of vector 𝐅 = Surface integral of vector 𝐅 = ∫|𝐅||𝐧
̂|𝐝𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 = ∫ 𝐅 𝐝𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
The flux of a vector field is always a scalar quantity.
DEFINITION:-
The flux of a vector field 𝐅 is defined as surface integral of the perpendicular
component of a vector field over a surface.
FLUX OF ELECTRIC FIELD:-
It is defined as number of electric field lines passing perpendicularly through a
certain area of a surface. It is usually denoted by
Greek letter ϕ.
Mathematically, electric flux passing through a
surface is dot or scalar product of electric field
intensity and area vector.
We have studied about flux of a vector field 𝐅.
The net flux of vector field 𝐅 through whole
surface is called surface integral.
Similarly, flux of electric field through some surface is surface integral of normal
⃗ over the surface.
component electric field 𝐄
Flux of electric field 𝐄 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ = ∫𝐄 ⃗. 𝐧
𝐝𝐚 = ∫ 𝐄 ⃗ ||𝐧
̂ 𝐝𝐚 = ∫|𝐄 ̂|𝐝𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 = ∫ 𝐄 𝐝𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
It is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is N m2 C-1.

MAXIMUM FLUX:-
The flux of electric field through a surface will be maximum when surface is held
perpendicular to the electric field lines i.e. vector area and electric field are
parallel in this case and θ = 0o. In this case, ϕ = ∫ 𝐄 𝐝𝐚.
MINIMUM FLUX:-
No flux of electric field will pass through the surface when surface is held parallel
to the electric field lines i.e. vector area and electric field are perpendicular in this
case and θ = 90o. In this case, ϕ = 0.
GENERAL CASE:-
When surface is held neither parallel nor perpendicular to the electric field lines
i.e. vector area and electric field make an angle θ with each other. In this case, ϕ
= ∫ 𝐄 𝐝𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉.
GAUSS’S LAW
Gauss’s law states that electric flux coming out of a closed surface (bounding a
volume) is 1⁄εo times the total charge enclosed by the surface.
Mathematically, we can write it as
1
ϕe = εo
(Total charge enclosed by the surface)
𝐪
If total charge enclosed by the surface is q, we can rewrite as ϕe =
𝛆𝐨
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Since, ϕe = ∫ 𝐄 𝐝𝐚
𝐪
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
The Gauss’s law can be written as ∫ 𝐄 𝐝𝐚 =
𝛆𝐨
WHERE TO APPLY GAUSS’S LAW:-

Whenever we want to find electric field due to static charge distribution involving
high degree of symmetry, we can apply Gauss’s law for this purpose.
HOW TO APPLY GAUSS’S LAW:-
1) Firstly, we consider an imaginary closed surface passing through the point
on which electric field is to be evaluated. This imaginary closed surface is
called Gaussian surface.
 Electric Field should be perpendicular to the surface.
 Electric Field intensity should have same value at each point of this
surface.
 Point of observation should lie on the surface.
2) Secondly, we find the total charge enclosed by this Gaussian surface.
3) Thirdly, we evaluate the flux through Gaussian surface by using the
relation ϕe = ∫ 𝐄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
⃗ . 𝐝𝐚
𝐪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗ . 𝐝𝐚
4) Finally, we apply Gauss’s law to the geometry as ∫ 𝐄
𝛆𝐨
CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION:-

In some cases, charge is not present in discrete form i.e. point charge rather it is
distributed uniformly on a linear geometry, surface or inside a volume. Such
geometries of charge distributions are recognized by charge densities which are
described in this section.
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO AN INFINITE LINE OF CHARGE:-

Figure shows a section of an infinitely long
cylindrical plastic rod with a uniform charge
density λ. We want to find an expression for
the magnitude of electric field E at distance r
from the central axis of the rod, outside the
rod. We can do that using the approach of
Coulomb’s law. However, Gauss’s law gives a
much faster and easier (and prettier)
approach.
The charge distribution and the field have
cylindrical symmetry. To find the field at
radius r, we enclose a section of the rod with
a concentric Gaussian cylinder of radius r and height h. (Remember, if you want
the field at a certain point, put a Gaussian surface through that point.) We can
now apply Gauss’ law to relate the charge enclosed by the cylinder and the net
flux through the cylinder’s surface.
First note that because of the symmetry, the electric field at any point must be
radially outward (the charge is positive). That means that at any point on the end
caps, the field only skims the surface and does not pierce it. So, the flux through
each end cap is zero.
To find the flux through the cylinder’s curved surface, first note that for any
patch element on the surface, the area vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA is radially outward (away from
the interior of the Gaussian surface) and thus in the same direction as the field
piercing the patch. The dot product in Gauss’s law is then simply E dA cos 0o = E
dA, and we can pull E out of the integral. The remaining integral is just the
instruction to sum the areas of all patch elements on the cylinder’s curved
surface, but we already know that the total area is the product of the cylinder’s
height h and circumference 2πr. The net flux through the cylinder is then
ϕ = E A cos θ = E (2πr) (h) cos 0o
ϕ = E (2πrh)
The charge enclosed by this cylindrical Gaussian surface can be found by using
𝑞
the fact that λ = q=λh
ℎ
𝐪
We can use Gauss’s law here as ϕe =
𝛆𝐨
𝐪 λh
E (2πrh) = =
𝛆𝐨 𝛆𝐨
1 λ
E=
𝟐 𝝅 𝛆𝐨 𝐫
𝟏 𝛌
In vector form, ⃗𝑬
⃗ = 𝒓̂ where 𝒓̂ is the unit vector directed away from the
𝟐 𝝅 𝛆𝐨 𝐫
charged rod.
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO AN INFINITE SHEET OF CHARGE:-
Figure shows a portion of a thin,
infinite, non-conducting sheet with a
uniform (positive) surface charge
density σ. A sheet of thin plastic wrap,
uniformly charged on one side, can
serve as a simple model. Let us find the
electric field 𝐸⃗ at a distance r in front of
the sheet.
A useful Gaussian surface is a closed cylinder with
end caps of area A, arranged to pierce the sheet
perpendicularly as shown. From symmetry, 𝐸⃗ must
be perpendicular to the sheet and hence to the end
caps. Furthermore, since the charge is positive, is
directed away from the sheet, and thus the electric field lines pierce the two
Gaussian end caps in an outward direction. Because the field lines do not pierce
the curved surface, there is no flux through this portion of the
Gaussian surface.
𝑞
σ=  q = σ A = Charge enclosed
𝐴
Thus ∫ ⃗E. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

dA is simply E A for both the right and left face of the cylindrical
Gaussian surface as shown in figure.
Flux through end faces of Gaussian surface is ϕe = ∮ E dA + ∮ E

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA = 2 E A
𝐪 σA
We can use Gauss’s law here as ϕe = =
𝛆𝐨 𝛆𝐨
σA
Equating these two equations gives 2 E A =
𝛆𝐨
σ
E=
2 εo
𝛔
In vector form, ⃗𝑬
⃗ = 𝒓̂ where 𝒓̂ is the unit vector directed away from the
𝟐 𝛆𝐨
charged sheet.
ELECTRIC FIELD BETWEEN TWO OPPOSITELY CHARGED
PLATES:-
Figure on the right shows a cross section of a thin infinite
conducting plate with excess positive charge. Any excess
charge given to conducting plates lies on the surface of these
plates. Since the plate is thin and very large, we can assume
that essentially all the excess charge is on the two large
faces of the plates.
If there is no external electric field to force the charge into some particular
distribution, it will spread out on the two faces with a uniform surface charge
density of magnitude σ1. We have calculated electric field outside one such plate
𝝈𝟏
by using Gauss’s law and is equal to . Because the excess charge is positive,
𝟐 𝛆𝐨
the field is directed away from the plate.

Figure on the left shows an identical plate with excess
negative charge having the same magnitude of surface
charge density σ1. The only difference is that now the electric
field is directed toward the plate.
Suppose, we arrange these two oppositely charged

plates to be close to each other and parallel as
shown in the figure. Since the plates are
conductors, when we bring them into this
arrangement, the excess charge on one plate
attracts the excess charge on the other plate, and
all the excess charge moves onto the inner faces of the plates. With twice as
much charge now on each inner face, the new surface charge density (call it σ) on
each inner face is twice σ1. Thus, the electric field at any point between the plates
𝟐 𝝈𝟏 𝛔
has the magnitude E = =
𝛆𝐨 𝛆𝐨
This field is directed away from the positively charged plate and toward the
negatively charged plate. Since no excess charge is left on the outer faces, the
electric field to the left and right of the plates is zero. Because the charges moved
when we brought the plates close to each other, the charge distribution of the
two-plate system is not merely the sum of the charge distributions of the
individual plates. One reason why we discuss seemingly unrealistic situations,
such as the field set up by an infinite sheet of charge, is that analyses for
“infinite” situations yield good approximations to many real-world problems.
𝛔
Thus, E = holds well for a finite non-conducting sheet as long as we are
𝟐 𝛆𝐨
𝛔
dealing with points close to the sheet and not too near its edges. E = holds
𝛆𝐨
well for a pair of finite conducting plates as long as we consider points that are
not too close to their edges. The trouble with the edges is that near an edge we
can no longer use planar symmetry to find expressions for the fields. In fact, the
field lines there are curved (said to be an edge effect or fringing), and the fields
can be very difficult to express algebraically.
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO HOLLOW CHARGED SHELL

FIRST SHELL THEOREM:-
A shell of uniform charge attracts or repels a charged particle that is outside the
shell as if all the shell’s charge were concentrated at the center of the shell.
Figure shows a charged spherical shell of
total charge q and radius R and two
concentric spherical Gaussian surfaces, S1
and S2.
If we follow the procedure of applying
Gauss’s law to surface S2 for which r ≥ R,
𝐪
we would find that ϕe = ∮ E dA =
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛆𝐨
Since, area vector and electric field are

directed radially outwards, θ = 0o and
∮ E⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA = E A where A is area of spherical
Gaussian surface.
𝐪
E (4 π r2) =
𝛆𝐨
𝟏 𝐪
E=
𝟒 𝝅 𝛆𝐨 𝒓𝟐
This field is the same as one set up by a particle with charge q at the center of
the shell of charge. Thus, the force produced by a shell of charge q on a charged
particle placed outside the shell is the same as if all the shell’s charge is
concentrated as a particle at the shell’s center. This proves the first shell
theorem.
SECOND SHELL THEOREM:-
If a charged particle is located inside a shell of uniform charge, there is no
electrostatic force on the particle from the shell.
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Applying Gauss’s law to S1 yields that ∮ E dA = 0 as no charge is enclosed by this
surface. In this case ∮ ⃗⃗E . ⃗⃗⃗⃗

dA = E A = 0
Since, A ≠ 0, we can say that E = 0.
Thus, if a charged particle were enclosed by the shell, the shell would exert no
net electrostatic force on the particle. This proves the second shell theorem.
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO SPHERICAL CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

OUTSIDE THE SPHERICAL SYMMETRY:-
Any spherically symmetric charge distribution as
shown in the figure can be constructed with a
nest of concentric spherical shells.
For purposes of applying the two shell theorems,
the volume charge density ρ should have a single
value for each shell but need not be the same
from shell to shell. Thus, for the charge
distribution as a whole, ρ can vary, but only with
r, the radial distance from the center.
We can then examine the effect of the charge distribution “shell by shell.” In this
figure, the entire charge lies within a Gaussian surface with r ≥ R. The charge
produces an electric field on the Gaussian surface as if the charge were that of a
particle located at the center.
𝐪
We know that ϕe = ∮ ⃗E. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA =
𝛆𝐨
Since, area vector and electric field are directed radially outwards, θ = 0o and
∮ E⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA = E A where A is area of spherical Gaussian surface.
𝐪
E (4 π r2) =
𝛆𝐨
𝟏 𝐪 𝟒
E= where q = ρ ( π R3)
𝟒 𝝅 𝛆𝐨 𝒓𝟐 𝟑
INSIDE THE SPHERICAL SYMMETRY:-

Figure shows a Gaussian surface with r < R. To
find the electric field at points on this Gaussian
surface, we separately consider the charge
inside it and the charge outside it. The charge
outside this Gaussian surface does not set up a
field on the Gaussian surface. The inside
charge sets up a field as though it is
concentrated at the center. Letting q’ represent
that enclosed charge, we can then write electric
𝟏 𝐪′
field inside as E = .
𝟒 𝝅 𝛆 𝐨 𝒓𝟐
Since, volume charge density is uniform everywhere, we can relate the full charge
of spherical symmetry and charge enclosed inside this Gaussian surface r < R as
under:-
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒆𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒓 𝑭𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
=
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒓 𝑭𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝒒′ 𝒒
𝟑 =
𝟒𝝅𝒓 𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟑
𝟑 𝟑
𝒓𝟑
𝒒′ = 𝒒 ( )
𝑹𝟑
𝟏 𝐪′
Substituting this value of q’ in E = gives
𝟒 𝝅 𝛆𝐨 𝒓𝟐
𝐪
E= r
𝟒 𝝅 𝛆 𝐨 𝑹𝟑
The relations indicate that electric field is directly proportional to the distance
from the center inside the shell while it is inversely proportional to the square of
distance outside the shell.
A CHARGED ISOLATED CONDUCTOR

If an excess charge is placed on an
isolated conductor, that amount of
charge will move entirely to the surface
of the conductor. None of the excess
charge will be found within the body of
the conductor.
This might seem reasonable, considering
that charges with the same sign repel
one another. You might imagine that, by
moving to the surface, the added charges
are getting as far away from one another as they can. We turn to Gauss’ law for
verification of this speculation.
Figure shows cross section of an isolated lump of copper hanging from an
insulating thread and having an excess charge q. We place a Gaussian surface
just inside the actual surface of the conductor. The electric field inside this
conductor must be zero. If this were not so, the field would exert forces on the
conduction (free) electrons, which are always present in a conductor, and thus
current would always exist within a conductor. (That is, charge would flow from
place to place within the conductor.) Of course, there is no such perpetual
current in an isolated conductor, and so the internal electric field is zero.
An internal electric field does appear as a conductor is being charged. However,
the added charge quickly distributes itself in such a way that the net internal
electric field, the vector sum of the electric fields due to all the charges, both
inside and outside is zero. The movement of charge then ceases, because the net
force on each charge is zero; the charges are then in electrostatic equilibrium.
If E is zero everywhere inside our copper conductor, it must be zero for all points
on the Gaussian surface because that surface, though close to the surface of the
conductor, is definitely inside the conductor. This means that the flux through
the Gaussian surface must be zero. Gauss’s law then tells us that the net charge
inside the Gaussian surface must also be zero. Then because the excess charge
is not inside the Gaussian surface, it must be outside that surface, which means
it must lie on the actual surface of the conductor.
ISOLATED CONDUCTOR WITH A CAVITY:-

Figure shows the same hanging
conductor, but now with a cavity that is
totally within the conductor. It is perhaps
reasonable to suppose that when we
scoop out the electrically neutral material
to form the cavity, we do not change the
distribution of charge or the pattern of
the electric field that exists in previous
case.
Again, we must turn to Gauss’s law for a quantitative proof. We draw a Gaussian
surface surrounding the cavity, close to its surface but inside the conducting
body. Because inside the conductor, there can be no flux through this new
Gaussian surface. Therefore, from Gauss’s law, that surface can enclose no net
charge. We conclude that there is no net charge on the cavity walls; all the excess
charge remains on the outer surface of the conductor.
THE CONDUCTOR REMOVED:-
Suppose that, by some magic, the excess charges could be “frozen” into position
on the conductor’s surface, perhaps by embedding them in a thin plastic coating,
and suppose that then the conductor could be removed completely. This is
equivalent to enlarging the cavity of previous section until it consumes the entire
conductor, leaving only the charges. The electric field would not change at all; it
would remain zero inside the thin shell of charge and would remain unchanged
for all external points. This shows us that the electric field is set up by the
charges and not by the conductor. The conductor simply provides an initial
pathway for the charges to take up their positions.
EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD:-
We have seen that the excess charge on an isolated conductor moves entirely to
the conductor’s surface. However, unless the conductor is spherical, the charge
does not distribute itself uniformly. Put another way, the surface charge density
σ (charge per unit area) varies over the surface of any non-spherical conductor.
Generally, this variation makes the determination of the electric field set up by
the surface charges very difficult.
However, the electric field just outside the

surface of a conductor is easy to
determine using Gauss’ law. To do this,
we consider a section of the surface that
is small enough to permit us to neglect
any curvature and thus to take the
section to be flat. We then imagine a tiny
cylindrical Gaussian surface to be
partially embedded in the section as
shown in figure. One end cap is fully
inside the conductor, the other is fully
outside, and the cylinder is perpendicular
to the conductor’s surface.
The electric field at and just outside the
conductor’s surface must also be
perpendicular to that surface. If it were
not, then it would have a component
along the conductor’s surface that would
exert forces on the surface charges,
causing them to move. However, such motion would violate our implicit
assumption that we are dealing with electrostatic equilibrium. Therefore, is
perpendicular to the conductor’s surface.
We now sum the flux through the Gaussian surface. There is no flux through the
internal end cap, because the electric field within the conductor is zero. There is
no flux through the curved surface of the cylinder, because internally (in the
conductor) there is no electric field and externally the electric field is parallel to
the curved portion of the Gaussian surface. The only flux through the Gaussian
surface is that through the external end cap, where is perpendicular to the plane
of the cap. We assume that the cap area A is small enough that the field
magnitude E is constant over the cap. Then the flux through the cap is EA, and
that is the net flux & through the Gaussian surface. The charge qenc enclosed by
the Gaussian surface lies on the conductor’s surface in an area A. (Think of the
cylinder as a cookie cutter.) If σ is the charge per unit area, then qenc is equal to
𝛔
σA. When we substitute σA for qenc and EA for ϕ, we get E = .
𝛆𝐨
Thus, the magnitude of the electric field just outside a conductor is proportional
to the surface charge density on the conductor. The sign of the charge gives us
the direction of the field. If the charge on the conductor is positive, the electric
field is directed away from the conductor as in figure. It is directed toward the
conductor if the charge is negative.
The field lines in figure must terminate on negative charges somewhere in the
environment. If we bring those charges near the conductor, the charge density at
any given location on the conductor’s surface changes, and so does the
magnitude of the electric field. However, the relation between E and σ E is still
proportional.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

Consider a point charge qo allowed to move in an
electric field ⃗𝑬 produced between two oppositely
charged parallel plates as shown in figure. The
positive charge will move from plate B to A (in the
direction of electric field) and will gain kinetic
energy. If charge is to be moved from point A
towards B, external force has to be applied against
the electric force and charge will gain potential energy.
Let us impose a condition that as the charge is
moved against the electric field, it is moved by
keeping the equilibrium i.e. it moves with uniform
velocity and no net force acts on it so that kinetic
energy remains constant and it gains potential
energy only. This condition can be obtained by
applying a force ⃗𝑭 equal and opposite to qo⃗𝑬
⃗ at
every point along its path as shown in figure.
The work done by external force against the electric field increases the potential
energy of the charge that is moved. If WAB is the work done by external force in
carrying the positive charge qo from A to B while keeping the charge in
equilibrium, then the change in potential energy = ΔU = WAB
UB – UA = WAB where UB and UA are potential energies at point A and B
respectively.
We can define electric potential energy difference as the work
done in moving a charge from one point to another against the
electric field by keeping it in equilibrium.
If we assign the initial point A to be zero potential energy reference i.e. UA = 0,
then UB = U and U = WAB
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:-
Now, we will introduce the concept of electric potential difference to define
electric field.
The electric potential difference between two points A & B in an
electric field is defined as the work done in carrying a unit positive
charge from A to B while keeping the charge in equilibrium.
𝑾𝑨𝑩 𝜟𝑼
Mathematically, we can express it as ΔV = VB – VA = =
𝒒𝒐 𝒒𝒐
where VA and VB are defined as potentials at point A and point B respectively.

Electric potential energy difference and electric potential difference are related as
ΔU = qo ΔV = WAB
Potential difference can also be defined as difference of potential energy per unit
positive charge. The unit of potential difference is one volt and it is defined as one
joule per coulomb.
Potential difference of one volt exists between two points if work done in moving a
unit positive charge between these two points is one joule.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL:-
In order to define electric potential at a point in electric field, we must assign zero
electric potential to a reference point. This point is usually taken at infinity as
electric field cease to exist at this point. If we take point A at infinity and choose
VA = 0, the electric potential at B will be VB = W∞B/qo. We can drop the subscripts
𝑾
to make it more generalized as V =
𝒒𝒐
Electric potential at any point in an electric field is equal to

the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity
to that point keeping it in equilibrium.
Potential at a point is still the potential difference between the potential at that
point and potential at infinity. Both potential and potential differences are scalar
quantities because both W and qo are scalars.
CALCULATING POTENTIAL FROM FIELD:-
We can calculate the potential difference
between any two points i and f in an
electric field if we know the electric field
vector ⃗𝑬
⃗ all along any path connecting
those points. To make the calculation, we
find the work done on a positive test
charge by the field as the charge move
from i to f, and then calculate potential
difference. Consider an arbitrary electric
field, represented by the field lines shown
in figure and a positive test charge qo that moves along the path shown from
⃗ acts on the
point i to point f. At any point on the path, an electric force qo𝑬
charge as it moves through a differential displacement ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔.
We know that the differential work dW done on a particle by a force qo⃗𝑬
⃗ during a
displacement ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔 is given by the dot product of the force and the displacement:
dW = qo⃗𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ .𝒅𝒔
The total work done by field in moving point charge qo from i to f is:
𝑓
⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
W = ∫𝑖 𝑞𝑜 𝑬
−𝑾
The potential difference between i and f is defined as ΔV =
𝒒𝒐
𝑓
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Vf – Vi = − ∫𝑖 ⃗𝑬 𝒅𝒔
Assign point i to be reference point, we can say that Vi = 0 V and Vf = V
𝑓
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
V = − ∫𝑖 ⃗𝑬 𝒅𝒔
If we move along a straight line along
an electric field line in a uniform
electric field:
⃗𝑬. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔 = E ds cos 0o = E ds
𝑓
Vf – Vi = −𝐸 ∫𝑖 𝒅𝒔
ΔV = - E Δx
This is the change in voltage ΔV,
between two equipotential lines in a
uniform field of magnitude E,
separated by distance Δx.
If we move in the direction of the field by distance Δx, the potential decreases. In
the opposite direction, it increases.
POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE:-
f
We will now use Vf – Vi = − ∫i 𝐄⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐝𝐬 to derive, for the space around a charged
particle, an expression for the electric potential V relative to the zero potential at
infinity. Consider a point P at distance R from a fixed particle of positive charge
q. We imagine that we move a positive test charge qo from point P to infinity.
Because the path we take does not matter, let us choose the simplest one, a line
that extends radially from the fixed particle through P to infinity.
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
We must evaluate the dot product 𝐄 𝐝𝐬 = E ds cos θ
The electric field in figure is directed radially outward from the fixed particle.
Thus, the differential displacement ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐝𝐬 of the test particle along its path has the
⃗ . This means that angle θ = 0o and cos θ = 1. Because the
same direction as 𝐄
path is radial, let us write ds as dr. Then, substituting the limits R and ∞, we can
∞
write Vf – Vi = − ∫𝑅 𝑬 𝒅𝒓
Now, we set Vf = 0 V at infinity and Vi = V at distance R

∞
0 – V = − ∫𝑅 𝑬 𝒅𝒓
∞
V = ∫𝑅 𝑬 𝒅𝒓
We already know that electric field due to a point charge at a distance r from it is
𝟏 𝐪
given as 𝐄 = .
Put this value to find V at point R:

∞ 𝟏 𝐪
V = ∫𝑅 𝒅𝒓
q −1∞
V= | |
4 π εo 𝑟 𝑅
1 q
V=
4 π εo R
We can switch R to r for generalization of case

as under:
1 q
V=
4 π εo r
A positively charged particle produces a positive electric potential. A negatively

charged particle produces a negative electric potential.
Exercise 1:- Using zero reference point at infinity, determine the amount by which a point
charge of 4.0 x 10-8 C alters the electric potential at a point 1.2 m away, when (a) Charge is
positive (b) Charge is negative.
Solution:- Magnitude of charge = q = 4.0 x 10-8 C
Distance = r = 1.2 m
(a) Charge is positive
𝑞 +4.0 𝑥 10−8
V = 𝑘 𝑟 = (9 x 109) ( ) = +300 V
1.2
V = + 3.0 x 102 V
(b) Charge is negative
𝑞 −4.0 𝑥 10−8
V = 𝑘 𝑟 = (9 x 109) ( ) = -300 V
1.2
V = - 3.0 x 102 V
Exercise 2:- In Bohr’s atomic model of hydrogen atom, the electron is in orbit around the
nuclear proton at a distance of 5.29 x 10-11 m with a speed of 2.18 x 106 m s-1. (e = 1.60 x 10-19
C, mass of electron = 9.10 x 10-31 kg). Find (a) The electric potential that a proton exerts at this
distance (b) Total energy of the atom in eV (c) The ionization energy for the atom in eV.
Solution:- Distance = r = 5.29 x 10-11 m
Charge of proton = q = e = 1.60 x 10-19 C
Charge of proton = -e = -1.60 x 10-19 C
Mass of electron = m = 9.10 x 10-31 kg
Speed of electron = v = 2.18 x 106 m s-1
𝑞 1.60 𝑥 10−19
(a) Potential exerted by the proton = V = 𝑘 𝑟 = (9 x 109) (5.29 𝑥 10−11 )
V = +27.20 V
1 1
(b) K.E. = = 2 m v2 = = 2 (9.10 x 10-31) (2.18 x 106)2 = 21.6 x 10-19 J
21.6 𝑥 10−19
K.E. = 1.60 𝑥 10−19 eV = 13.60 eV
P.E. = Work done = -e V = (-1 e) (27.20 V)

P.E. = -27.20 eV
Total energy = E = K.E. + P.E. = 13.60 eV + (-27.20 eV)
E = -13.60 eV
(c) The minimum energy required to remove an electron from valence shell of atom is called
ionization energy.
Ionization energy = - (Total energy of electron)
Ei = -E = -(-13.60 eV)
Ei = + 13.60 eV
POTENTIAL DUE TO A DIPOLE:-

Consider an electric dipole as shown in the figure.
We want to find the potential at an arbitrary point P
due to this dipole. At P, the positively charged
particle (at distance r+ sets up potential V+ and the
negatively charged particle (at distance r-) sets up
potential V-.Then the net potential at P is given by
applying principle of superposition V = V+ + V-
𝟏 𝐪 𝟏 (−𝐪)
V= +
𝟒 𝛑 𝛆𝐨 𝒓+ 𝟒 𝛑 𝛆𝐨 𝒓−
𝐪 𝟏 𝟏
V= ( - )
𝟒 𝛑 𝛆𝐨 𝒓+ 𝒓−
𝐪 𝒓− − 𝒓+
V= ( )
𝟒 𝛑 𝛆𝐨 𝒓− 𝒓+
Naturally occurring dipoles such as possessed by many molecules are quite

small; so we are usually interested only in points that are relatively far from the
dipole, such that r >> d where d is the distance between the charges and r is the
distance from the dipole’s midpoint to P. In that case,
we can approximate the two lines to P as being parallel
and their length difference as being the leg of a right
triangle with hypotenuse d as shown in figure. Also,
that difference is so small that the product of the
lengths is approximately r2.
r- - r+ = d cos θ and r- r+ = r2
𝐪 𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
V= ( )
𝟒 𝛑 𝛆𝐨 𝒓𝟐
𝟏 𝒒 𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
V= ( )
𝟏 𝒑 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
V= ( )
Where p = q d is dipole moment of the dipole.

POTENTIAL DUE TO CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION:-
Whenever charge is distributed over a line, surface or inside a volume, we will
find differential potential dV due to a small element of charge distribution
carrying charge dq and then integrate over the whole geometry as
1 dq
dV =
4 π εo r
1 dq
V=∫
4πε o r
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO FINITE LINE OF CHARGE:-

Consider a thin non-conducting rod of length L has a positive charge of uniform
linear density λ. We will determine the electric potential V due to the rod at point
P, a perpendicular distance d from the left end of the rod. We consider a
differential element dx of the rod as shown in figure. This (or any other) element
dq
of the rod has a differential charge of dq which can be determined as λ =
dx
dq = λ dx
This element produces an electric potential dV at point P, which is a distance r =

1
(x 2 + d2 )2 from the element. Treating the element as a point charge, we can write
the potential dV as under
1 dq 1 λ dx
dV = = 1
4 π εo r 4 π εo
(x2 +d2 )2
Since the charge on the rod is positive and we have taken V = 0 at infinity, we
know that dV must be positive. We now find the total potential V produced by the
rod at point P by
integrating dV along
the length of the
rod, from x = 0 to x
= L as shown in
figure:
V = ∫ 𝑑𝑉
𝐿 1 λ dx
= ∫0 1
4 π εo
(x2 +d2 )2
λ 𝐿 dx
= ∫0 1
4 π εo
(x2 +d2 )2
1 𝐿
λ 2
= [ln (x + (x + d2 )2 )]
4 π εo 0
1
λ
= [ln (L + (L2 + d2 )2)- ln d]
4 π εo
1
λ L + (L2 +d2 )2
= ln [ ]
4 π εo 𝑑
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO RING OF CHARGE:-

Consider a ring of charge of radius R’ placed in xy-plane. The axis of ring passes
through its centre and is along z-axis. We want to find electric potential due to
this ring of charge at a point P on z-axis at distance z from centre of the ring.
For this purpose, we divide the ring into small length
element each of length ds on it circumference such
that each element carries a charge dq. If line charge
𝑑𝑞
density is λ = , charge carried by each element is dq
𝑑𝑠
= λ ds.
The distance of this length element is r from point P
1
such that r = (z 2 + R′2 )2
Potential at point P due to this length element is dV
1 dq 1 λ ds
which is dV = = 1
4 π εo r 4 π εo
(z2 +R′2 )2
We can find the potential due to this ring by integrating dV over the entire
boundary of this ring.
V = ∫ 𝑑𝑉
2𝜋𝑅′ 1 λ ds
V = ∫0 1
4 π εo
(z2 +R′2 )2
λ 2𝜋𝑅′
V= 1 ∫0 ds
4 π εo (z2 +R′2 )2
λ (2𝜋𝑅 ′ )
V= 1
4 π εo (z2 +R′2 )2
1 q
V=
4 π εo r
1
where λ (2𝜋𝑅 ′ ) = 𝑞 is the total charge carried by the ring and r = (z 2 + R′2 )2
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO DISK OF CHARGE:-

Consider a ring of charge of radius R
placed in xy-plane. The axis of disk passes
through its centre and is along z-axis. We
want to find electric potential due to this
disk of charge at a point P on z-axis at
distance z from centre of the disk. The
𝑑𝑞
surface charge density is σ =
𝑑𝐴
Consider a differential element consisting
of a flat ring of radius R’ and radial width
dR’. Its charge has magnitude dq = σ
(2πR’)dR’
The distance of this length element is r
1
from point P such that r = (z 2 + R′2 )2
1 dq
Potential at point P due to this length element is dV which is dV = =
4 π εo r
1 σ (2πR’)dR’
1
4 π εo
(z2 +R′2 )2
We can find the potential due to this ring by integrating dV from centre towards
boundary of the ring.
V = ∫ 𝑑𝑉
𝑅 1 σ (2πR’)dR’
V = ∫0 1
4 π εo
(z2 +R′2 )2
σπ 𝑅 (2R’)dR’
V= ∫0 1
4 π εo
(z2 +R′2 )2
1 𝑅
σ (z2 +R′2 )2
V= [ 1 ]
4 εo
2 0
1
σ
V= [(z 2 + R2 ) – z] 2
2 εo
σ
V= [√z 2 + R2 – z]
2 εo
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES:-
Adjacent points that have the same electric potential form an
equipotential surface, which can be either an imaginary surface or
a real, physical surface.
No net work W is done on a charged particle by an electric field when the particle
moves between two points i and f on the same equipotential surface.
Work must be zero if Vf = Vi. Due to path independence of work (and thus of
potential energy and potential), W = 0 for any path connecting points i and f on a
given equipotential surface regardless of whether that path lies entirely on that
surface. Figure shows a family of equipotential surfaces associated with the
electric field due to some distribution of charges.
The work done
by the electric
field on a
charged
particle as the
particle moves
from one end
to the other of
paths I and II
is zero
because each
of these paths
begins and ends on the same equipotential surface and thus there is no net
change in potential. The work done as the charged particle moves from one end
to the other of paths III and IV is not zero
but has the same value for both these
paths because the initial and final
potentials are identical for the two paths;
that is, paths III and IV connect the same
pair of equipotential surfaces.
From symmetry, the equipotential
surfaces produced by a charged particle
or a spherically symmetrical charge
distribution are a family of concentric spheres. Figure shows electric field lines
and cross sections of the equipotential surfaces for the field associated with a
charged particle.
For a uniform electric field, the surfaces are
a family of planes perpendicular to the field
lines. In fact, equipotential surfaces are
always perpendicular to electric field lines
⃗ , which is always tangent to
and thus to E
these lines. If field lines were not
perpendicular to an equipotential surface, it
would have a component lying along that
surface. This component would then do
work on a charged particle as it moved
along the surface. However, work cannot be done if the surface is truly an
equipotential surface; the only possible conclusion is that must be everywhere
perpendicular to the surface. Figure above shows electric field lines and cross
sections of the equipotential surfaces for a uniform electric field.
CALCULATING THE FIELD FROM THE POTENTIAL:-
We have already seen how to find the
potential at a point f if you know the
electric field along a path from a
reference point to point f. In this
module, we propose to go the other
way round i.e. to find the electric field
when we know the potential.
If we know the potential V at all
points near an assembly of charges,
we can draw in a family of
equipotential surfaces as we learned
in previous section. The electric field
lines, sketched perpendicular to those
surfaces, reveal the variation of 𝐸⃗ .
Figure shows cross sections of a family of closely spaced equipotential surfaces,
the potential difference between each pair of adjacent surfaces being dV. As the
figure suggests, the field 𝐸⃗ at any point P is perpendicular to the equipotential

surface through P.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ from one
Suppose that a positive test charge q0 moves through a displacement 𝑑𝑠
equipotential surface to the adjacent surface. We see that the work done by
electric field on the test charge during the move is - q0 dV.
Work done by the electric field may also be written as the scalar product or
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = qo E ds cos θ.
qo𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
Equating these two expressions for the work yields - q0 dV = qo E ds cos θ
𝑑𝑉
E cos θ = − 𝑑𝑠
E cos θ is the component of 𝐸⃗ in the direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑠.
𝜕𝑉
Es = − 𝜕𝑠
We have added a subscript to E and switched to the partial derivative symbols to

emphasize that expression involves only the variation of V along a specified axis
(here called the s-axis) and only the component of electric field along that axis.
The component of ⃗𝑬 in any direction is the negative of the
rate at which the electric potential changes with distance in
that direction.
If we take the s-axis to be x, y and z-axis, we can write as under:-
𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽
Ex = − 𝝏𝒙 Ey = − 𝝏𝒚 Ez = − 𝝏𝒛
If we are given potential V as a function of Cartesian coordinates as V(x,y,z), we

can find electric field along any direction easily.
The component of the electric field is zero in any direction parallel to the
equipotential surfaces because there is no change in potential along the surfaces.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
The time rate at which electric charges flow through a point in an electric circuit
is called electric current. It is denoted by i.
𝑑𝑞
If a charge dq passes through a point in time dt, the current i is .
𝑑𝑡
Its SI unit is ampere which is equal to coulomb per second i.e. 1 A = 1 C s-1.
A current of 1 A passes through a conductor if one coulomb charge passes
through a particular point in one second.
ELECTRIC CURRENT THROUGH CONDUCTORS:-
Although an electric current is a stream of moving charges, not all moving
charges constitute an electric current. If there is to be an electric current through
a given surface, there must be a net flow of charge through that surface. Two
examples will clarify our meaning.
1. The free electrons (conduction electrons) in an isolated length of copper wire
are in random motion at speeds of the order of 106 m/s. If you pass a
hypothetical plane through such a wire, conduction electrons pass through it in
both directions at the rate of many billions per second but there is no net
transport of charge and thus no current passes through the wire. However, if you
connect the ends of the wire to a battery, you slightly bias the flow in one
direction, with the result that there now is a net transport of charge and thus an
electric current through the wire.
2. The flow of water through a garden hose represents the directed flow of
positive charge (the protons in the water molecules) at a rate of perhaps several
million coulombs per second. There is no net transport of charge, however,
because there is a parallel flow of negative charge (the electrons in the water
molecules) of exactly the same amount moving in exactly the same direction.
EXPLANATION:-
1) Any isolated conducting loop (regardless of
whether it has an excess charge) is all at the
same potential. No electric field can exist
within it or along its surface. Although
conduction electrons are available, no net electric force acts on them and thus
there is no current.
2) If we insert a battery in the loop, the conducting loop is no longer at a single
potential. Electric fields act inside the material making up the loop, exerting
forces on the conduction electrons, causing

them to move and thus establishing a current.
After a very short time, the electron flow
reaches a constant value and the current is in
its steady state (it does not vary with time).
Figure shows a section of a conductor, part of a conducting loop in which current
has been established. If charge dq passes through a hypothetical plane (such as
aa’) in time dt, then the current i through that plane is defined as
𝑑𝑞
i=
𝑑𝑡
We can find the charge that passes through
the plane in a time interval extending from 0 to
t by integration:
𝑡
q = ∫ 𝑑𝑞 = ∫𝑜 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
in which the current i may vary with time.
CURRENT DENSITY:-
Sometimes we study current i in a particular conductor. At other times, we take a
localized view and study the flow of charges through a cross section of the
conductor at a particular point. To describe this flow, we can use the current
density 𝑱 which has the same direction as the velocity of the moving charges if
they are positive and the opposite direction if they are negative. For each element
of the cross section, the magnitude J is equal to the current per unit area
through that element. We can write the amount of current through the element
as 𝑱. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑨 where ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑨 is the area vector of the element, perpendicular to the element.
The total current through the surface is then i = ∫ 𝑱. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑨
If the current is uniform across the surface and parallel to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝒅𝑨 then 𝑱 is also
uniform and parallel to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑨, we can write as i = ∫ 𝐽 𝑑𝐴= j A
J = 𝑖⁄𝐴
EXPLANATION:-
We saw that we can represent an electric field with
electric field lines. Figure shows that how current
density can be represented with a similar set of lines,
which we can call streamlines. The current, which is
toward the right in figure, makes a transition from the wider conductor at the left
to the narrower conductor at the right. Because charge is conserved during the
transition, the amount of charge and thus the amount of current cannot change.
However, the current density does change—it is greater in the narrower
conductor. The spacing of the streamlines suggests this increase in current
density; streamlines that are closer together imply greater current density.
DRIFT SPEED:-
When a conductor does not have a current through it, its conduction electrons
move randomly, with no net motion in any direction. When the conductor does
have a current through it, these electrons actually still move randomly, but now
they tend to drift with a drift speed vd in the direction opposite that of the applied
electric field that causes the current. The drift speed is tiny compared with the
speeds in the random motion. For example, in the copper conductors of
household wiring, electron drift speeds are perhaps 10-5 or 10-4 m/s, whereas the
random-motion speeds are around 106 m/s.
Drift speed vd of the conduction electrons in a current through a wire to the
magnitude J of the current density in the wire. Conventional current is
considered to be due to flow of positive charges.
Figure shows the equivalent drift of
positive charge carriers in the
direction of the applied electric field.
Let us assume that these charge
carriers all move with the same drift
speed vd and that the current density
J is uniform across the wire’s cross-
sectional area A. The number of charge carriers in a length L of the wire is nAL,
where n is the number of carriers per unit volume. The total charge of the
carriers in the length L, each with charge e, is then q = (nAL)e.
The carriers move along the wire with speed vd, this total charge moves through
any cross section of the wire in the time interval t which is given as:
t = 𝐿⁄𝑣𝑑
The current i is transfer rate of charges so
𝑞 𝑛𝐴𝐿𝑒
𝑖= = = 𝑛 𝐴 𝑒 𝑣𝑑
𝑡 𝐿⁄
𝑣𝑑
𝑖 𝐽
𝑣𝑑 = =
𝑛𝐴𝑒 𝑛𝑒
In vector form, 𝑱 = 𝑛 𝑒 𝒗
⃗𝒅
RESISTANCE:-
If we apply the same potential difference between the ends of geometrically
similar rods of copper and of glass, very different currents result. The
characteristic of the conductor that enters here is its electrical resistance. We
determine the resistance between any two points of a conductor by applying a
potential difference V between those points and measuring the current i that
results. The resistance R is then R = 𝑉⁄𝑖
The SI unit is volt per ampere which is also called ohm and represented by Greek
letter Ω i.e 1 Ω = 1 V A-1
“When a potential difference is applied across the terminals of a
conductor, the opposition offered to the flow of drifting electrons
due to continuous bumping of lattice atoms about their mean
positions is called resistance”
RESISTIVITY:-
“Resistance of one meter cube volume of a material is called its
resistivity. It is denoted by Greek letter ρ and its unit is Ω m”
Mathematically, it is the ratio of applied electric field to current density i.e. 𝜌 =
𝐸⁄
𝐽
In vector form, ⃗𝑬 = 𝝆 𝑱
CONDUCTIVITY:-
“The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity. It is denoted
by Greek letter σ and its unit is (Ω m)-1 = Ω-1 m-1”
1
Mathematically, σ =
𝜌
In vector form, 𝑱 = 𝝈 ⃗𝑬
RELATION BETWEEN RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY:-
Resistance is property of an object while resistivity
is property of a material.
Consider a cylindrical wire of length L and cross-
sectional area A in which current i is passing by
applying a potential difference of V across its ends.
The magnitude of electric field across the conductor is E = 𝑉⁄𝐿
J = 𝑖⁄𝐴
𝑉
𝐸
Since ρ = = 𝐿⁄𝑖
𝐽
𝐴
𝝆 𝑳⁄
R= 𝑨
OHM’s LAW:-
“It states that current through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference applied across its ends
provided that physical state of the conductor i.e. temperature,
phase of matter, elastic modulus etc. does not change”
The devices which obey Ohm’s law are called
Ohmic devices such as conductors at fixed
temperature. The devices which deviate from
Ohm’s law are called non-ohmic devices such
as filament of a bulb, semiconductor diode etc.
The graphical representation of Ohm’s law is a
straight line graph between V and i as shown
in the adjacent figure.
The area under the graph represents the power
dissipated by the device.
The slope of graph gives the conductance of the
device.
Exercise 1:- How many electrons pass through an electric bulb in one minute if the 300 mA
current is passing through it?
Solution:- Current = I = 300 mA = 300 x 10-3 A = 0.3 A
Time = 1 minute = 60 s
Current = I = Charge/time = q/t
q = It = (0.3)(60) = 1.8 C
We know that total charge passing through the bulb in terms of electronic charge e is q = ne.
We can say that q = ne
1.8
n = q/e = = 1.12 x 1019
1.60 𝑥 10−19
n = 1.12 x 1019
Exercise 2:- A charge of 90 C passes through a wire in 1 hour and 15 minutes. What is the
current in the wire?
Solution:- Charge = q = 90 C
Time = t = 1 hour 15 minutes = 75 minutes = 75 x 60 s = 4500 s
Current = I = Charge/time = q/t
I = 90/4500 = 1/50 A
I = 0.02 A
I = 20 mA
Exercise 3:- A rectangular bar of iron is 2.0 cm by 2.0 cm in cross section and 40 cm long.
Calculate its resistance if the resistivity of iron is 11 x 10-8 Ω m.
Solution:- Resistivity of iron = ρ = 11 x 10-8 Ω m
Length of iron bar = 40 cm = 0.4 m
Width of iron bar = W = 2.0 cm = 0.02 m
Breadth of iron bar = B = 2.0 cm = 0.02 m
Area of cross section = A = Width x Breadth = W x B = 0.02 x 0.02 = 4 x 10-4 m2
𝐿 0.4
Resistance = R = ρ 𝐴 = (11 x 10-8) (4 𝑥 10−4 )
R = 1.1 x 10-4 Ω
Exercise 4:- The resistance of an iron wire at 0 oC is 1 x 104 Ω. What is the resistance at 500 oC if
the temperature coefficient of resistance of iron is 5.2 x 10-3 K-1?
Solution:- Temperature coefficient of resistance of iron = α = 5.2 x 10-3 K-1
Resistance at 0 oC = Ro = 1 x 104 Ω
Initial temperature = t1 = 0 oC = 273 K
Final temperature = t2 = 500 oC = 773 K
Rise in temperature = t = t2 – t1 = 773 – 273 = 500 K
𝑅𝑡 −𝑅𝑜
We know that α = 𝑅𝑜 𝑡
Rearranging gives Rt = Ro (1 + αt)

Rt = (1 x 104) [1 + (5.2 x 10-3)(500)] = (1 x 104) (1 + 2.6)
Rt = 3.6 x 104 Ω
THE HALL EFFECT

We know that a beam of electrons in a vacuum can be deflected by a magnetic
field because magnetic field applies a deflecting force on the moving charges
according to the relation ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ 𝒙 ⃗𝑩
𝑭𝑩 = 𝒒 (𝒗 ⃗ ).
Can the drifting conduction electrons in a copper wire also be deflected by a
magnetic field? In 1879, Edwin H. Hall, then a 24-year-old graduate student at
the Johns Hopkins University, showed that they can. This Hall effect allows us
to find out whether the charge carriers in a conductor are positively or negatively
charged. Beyond that, we can measure the number of such carriers per unit
volume of the conductor.
Figure (a) shows a copper strip of width
d, carrying a current i whose
conventional direction is from the top of
the figure to the bottom. The charge
carriers are electrons and, as we know,
they drift (with drift speed vd) in the
opposite direction, from bottom to top. At
the instant shown in figure a, an
external magnetic field ⃗𝑩
⃗ , pointing into
the plane of the figure, has just been
turned on.
From ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
⃗ 𝒙𝑩
𝑭𝑩 = 𝒒 (𝒗 we see that a
magnetic deflecting force will act on each
drifting electron, pushing it toward the
right edge of the strip. As time goes on, electrons move to the right, mostly piling
up on the right edge of the strip, leaving uncompensated positive charges in fixed
positions at the left edge. The separation of positive charges on the left edge and
negative charges on the right edge produces an electric field within the strip,
pointing from left to right in adjacent figure (b). This field exerts an electric force
on each electron, tending to push it to the left. Thus, this electric force on the
electrons, which opposes the magnetic force on them, begins to build up.
EQUILIBRIUM:- An equilibrium quickly develops in which the electric force on
each electron has increased enough to match the magnetic force. When this
⃗ and the force due
happens, as figure (b) shows, the force due to magnetic field 𝐵
to electric field 𝐸⃗ are in balance. The drifting electrons then move along the strip
toward the top of the page at velocity with no further collection of electrons on
the right edge of the strip and thus no further increase in the electric field 𝐸⃗ .
A Hall potential difference V is associated with the electric field across strip
width d. The magnitude of that potential difference is V = E d
By connecting a voltmeter across the width, we can measure the potential
difference between the two edges of the strip. Moreover, the voltmeter can tell us
which edge is at higher potential. For the situation of figure (b), we would find
that the left edge is at higher potential, which is consistent with our assumption
that the charge carriers are negatively charged.
For a moment, let us make the opposite assumption, that the
charge carriers in current i are positively charged as shown in
figure (c). Convince yourself that as these charge carriers
move from top to bottom in the strip, they are pushed to the
right edge by and thus that the right edge is at higher
potential. Because that last statement is contradicted by our
voltmeter reading, the charge carriers must be negatively
charged.
NUMBER DENSITY:-
We can also find number density n (free electrons per unit
volume) of copper strip.
FE = FB
e E = e vd B
vd = E/B
𝐽
We also know that 𝑣𝑑 = = 𝑖⁄𝑛 𝑒 𝐴
𝑛𝑒
Equating these two values of vd gives
𝑖
= 𝐸⁄𝐵
𝑛𝑒𝐴
𝑛 = 𝐵 𝑖⁄𝑉 𝑙 𝑒
As l = A/d is length of the copper strip and V is the Hall effect potential
difference.
MOVING CONDUCTOR:-
When a conductor begins to move at speed v through a magnetic field, its
conduction electrons do also. They are then like the moving conduction electrons
in the current in figure (a & b) and an electric field and potential difference V are
quickly set up.
As with the current, equilibrium of the electric and magnetic forces is
established, but we now write that condition in terms of the conductor’s speed v
instead of the drift speed vd in a current as we did by equating electric anf
magnetic forces
eE = evB
Substituting for E = V/d, we find that the potential difference is V = vBd
Such a motion-caused circuit potential difference can be of serious concern in
some situations, such as when a conductor in an orbiting satellite moves through
Earth’s magnetic field. However, if a conducting line (said to be an
electrodynamic tether) dangles from the satellite, the potential produced along
the line might be used to maneuver the satellite.
ELECTROMAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR:
First of all, we have to understand that current carrying wire always has a
magnetic field around it.
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR
Let us take a straight wire

passing perpendicularly
through a card board.
Now place Compass
Needles around the wire. If
no current flows through
the wire; Needles will point
in same direction due to
earth’s magnetic field as shown in fig.(a).
Now, if current starts to flow through the wire. Compass needles will point in
such a direction that vector some of all the arrows will be a circle. As shown in
fig. (b).
Hence it is proved that a current carrying wire can

always have a magnetic field around it. Strength of
this magnetic field depends upon the strength of
current and distance of observation point from the
wire. However direction can be found by Right Hand
Rule demonstrated in fig.
For Your Information
Sometimes WAPDA linemen have a

meter, named as Fluke Meter
measures ac current and
voltage without touching conductors.
Actually this meter measures the
magnitude of magnetic field around
current carrying wire.
Now a question arises: “What will happen if we place a current carrying wire
in a uniform magnetic field?”
Suppose that we place

a small length element
𝒅𝒍 of a wire having
conventional current I
into the page placed in
a magnetic field 𝑩
pointing rightwards.
Surprisingly wire will
be pushed downwards
by a force 𝒅𝑭 . Actually
Magnetic field applies
this strange force. As shown in fig.
Experimentally, this magnetic force is directly proportional to the current
flowing through the wire.
𝒅𝑭 ∝ 𝑰
And this magnetic force is also directly proportional to the Length of that
segment of wire in the magnetic field.
𝒅𝑭 ∝ 𝒅𝒍
In addition, this magnetic force is directly proportional to the strength of
magnetic field.
𝒅𝑭 ∝ 𝑩
In the last, this magnetic force is directly proportional to the Sine of angle
between directions of length element and magnetic field.
Combining all above proportionalities we get
̂
𝒅𝑭 ∝ 𝑰(𝒅𝒍)𝑩𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒏
Here 𝒏
̂ is the direction of force. Which can be determined using RHR will be
discussed later.
By omitting proportionality sign; we get proportionality constant equal to 1.
̂
𝒅𝑭 = 𝑰(𝒅𝒍)𝑩𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒏 Eq. 1.1
And vector form 𝒅𝑭 = 𝑰(𝒅𝒍 × 𝑩) Eq. 1.2
Eq. 1.2 gives the magnetic force on a small segment 𝒅𝒍 of current carrying wire.
To determine the force on whole conductor, we will take the integration of Eq. 1.2
𝑭 = ∫ 𝑰(𝒅𝒍 × 𝑩) Eq. 1.3
So using Right Hand Rule for vector product can be used to find the
direction of magnetic force. (Keep in mind that current is a scalar quantity but
direction of length is taken in the sense of conventional current.)
Another way to understand is:
As clear from the above fig.

above the wire; induced
magnetic field due to
current supports the
applied magnetic field B
(Field lines are in the same
direction). While below the
wire; induced magnetic
field due to current
reduces the applied
magnetic field B (Field
lines are in the opposite direction). Hence a force is induced from strong
magnetic field to week magnetic field.
PRACTICE QUESTION-I
Balancing the Gravitational and Magnetic Forces on a Current-Carrying Wire
A wire of length 50 cm and

mass 10 g is suspended in a
horizontal plane by a pair of
flexible leads (Fig.). The wire
is then subjected to a
constant magnetic field of
magnitude 0.50 T, which is
directed as shown. What are
the magnitude and direction
of the current in the wire
needed to remove the tension
in the supporting leads?
Strategy: From the free-body diagram in the figure, the tensions in the
supporting leads go to zero when the gravitational and magnetic forces balance
each other. Using the RHR, we find that the magnetic force points up. We can
then determine the current I by equating the two forces.
Solution: Equate the two forces of weight and magnetic force on the wire:
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑚
𝑚𝑔 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 Since 𝜃 = 90𝑜
Thus,
𝑚𝑔
𝐼= = 0.39 𝐴
𝐿𝐵
Significance: This large magnetic field creates a significant force on a length of
wire to counteract the weight of the wire.
PRACTICE QUESTION-2
Force on a Circular Wire:
A circular current loop of radius R carrying a current I is

placed in the xy-plane. A constant uniform magnetic field cuts
through the loop parallel to the y-axis as shown in Fig. Find
the magnetic force on the upper half of the loop, the lower half
of the loop, and the total force on the loop.
Strategy: The magnetic force on the upper loop should be written in terms of the
differential force acting on each segment of the loop. If we integrate over each
differential piece, we solve for the overall force on that section of the loop. The
force on the lower loop is found in a similar manner, and the total force is the
addition of these two forces.
Solution: A differential force on an arbitrary piece of wire located on the upper
ring is: (Eq. 1.1)
𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼(𝑑𝑙)𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
where 𝜃 is the angle between the magnetic field direction (+y) and the segment of
wire. A differential segment is located at the same radius, so using an arc-length
formula, we have:
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑅𝑑𝜃
So 𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼(𝑅𝑑𝜃)𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐼𝐵𝑅 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
In order to find the force on a segment, we integrate over the upper half of the
circle, from 0 𝑡𝑜 𝜋. This results in:
𝜋
𝐹 = 𝐼𝐵𝑅 ∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = −𝐼𝐵𝑅(𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜋 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 0) = −𝐼𝐵𝑅(−2) = 2𝐼𝐵𝑅

0
The lower half of the loop is integrated from π rad to zero, giving us:
0
𝐹 = 𝐼𝐵𝑅 ∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = −𝐼𝐵𝑅(𝐶𝑜𝑠0 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜋) = −𝐼𝐵𝑅(2) = −2𝐼𝐵𝑅

𝜋
The net force is the sum of these forces, which is zero.

Significance: The total force on any closed loop in a uniform magnetic field is
zero. Even though each piece of the loop has a force acting on it, the net force on
the system is zero. Keep in mind that it doesn’t matter that what shape of closed
loop we have, net force is always zero.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
A straight, flexible length of copper wire is immersed in a magnetic field that is
directed into the page. (a) If the wire’s current runs in the +𝑣𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, which
way will the wire bend? (b) Which way will the wire bend if the current runs in
the – 𝑣𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛?
DETERMINATION OF MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH

There are several methods to determine the Magnetic field due to different
current carrying configurations. Biot-Savart law and Ampere’s Law are easiest
ways to do the job. Let us start with Biot-Savart Law.
BIOT-SAVART LAW
This is a way to determine the Magnetic Field intensity and direction due to
a current carrying configuration.
For this purpose, Suppose a small

segment of a wire of length 𝒅𝒍 having a
current 𝑰 induces a magnetic field 𝒅𝑩
at a certain displacement 𝒓 as shown in
Fig.
Direction of B can be determined using
RHR as Mentioned in previous article.
This is into the page as shown.
However the magnetic field strength
𝒅𝑩 depends directly upon the current
flowing through the line segment.
|𝒅𝑩| ∝ 𝑰
In addition, magnetic field intensity also depends directly upon the magnitude of
length element |𝒅𝒍|
|𝒅𝑩| ∝ |𝒅𝒍|
This magnetic field strength is inversely proportional to square of distance from
wire segment to observation point P.
𝟏
|𝒅𝑩| ∝
𝒓𝟐
It is also directly proportional to the 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝜽 (the angle between 𝒅𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓̂).
|𝒅𝑩| ∝ 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
It should be clear the reason behind the use of Sine instead of other functions.
Actually, magnetic field strength is maximum at an observation point whose
position vector w.r.t 𝒅𝒍 is perpendicular to 𝒅𝒍 . And sine component of 𝒓 is
always perpendicular to 𝒅𝒍 .
Combining all the dependencies:
𝑰|𝒅𝒍|𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
|𝒅𝑩| ∝
𝒓𝟐
𝝁𝒐 𝑰|𝒅𝒍|𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
|𝒅𝑩| = Eq. 1.4
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
𝝁𝒐 𝒎 𝑵 𝑯
Where is Constant of Proportionality with value 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑻. 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎
𝟒𝝅
Vector form:
𝝁𝒐 𝑰|𝒅𝒍|𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒅𝑩 = ̂
𝒏
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
Multiplying an dividing by 𝒓
𝝁𝒐 𝑰|𝒅𝒍| 𝒓 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒅𝑩 = ̂
𝒏
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟑
As 𝜽 is the angle between 𝒅𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓. Hence above relation can be written as it
contains cross product.
𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝒅𝒍 × 𝒓
𝒅𝑩 =
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟑
As 𝒓 = 𝒓𝒓̂
𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝑑𝑙 × 𝒓̂ Eq. 1.5
𝑑𝐵 =
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
Now, to determine the magnetic field due to whole conductor. Lets Integrate
above relation.
𝝁𝒐 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 × 𝒓̂ Eq. 1.6
𝐵= ∫
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
Above relation is called Biot-Savart Law.

PRACTICE QUESTION-3
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR
Figure below shows a section of an infinitely long, straight wire that carries a
current I. What is the magnetic field at a point P, located a distance R from the
wire?
A section of a thin, straight current-carrying wire. The independent variable 𝜽 has the
limits 𝜽𝟏 and 𝜽𝟐 .
Lets begin by considering the magnetic field due to current element 𝑰𝒅𝒙 located
at the position 𝒙. Using RHR from previous article, Magnetic field due to all the
current segments will point out of the page at point P. This means that we can
calculate the net field there by evaluating the scalar sum of the contributions of
the elements. With |𝒅𝒙 × 𝒓̂| = (𝒅𝒙)(𝟏)𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽, we have from Biot-Savart law.
𝝁𝒐 𝑰 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝒙
𝑩= ∫ Eq. 1.7
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
The wire is symmetrical about point O, so we can set the limits of the integration
from zero to infinity and double the answer, rather than integrate from negative
infinity to positive infinity. Based on the picture and geometry, we can write
expressions for 𝐫 and 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽 in terms of 𝐱 and 𝐑, namely:
𝒓 = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑹
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽 =
√𝒙𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐
Substituting these expressions into Eq. 1.7, the magnetic field integration
becomes
∞
𝝁𝒐 𝑰 𝑹 𝒅𝒙
𝑩= ∫ 𝟑
𝟒𝝅
𝟎 (𝒙𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 )𝟐
∞
𝝁𝒐 𝑰 𝒙
𝑩= [ 𝟏]
𝟐𝝅 𝑹
(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐
𝑹 )𝟐 𝟎
𝝁𝒐 𝑰 Eq. 1.8
𝑩=
𝟐𝝅 𝑹
Fig. 1.9
Equation 1.8 gives the
Magnetic field intensity
due to a current carrying
straight wire. Direction
can be found using RHR
as discussed in the previous section and now shown in Fig.
MAGNETIC FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CONDUCTORS
The force between two

long, straight, and
parallel conductors
separated by a
distance 𝐫 can be
found by applying
what we have
developed in the
preceding
sections. Fig. shows
the wires, their
currents, the field
created by one wire, and the consequent force the other wire experiences from
the created field. Let us consider the field produced by wire 1 and the force it
exerts on wire 2 (call the force 𝑭𝟐 ). The field due to 𝑰𝟏 at a distance 𝐫 is
𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝟏
𝑩𝟏 =
𝟐𝝅 𝒓
This field is uniform from the wire 1 and perpendicular to it, so the force 𝑭𝟐 it
exerts on a length l of wire 2 is given by 𝑭𝟐 = 𝑰𝟐 𝒍 𝑩𝟏 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽 with 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝟏
𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝟏 𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒍
So 𝑭𝟐 = 𝑰𝟐 𝒍 =
𝟐𝝅 𝒓 𝟐𝝅 𝒓
The forces on the wires are equal in magnitude, so we just write F for the
magnitude of 𝑭𝟐 . (Note that 𝑭𝟏 = −𝑭𝟐 .) Since the wires are very long, it is
convenient to think in terms of 𝐅/𝐥, the force per unit length.
𝑭 𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 Eq. 1.9
=
𝒍 𝟐𝝅 𝒓
The ratio 𝐅/𝐥 is the force per unit length between two parallel
currents 𝑰𝟏 and 𝑰𝟐 separated by a distance 𝐫. The force is attractive if the currents
are in the same direction and repulsive if they are in opposite directions.
AMPERE’S LAW:
Another convenient method to determine the magnetic field intensity due to
difference current carrying configurations is Ampere’s Law. It is similar to
Gauss’s Law. Similarities can be written to make Ampere’s Law easy to
understand.
 An imaginary closed surface called Gaussian Surface had been used to
determine electric field intensity. Similarly in Ampere’s Law we use
imaginary amperian loop to determine magnetic field intensity.
 Electric field is always proportional to charge enclosed by Gaussian
surface. Similarly here, magnetic field is proportional to current passing
through amperian loop.
We also know that:
The magnetic field in space around an electric current is proportional to the
electric current which serves as its source, just as the electric field in space is
proportional to the charge which serves as its source.
Hence, Ampere’s Law can be stated as:
“For any closed loop path, the sum of the length elements times the magnetic
field in the direction of the length element is equal to the permeability times the
electric current enclosed in the loop”
Consider a straight conductor carrying a
current 𝑰 , magnetic field 𝑩 is induced
around the it. The most suitable amperian
loop is circular loop. Hence lets draw an
imaginary loop of radius 𝒓 by keeping wire
at its center. So the circumference of Amperian loop is 𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓. Lets divide the
circumference into infinitesimal segments each of length 𝒅𝒍 as shown in Fig.
Then according to definition, sum of all 𝑩|| 𝒅𝒍 will be equal to 𝝁𝒐 times current
enclosed by amperian loop.
Hence;
∫ 𝑩|| 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝒐 (𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑)
Or
∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅
Eq. 1.10
The statement of this law is a little boring but it is very powerful and easy tool
like Biot-Savart Law to calculate the Magnetic Field Strength.
Let’s apply this law on several configurations.
PRACTICE QUESTION-4
MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH DUE TO A CURRENT CARRYING SOLENOID USING
AMPERE’S LAW
Consider a current
carrying solenoid as
shown in Fig.
We can draw a schematic diagram indicating

currents at the upper and lower edges in Fig.
In this Figure; The path of integration used in
Ampère’s law to evaluate the magnetic field of
an infinite solenoid.
Consider the closed path of along
segment 1, 𝑩 is uniform and parallel
to the path. Along segments 2 and
4, 𝑩 is perpendicular to part of the
path and vanishes over the rest of it. Therefore, segments 2 and 4 do not
contribute to the line integral in Ampère’s law. Along segment 3, 𝑩 = 𝟎 because

the magnetic field is zero outside the solenoid. If you consider an Ampère’s law
loop outside of the solenoid, the current flows in opposite directions on different
segments of wire. Therefore, there is no enclosed current and no magnetic field
according to Ampère’s law. Thus, there is no contribution to the line integral from
segment 3. As a result, we find
∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒍 = ∫ 𝑩𝒅𝒍 = 𝑩𝒍
𝟏
The solenoid has 𝐧 turns per unit length, so the current that passes through the
surface enclosed by the path is 𝐧 × 𝐥 × 𝐈. Therefore, from Ampère’s law,
𝑩𝒍 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 = 𝝁𝒐 𝒏𝒍𝑰
𝑩 = 𝝁𝒐 𝒏𝑰 Eq. 1.11
Direction of magnetic field can be

determined by RHR. Grasp the
solenoid in right hand by keeping
curl of fingers in the direction of
current; erected thumb will give the
direction of magnetic field lines
emerging from North Pole, as
shown in Fig.
PRACTICE QUESTION-5
MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH DUE TO A CURRENT CARRYING TOROID USING
AMPERE’S LAW
A toroid is a donut-shaped coil closely wound with one continuous wire, as
illustrated in part (a) of Fig. If the toroid has 𝐍 windings and the current in the
wire is 𝐈, lets try for the magnetic field both inside and outside the toroid.
(a) A toroid is a coil wound

into a donut-shaped object.
(b) A loosely wound toroid does
not have cylindrical symmetry.
(c) In a tightly wound toroid,
cylindrical symmetry is a very
good approximation.
(d) Several paths of integration
for Ampère’s law.
We begin by
assuming cylindrical
symmetry around the
axis OO’. Actually, this
assumption is not
precisely correct, for as
part (b) of Fig. shows, the
view of the toroidal coil
varies from point to point (for example, P1, P2 and P3) on a circular path centered
around OO’. However, if the toroid is tightly wound, all points on the circle
become essentially equivalent [part (c) of Fig.], and cylindrical symmetry is an
accurate approximation.
With this symmetry, the magnetic field must be tangent to and constant in
magnitude along any circular path centered on OO’. This allows us to write for
each of the paths D1,D2 and D3 shown in part (d) of Fig.
∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒍 = 𝐵(2𝜋𝑟)
Ampère’s law relates this integral to the net current passing through any
surface bounded by the path of integration. For a path that is external to the
toroid, either no current passes through the enclosing surface (path D1), or the
current passing through the surface in one direction is exactly balanced by the
current passing through it in the opposite direction (path-D3). In either case,
there is no net current passing through the surface, so
∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒍 = 𝐵(2𝜋𝑟) = 0 [Path-D1]
𝐵=0 [Path-D3]
The turns of a toroid form a helix, rather than circular loops. As a result,
there is a small field external to the coil; however, the derivation above holds if
the coils were circular.
For a circular path within the toroid (path D2), the current in the wire cuts
the surface N times, resulting in a net current NI through the surface. We now
find with Ampère’s law,
𝐵(2𝜋𝑟) = 𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
𝐵= (𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑)
2𝜋𝑟
The magnetic field is directed in the counterclockwise direction for the
windings shown. When the current in the coils is reversed, the direction of the
magnetic field also reverses.
FARADAY’S MAGNETIC FIELD INDUCTION EXPERIMENT

In 1831, Michael Faraday made his discovery of electromagnetic induction
with an experiment using two coils of wire wound around opposite sides of a ring
of soft iron similar to the experiment setup below in Fig. 1.15.
When you close the switch, a current passes through the first coil and the
iron ring becomes magnetized. Note that the compass in the second coil deflects
momentarily and returns immediately to its original position. The deflection of
the compass is an indication that an electromotive force was induced causing
current to flow momentarily in the second coil. When you open the switch, notice
that the compass again deflects momentarily, but in the opposite direction.
The closing and opening of the switch cause the magnetic field in the ring
to change: to expand and collapse respectively. Faraday discovered that changes
in a magnetic field could induce an electromotive force and current in a nearby
circuit. The generation of an electromotive force and current by a changing
magnetic field is called electromagnetic induction.
FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
The first productive experiments concerning the effects of time-varying
magnetic fields were performed by Michael Faraday in 1831. One of his early
experiments is represented in Fig. An emf is induced when the magnetic field in
the coil is changed by pushing a bar magnet into or out of the coil. Emfs of
opposite signs are produced by motion in opposite directions, and the directions
of emfs are also reversed by reversing poles. The same results are produced if the
coil is moved rather than the magnet. It is the relative motion that is important.
The faster the motion, the greater the emf, and there is no emf when the magnet
is stationary relative to the coil.
Movement of a magnet relative to a coil produces emfs as shown (a–d). The same emfs are
produced if the coil is moved relative to the magnet. This short-lived emf is only present during
the motion. The greater the speed, the greater the magnitude of the emf, and the emf is zero when
there is no motion, as shown in (e).
Faraday also discovered that a similar effect can be produced using two
circuits—a changing current in one circuit induces a current in a second, nearby
circuit. For example, when the switch is closed in circuit-1 of Fig. (a), the
ammeter needle of circuit-2 momentarily deflects, indicating that a short-lived
current surge has been induced in that circuit. The ammeter needle quickly
returns to its original position, where it remains. However, if the switch of circuit-
1 is now suddenly opened, another short-lived current surge in the direction
opposite from before is observed in circuit-2.
Figure (a) Closing the switch of circuit-1 produces a short-lived current surge in circuit-2. (b) If
the switch remains closed, no current is observed in circuit-2. (c) Opening the switch again
produces a short-lived current in circuit 2 but in the opposite direction from before.
Faraday realized that in both experiments, a current flowed in the circuit
containing the ammeter only when the magnetic field in the region occupied by
that circuit was changing. As the magnet of the figure was moved, the strength of
its magnetic field at the loop changed; and when the current in circuit 1 was
turned on or off, the strength of its magnetic field at circuit 2 changed. Faraday
was eventually able to interpret these and all other experiments involving
magnetic fields that vary with time in terms of the following law:
Faraday’s Law:
“The EMF 𝜀 induced is the −𝑣𝑒 change in the magnetic flux 𝛷𝑚 per
unit time. Any change in magnetic field or change in orientation of the area of the
coil w.r.t the magnetic field induces a voltage (EMF).”
Figure: The magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic
field lines cutting through a surface area A defined by
the unit area vector 𝑛̂. If the angle between the unit
area 𝑛̂ and magnetic field vector 𝑩 are parallel or
antiparallel, as shown in the diagram, the magnetic flux
is the highest possible value given the values of area
and magnetic field.
The magnetic flux is a measurement of the amount of

magnetic field lines through a given surface area, as
shown in Fig. 1.18. This definition is similar to the
electric flux studied earlier. This means that if we have
̂ 𝑑𝐴
𝛷𝑚 = ∫ 𝑩. 𝒏
Then the induced emf or the voltage generated by a conductor or coil moving in
a magnetic field is:
𝑑 𝑑
𝜀=− ̂ 𝑑𝐴 = − 𝛷𝑚
∫ 𝑩. 𝒏 Eq. 1.11
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
If number of loops are N, then Faraday’s Law will have the form.
𝑑 𝑑
𝜀 = −𝑁 ̂ 𝑑𝐴 = −𝑁 𝛷𝑚
∫ 𝑩. 𝒏
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 Eq. 1.12
The −𝑣𝑒 sign describes the direction in which the induced emf drives current
around a circuit. However, that direction is most easily determined with a rule
known as Lenz’s law, which we will discuss shortly.
PRACTICE QUESTION-6
A SQUARE COIL IN A CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD
The square coil of Fig. 1.19 has sides 𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎 long and is tightly wound with 𝑵 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 turns
of wire. The resistance of the coil is 𝑹 = 𝟓Ω . The coil is placed in a spatially uniform magnetic
field that is directed perpendicular to the face of the coil and whose magnitude is decreasing at a
𝒅𝑩 𝑻
rate = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟎 𝒔 . (a) What is the magnitude if the EMF induced in the coil? (b) What is the
𝒅𝒕
magnitude of the current circulating through the coil?
Figure: A square coil with N turns of wire uniform

magnetic field 𝑩 directed in the downward direction,
perpendicular to the coil.
Strategy: The area vector, or 𝒏

̂ direction, is
perpendicular to area covering the loop. We will
choose this to be pointing downward so
that 𝑩 is parallel to 𝒏
̂ and that the flux turns
into multiplication of magnetic field times area.
The area of the loop is not changing in time, so
it can be factored out of the time derivative,
leaving the magnetic field as the only quantity varying in time. Lastly, we can
apply Ohm’s law once we know the induced EMF to find the current in the loop.
Solution
a) The flux through one turn is 𝛷𝑚 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐵𝑙 2
Lets calculate magnitude of EMF using Faraday’s Law. The sign of EMF will be
discussed later.
𝑑 𝑑𝐵
|𝜀| = |−𝑁 𝛷𝑚 | = 𝑁𝑙 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
|𝜀| = 0.50 𝑉
b) The magnitude of current is:
𝜀
𝐼= = 0.10 𝐴
𝑅
Significance: If the area of the loop were changing in time, we would not be able
to pull it out of the time derivative. Since the loop is a closed path, the result of
the current would be a small amount of heating of the wires until magnetic field
stops changing. This may increase the area of the loop slightly as the wires are
heated.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING:

A closely wound coil has a radius of 4.0 𝑐𝑚, 50 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 40 Ω. At
what rate must a magnetic field perpendicular to the face of the coil change in
order to produce Joule Heating in the coil at a rate of 2.0 𝑚𝑊?
LENZ’s LAW
After evaluating Faraday’s Law, a question must arise in your mind.
𝒅
“What is the significance of −𝒗𝒆 sign in 𝜺 = −𝑵 𝜱𝒎 ?”
𝒅𝒕
The answer is hidden in Lenz’s Law. Lets state it first:
“The direction of induced EMF drives current around a wire loop to always
oppose the change in magnetic flux that causes the EMF”
Lenz’s law can also be considered in terms of conservation of energy. If pushing a
magnet into a coil causes current, the energy in that current must have come
from somewhere. If the induced current causes a magnetic field opposing the
increase in field of the magnet we pushed in, then the situation is clear. We
pushed a magnet against a field and did work on the system, and that showed up
as current. If it were not the case that the induced field opposes the change in
the flux, the magnet would be pulled in produce a current without anything
having done work. Electric potential energy would have been created, violating
the conservation of energy.
To determine an induced EMF 𝜀 , we first calculate the magnetic flux 𝛷𝑚 and
𝑑 𝛷𝑚 𝑑 𝛷𝑚
then obtain . The magnitude of 𝜀 is given by 𝜀 = | |. Finally, you can
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
apply Lenz’s law to determine the sense of 𝜀 . This will be developed through
examples that illustrate the following problem-solving strategy.
To use Lenz’s law to determine the directions of induced magnetic fields,
currents, and EMFs:
1. Make a sketch of the situation for use in visualizing and recording
directions.
2. Determine the direction of the applied magnetic field 𝑩.
3. Determine whether its magnetic flux is increasing or decreasing.
4. Now determine the direction of the induced magnetic field 𝑩𝒊𝒏𝒅 . The
induced magnetic field tries to reinforce a magnetic flux that is decreasing
or decrease a magnetic flux that is increasing. Therefore, the induced
magnetic field adds or subtracts to the applied magnetic field, depending
on the change in magnetic flux.
5. Use right-hand rule; see Practice Question-4 to determine the direction of
the induced current I that is responsible for the induced magnetic
field 𝑩𝒊𝒏𝒅 .
6. The direction (or polarity) of the induced EMF can now drive a conventional
current in this direction.
Let’s apply Lenz’s law to the system of Fig. 1.20. We designate the “front” of
the closed conducting loop as the region containing the approaching bar
magnet, and the “back” of the loop as the other region. As the north pole of
the magnet moves toward the loop, the flux through the loop due to the field
of the magnet increases because the strength of field lines directed from the
front to the back of the loop is increasing. A current is therefore induced in
the loop. By Lenz’s law, the direction of the induced current must be such
that its own magnetic field is directed in a way to oppose the changing flux
caused by the field of the approaching magnet. Hence, the induced current
circulates so that its magnetic field lines through the loop are directed from
the back to the front of the loop. By RHR, place your thumb pointing against
the magnetic field lines, which is toward the bar magnet. Your fingers wrap in
a counterclockwise direction as viewed from the bar magnet. Alternatively, we
can determine the direction of the induced current by treating the current
loop as an electromagnet that opposes the approach of the north pole of the
bar magnet. This occurs when the induced current flows as shown, for then
the face of the loop nearer the approaching magnet is also a north pole.
Figure: The change in magnetic flux caused by the approaching magnet induces a current in
the loop. (a) An approaching north pole induces a counterclockwise current with respect to
the bar magnet. (b) An approaching south pole induces a clockwise current with respect to
the bar magnet.
Part (b) of the figure shows the south pole of a magnet moving toward a
conducting loop. In this case, the flux through the loop due to the field of the
magnet increases because the number of field lines directed from the back to
the front of the loop is increasing. To oppose this change, a current is induced
in the loop whose field lines through the loop are directed from the front to the
back. Equivalently, we can say that the current flows in a direction so that the
face of the loop nearer the approaching magnet is a south pole, which then
repels the approaching south pole of the magnet. By RHR, your thumb points
away from the bar magnet. Your fingers wrap in a clockwise fashion, which is
the direction of the induced current.
Now, I raise a question for you,
“If we do the same job illustrated in Figure above but with opposite direction
of motion of magnet OR now if we move the magnet away from the loop. What
will happen?”
Think and then discuss with your teacher.

Find the direction of the induced current in the wire loop shown below as the
magnet enters, passes through, and leaves the loop.
MOTIONAL EMF
Magnetic flux depends on three factors: the strength of the magnetic field, the
area through which the field lines pass, and the orientation of the field with the
surface area. If any of these quantities varies, a corresponding variation in
magnetic flux occurs. So far, we’ve only considered flux changes due to a
changing field. Now we look at another possibility: a changing area through
which the field lines pass including a change in the orientation of the area.
Two examples of this type of flux change are represented in Figure below In
part(a), the flux through the rectangular loop increases as it moves into the
magnetic field, and in part (b), the flux through the rotating coil varies with the
angle 𝜃.
Figure: (a) Magnetic flux changes as a loop moves into a magnetic field; (b) magnetic flux
changes as a loop rotates in a magnetic field.
It’s interesting to note that what we perceive as the cause of a particular flux
change actually depends on the frame of reference we choose. For example, if you
are at rest relative to the moving coils of Figure, you would see the flux vary
because of a changing magnetic field—in part (a), the field moves from left to
right in your reference frame, and in part (b), the field is rotating. It is often
possible to describe a flux change through a coil that is moving in one particular
reference frame in terms of a changing magnetic field in a second frame, where
the coil is stationary. However, reference-frame questions related to magnetic flux

are beyond the level of this book. We’ll avoid such complexities by always
working in a frame at rest relative to the laboratory and explain flux variations as
due to either a changing field or a changing area.
Now consider another similar situation:
Figure: A conducting rod is pushed to the
right at constant velocity. The resulting
change in the magnetic flux induces a
current in the circuit.
Now let’s look at a conducting rod

pulled in a circuit, changing magnetic
flux. The area enclosed by the circuit
‘MNOP’ of Figure is (l)(x) and is
perpendicular to the magnetic field,
so we can simplify the integration of
̂ 𝑑𝐴
𝛷𝑚 = ∫ 𝑩. 𝒏
into a multiplication of magnetic field and area. The magnetic flux through the
open surface is therefore:
𝛷𝑚 = 𝐵𝑙𝑥
Using definition of Faraday’s Law, keeping in mind that 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙 are constants in
this case:
𝑑 𝑑𝑥
𝜀=− 𝛷𝑚 = −𝐵𝑙 = −𝐵𝑙𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜀 = −𝐵𝑙𝑣 Eq. 1.13

And induced current will be:
𝜀 𝐵𝑙𝑣
𝐼= =− Eq. 1.14
𝑅 𝑅
−𝒗𝒆 sign here has the same significance as it was in Faraday’s Law according to
Lenz’s law. The definition in Eq. 1.13 is incomplete, because in figure above. We
considered that 𝒗, 𝒍 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑩 all are mutually perpendicular. But this is not always
the situation. So Modification in Eq. 1.13 is necessary. Simply, sin 𝜃 fulfills the
job. So Eq. 1.13 is modified as:
𝜀 = −𝐵𝑙𝑣 sin 𝜃 Eq. 1.15
Hence, if the rod is moved parallel or antiparallel to the magnetic field, No EMF is
induced. Similarly, if the rod is place parallel to the magnetic field; no EMF is
induced.
INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELDS

The fact that EMFs are induced in circuits implies that work is being done on the
conduction electrons in the wires.
What can possibly be the source of this work?
We know that it’s neither a battery nor a magnetic field, for a battery does not
have to be present in a circuit where current is induced, and magnetic fields
never do work on moving charges. The answer is that the source of the work is
an electric field 𝑬 that is induced in the wires. The work done by 𝑬 in moving a
unit charge completely around a circuit is the induced emf 𝜀 ; that is,
𝜀 = ∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍
And Faraday’s law is

𝑑
𝜀=− 𝛷
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
Equating both equations:
𝑑
∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 = − 𝛷
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
There is an important distinction between the electric field induced by a changing
magnetic field and the electrostatic field produced by a fixed charge distribution.
Specifically, the induced electric field is non-conservative because it does net
work in moving a charge over a closed path, whereas the electrostatic field is
conservative and does no net work over a closed path. Hence, electric potential
can be associated with the electrostatic field, but not with the induced field. The
following equations represent the distinction between the two types of electric
field:
∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 ≠ 0 (Induced)
∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 = 0 (Electrostatic)
So our results can be summarized as:
𝑑
𝜀 = ∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 = − 𝑑𝑡 𝛷𝑚 Eq. 1.16
Eq. 1.16 is also declared as Integral form of Faraday’s law. Lets modify it a little
to define Differential Form.
Applying Stokes’s Theorem for the LHS of Eq. 1.16, and using the definition of
Magnetic flux on RHS
𝑑 𝑑
∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 = ∬ 𝛁 × 𝑬. 𝑑𝑨 = − 𝛷𝑚 = − ∬ 𝑩. 𝑑𝑨
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
∬ 𝛁 × 𝑬. 𝑑𝑨 + ∬ 𝑩. 𝑑𝑨 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝑩
∬ (𝛁 × 𝐄 + ) . 𝑑𝑨 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕
𝑑𝑩
=> 𝛁 × 𝐄 + =0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑩
𝛁×𝐄= −
𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑩
𝛁×𝐄=− Eq. 1.17
𝜕𝑡
Eq. 1.17 is called Differential Form of Faraday’s Law.
𝐁𝐀𝐒𝐈𝐂 𝐄𝐐𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍𝐒 𝐎𝐅 𝐄𝐋𝐄𝐂𝐓𝐑𝐎𝐌𝐀𝐆𝐍𝐄𝐓𝐈𝐒𝐌

Maxwell equations are declared as Basic equations of Electromagnetism:
𝝆
1. 𝛁. 𝑬 = (Gauss’s Law)
𝝐𝒐
First Basic Equation of Electromagnetism is Differential form of Gauss’s Law. We explained in

previous sections. Divergence of 𝑬 is non-zero. It means that Electrostatic monopole does exist.
2. 𝛁. 𝑩 = 𝟎 (Gauss’s Law for magnetism)
Second Basic Equation of Electromagnetism describes that for a magnet (Permanent or
Electromagnet) net flux is always zero. In short, Magnetic Monopole does not exist.
𝝏𝑩
3. 𝛁 × 𝑬 = − (Faraday’s Law.)
𝝏𝒕
Third Basic Equation of Electromagnetism is Differential form of Faraday’s law we just have
studied.
𝟏 𝝏𝑬
4. 𝛁 × 𝑩 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑱 + (Ampere’s Law)
𝒄𝟐 𝝏𝒕
INDUCED MAGNETIC FIELDS

We already have discussed in previous sections; that a magnetic field is induced around a
current carrying conductor. We also have learnt to calculate the magnetic field strength due to
different configurations using Biot-Savart Law as well as Ampere’s Law. So it is clear that
moving charges cause induced magnetic fields. Direction of that field is determined by RHR.
THE DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
Recall that according to Ampère’s law, the integral of the magnetic field
around a closed loop C is proportional to the current 𝐈 passing through any
surface whose boundary is loop C itself:
∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅
𝑪
There are infinitely many surfaces that can be attached to any loop, and
Ampère’s law stated in above equation is independent of the choice of surface.
Consider the set-up in Figure. A

source of EMF is abruptly
connected across a parallel-plate
capacitor so that a time-dependent
current 𝐈 develops in the wire.
Suppose we apply Ampère’s law to
loop C shown at a time before the
capacitor is fully charged, so
that 𝑰 ≠ 𝟎. Surface S1 gives a non-
zero value for the enclosed
current 𝐈, whereas surface S2 gives
zero for the enclosed current Figure: The currents through
surface S1 and surface S2 are unequal,
because no current passes through despite having the same boundary
loop C.
it:
∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑰 (𝒊𝒇 𝑺𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅)
𝑪
∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒍 = 𝟎 (𝒊𝒇 𝑺𝟐 𝒊𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅)
𝑪
Clearly, Ampère’s law in its usual form does not work here. This may not be
surprising, because Ampère’s law as applied in earlier chapters required a
steady current, whereas the current in this experiment is changing with time
and is not steady at all.
How can Ampère’s law be modified so that it works in all situations? Maxwell
suggested including an additional contribution, called the displacement
current 𝑰𝒅 , to the real current 𝐈,
∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝒐 (𝑰 + 𝑰𝒅 )
𝑪
Where displacement current can be defined as:
𝒅𝜱𝑬
𝑰𝒅 = 𝝐𝒐 Eq. 1.18
𝒅𝒕
Where 𝝐𝒐 is the permittivity of free space and 𝜱𝑬 is electric flux; defined as:
𝜱𝑬 = ∬ 𝑬. 𝒅𝑨
The displacement current is analogous to a real current in Ampère’s law, entering

into Ampère’s law in the same way. It is produced, however, by a changing
electric field. It accounts for a changing electric field producing a magnetic field,
just as a real current does, but the displacement current can produce a magnetic
field even where no real current is present. When this extra term is
included, the modified Ampère’s law equation becomes:
𝒅𝜱𝑬
∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑰 + 𝝁𝒐 𝝐𝒐
𝑪 𝒅𝒕
and is independent of the surface S through which the current I is measured.
PHYSICAL OPTICS
THE RAY MODEL OF LIGHT:
In this chapter, we start mainly with the ray characteristics of light. There are
three ways in which light can travel from a source to another location (Fig. 2.1).
a. It can come directly from the source through empty space, such as from
the Sun to Earth.
b. Light can travel through various media, such as air and glass, to the
observer.
c. Light can also arrive after being reflected, such as by a mirror.
In all of these cases, we can model the path of light as a straight line called a ray.
Figure: Three methods for light to travel from a source to another location. (a) Light reaches the
upper atmosphere of Earth, traveling through empty space directly from the source. (b) Light can
reach a person by traveling through media like air and glass. (c) Light can also reflect from an
object like a mirror. In the situations shown here, light interacts with objects large enough that it
travels in straight lines, like a ray.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT WAVES:

Whenever we look into a mirror, or squint at sunlight glinting from a lake, we are
seeing a reflection. When you look at a piece of white paper, you are seeing light
scattered from it. Large telescopes use reflection to form an image of stars and
other astronomical objects.
The law of reflection states that the angle of reflection equals the angle of
incidence, or
𝜽𝒓 = 𝜽𝒊 Eq. 2.1
The law of reflection is illustrated in Fig. 2.2, which also shows how the angle of
incidence and angle of reflection are measured relative to the perpendicular to
the surface at the point where the light ray strikes.
Figure: The law of reflection states that the
angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence
𝜽𝒓 = 𝜽𝒊 . The angles are measured relative to the
perpendicular to the surface at the point where
the ray strikes the surface.
We expect to see reflections from

smooth surfaces, but Fig. 2.3 illustrates
how a rough surface reflects light. Since
the light strikes different parts of the
surface at different angles, it is reflected
in many different directions, or diffused.
Figure: Light is diffused

when it reflects from a
rough surface. Here, many
parallel rays are incident,
but they are reflected at
many different angles,
because the surface is
rough.
Diffused light is what allows us to see a sheet of paper from any angle, as shown
in 2.4(a). People, clothing, leaves, and walls all have rough surfaces and can be
seen from all sides. A mirror, on the other hand, has a smooth surface (compared
with the wavelength of light) and reflects light at specific angles, as illustrated
in Fig. 2.4(b). When the Moon reflects from a lake, as shown in Fig. 2.4(c), a
combination of these effects takes place.
Figure(a) When a sheet of paper is illuminated with many parallel incident rays, it can be seen at
many different angles, because its surface is rough and diffuses the light. (b) A mirror illuminated
by many parallel rays reflects them in only one direction, because its surface is very smooth. Only
the observer at a particular angle sees the reflected light. (c) Moonlight is spread out when it is
reflected by the lake, because the surface is shiny but uneven.
When you see yourself in a mirror, it appears that the image is actually behind
the mirror (Figure above). We see the light coming from a direction determined by
the law of reflection. The angles are such that the image is exactly the same
distance behind the mirror as you stand in front of the mirror. If the mirror is on
the wall of a room, the images in it are all behind the mirror, which can make the
room seem bigger. Although these mirror images make objects appear to be
where they cannot be (like behind a solid wall), the images are not figments of
your imagination. Mirror images can be photographed and videotaped by
instruments and look just as they do with our eyes (which are optical
instruments themselves).
Figure (a) Your image in a mirror is behind the mirror. The two rays shown are those that strike
the mirror at just the correct angles to be reflected into the eyes of the person. The image appears
to be behind the mirror at the same distance away as (b) if you were looking at your twin directly,
with no mirror.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT WAVES:

You may often notice some odd things when looking into a fish tank. For
example, you may see the same fish appearing to be in two different places
(Figure). This happens because light coming from the fish to you changes
direction when it leaves the tank, and in this case, it can travel two different
paths to get to your eyes. The changing of a light ray’s direction (loosely called
bending) when it passes through substances of different refractive indices is
𝑐
called Refraction and is related to changes in the speed of light, 𝑣 = 𝑛. Refraction
is responsible for a tremendous range of optical phenomena, from the action of

lenses to data transmission through optical fibers.
Figure (a) Looking at the fish tank as shown, we can see the same fish in two different locations,
because light changes directions when it passes from water to air. In this case, the light can
reach the observer by two different paths, so the fish seems to be in two different places. This
bending of light is called refraction and is responsible for many optical phenomena. (b) This image
shows refraction of light from a fish near the top of a fish tank.
Figure below shows how a ray of light changes direction when it passes from one
medium to another. As before, the angles are measured relative to a
perpendicular to the surface at the point where the light ray crosses it. (Some of
the incident light is reflected from the surface, but for now we concentrate on the
light that is transmitted.) The change in direction of the light ray depends on the
relative values of the indices of refraction of the two media involved. In the
situations shown, medium-2 has a greater index of refraction than medium 1.
Note that as shown in Figure (a), the direction of the ray moves closer to the
perpendicular when it progresses from a medium with a lower index of refraction

to one with a higher index of refraction. Conversely, as shown in Figure below (b),
the direction of the ray moves away from the perpendicular when it progresses
from a medium with a higher index of refraction to one with a lower index of
refraction. The path is exactly reversible.
Figure: The change in direction of a light ray depends on how the index of refraction changes
when it crosses from one medium to another. In the situations shown here, the index of refraction
is greater in medium 2 than in medium 1. (a) A ray of light moves closer to the perpendicular
when entering a medium with a higher index of refraction. (b) A ray of light moves away from the
perpendicular when entering a medium with a lower index of refraction.
The amount that a light ray changes its direction depends both on the incident
angle and the amount that the speed changes. For a ray at a given incident
angle, a large change in speed causes a large change in direction and thus a
large change in angle. The exact mathematical relationship is the Law of
Refraction, or Snell’s law, after the Dutch mathematician
Willebrord Snell (1591–1626), who discovered it in 1621. The law of refraction is
stated in equation form as:
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2 Eq. 2.2
Here n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction for media-1 and media-2,
and θ1 and θ2 are the angles between the rays and the perpendicular in media-1
and media-2. The incoming ray is called the incident ray, the outgoing ray is
called the refracted ray, and the associated angles are the incident angle and the
refracted angle, respectively.
CHECK YOU UNDERSTANDING:

Suppose that light goes to diamond (Index of Refraction: 2.419) from air (Index of
Refraction: 1) at incident angle 𝟑𝟎𝒐 with normal to the interface. Find the angle
of Refraction.
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION:

A good-quality mirror may reflect more than 90% of the light that falls on it,
absorbing the rest. But it would be useful to have a mirror that reflects all of the
light that falls on it. Interestingly, we can produce total reflection using an aspect
of refraction.
Consider what happens when a ray of light strikes the surface between two
materials, as shown in Fig. below part(a). Part of the light crosses the boundary
and is refracted; the rest is reflected. If, as shown in the figure, the index of
refraction for the second medium is less than for the first, the ray bends away
from the perpendicular. (Since 𝑛1 > 𝑛2 the angle of refraction is greater than the
angle of incidence—that is, 𝜃2 > 𝜃1 .) Now imagine what happens as the incident
angle increases. This causes 𝜃2 to increase also. The largest the angle of
refraction 𝜃2 can be is 90°, as shown in part (b). The Critical Angle 𝜃𝐶 for a
combination of materials is defined to be the incident angle 𝜃1 that produces an
angle of refraction of 90°. That is, 𝜃𝐶 is the incident angle for which 𝜃2 = 90°.
If the incident angle 𝜃1 is greater than the critical angle, as shown in Figure
below part(c), then all of the light is reflected back into medium-1, a condition
called Total Internal Reflection. (As the figure shows, the reflected rays obey
the law of reflection so that the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
incidence in all three cases.)
Figure: A ray of light crosses a boundary where the index of refraction decreases. That is, 𝑛3 <
𝑛1 . The ray bends away from the perpendicular. (b) The critical angle 𝜃𝐶 is the angle of incidence
for which the angle of refraction is 90°. (c) Total internal reflection occurs when the incident angle
is greater than the critical angle.
Snell’s law states the relationship between angles and indices of refraction. It is
given by
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
When the incident angle equals the critical angle (𝜃1 = 𝜃𝐶 ), the angle of refraction
is 90° (𝜃2 = 90°). Noting that 𝑠𝑖𝑛90° = 1, Snell’s law in this case becomes
𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝐶 = 𝑛2 sin 90𝑜 = 𝑛2
The critical angle 𝜃𝐶 for a given combination of materials is thus:
𝑛
𝜃𝐶 = sin−1 ( 2 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛1 > 𝑛2 Eq. 2.3
𝑛1
Light signals are travelled through Fibres using the Phenomenon just explained.

At the surface between air and water, light rays can go from air to water and from
water to air. For which ray is there no possibility of total internal reflection?

You are travelling on motorway, on road; you see the reflection of moving cars
which are far from you, or you observe that road is wet far from your car. But
when you reach there, there is no water on it. What is the deal here? As shown in
figure below.
INTERFERENCE
Figure: Soap bubbles are blown from clear fluid into very thin films. The colors we see are not
due to any pigmentation but are the result of light interference, which enhances specific
wavelengths for a given thickness of the film.
The most certain indication of a wave is interference. This wave characteristic is

most prominent when the wave interacts with an object that is not large
compared with the wavelength. Interference is observed for water waves, sound
waves, light waves, and, in fact, all types of waves.
If you have ever looked at the reds, blues, and greens in a sunlit soap bubble and
wondered how straw-colored soapy water could produce them, you have hit upon
one of the many phenomena that can only be explained by the wave character of
light (see Figure). The same is true for the colors seen in an oil slick or in the light
reflected from a DVD disc. These and other interesting phenomena cannot be
explained fully by geometric optics. In these cases, light interacts with objects
and exhibits wave characteristics. The branch of optics that considers the
behavior of light when it exhibits wave characteristics is called wave
optics (sometimes called physical optics).
YOUNG’s DOUBLE SLIT INTERFERENCE

The Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) thought that light
was a wave, but Isaac Newton did not. Newton thought that there were other
explanations for color, and for the interference and diffraction effects that were
observable at the time. Owing to Newton’s tremendous reputation, his view
generally prevailed; the fact that Huygens’s principle worked was not considered
direct evidence proving that light is a wave. The acceptance of the wave character
of light came many years later in 1801, when the English physicist and physician
Thomas Young (1773–1829) demonstrated optical interference with his now-
classic double-slit experiment.
If there were not one but two sources of waves, the waves could be made to
interfere, as in the case of waves on water (Figure below). If light is an
electromagnetic wave, it must therefore exhibit interference effects under
appropriate circumstances. In Young’s experiment, sunlight was passed through
a pinhole on a board. The emerging beam fell on two pinholes on a second board.
The light emanating from the two pinholes then fell on a screen where a pattern
of bright and dark spots was observed. This pattern, called fringes, can only be
explained through interference, a wave phenomenon.
Figure Photograph of an interference pattern produced by
circular water waves in a ripple tank. Two thin plungers
are vibrated up and down in phase at the surface of the
water. Circular water waves are produced by and emanate
from each plunger.
We can analyze double-slit interference with the

help of next Figure, which depicts an apparatus
analogous to Young’s. Light from a
monochromatic source falls on a slit S0. The
light emanating from S0 is incident on two other
slits S1 and S2 that are equidistant from S0. A
pattern of interference fringes on the screen is
then produced by the light emanating
from S1 and S2. All slits are assumed to be so narrow that they can be considered
secondary point sources for Huygens’ wavelets. Slits S1 and S2 are a
distance 𝒅 apart (𝑑 ≤ 1𝑚𝑚), and the distance between the screen and the slits
is 𝐷(≈ 1𝑚), which is much greater than 𝒅.
Figure: The double slit interference experiment using monochromatic light and narrow slits.
Fringes produced by interfering Huygens wavelets from slits S1 and S2 are observed on the
screen.
Since S0 is assumed to be a point source of monochromatic light, the secondary

Huygens wavelets leaving S1 and S2 always maintain a constant phase difference
(zero in this case because S1 and S2 are equidistant from S0) and have the same
frequency. The sources S1 and S2 are then said to be coherent. By coherent
waves, we mean the waves are in phase or have a definite phase relationship.
The term incoherent means the waves have random phase relationships, which
would be the case if S1 and S2 were illuminated by two independent light sources,
rather than a single source S0. Two independent light sources (which may be two
separate areas within the same lamp or the Sun) would generally not emit their
light in unison, that is, not coherently. Also, because S1 and S2 are the same
distance from S0, the amplitudes of the two Huygens wavelets are equal.
Figure: The amplitudes of waves add. (a) Pure constructive interference is obtained when
identical waves are in phase. (b) Pure destructive interference occurs when identical waves are
exactly out of phase, or shifted by half a wavelength.
Young used sunlight, where each wavelength forms its own pattern, making the
effect more difficult to see. In the following discussion, we illustrate the double-
slit experiment with monochromatic light (single λ) to clarify the effect. Figure
above shows the pure constructive and destructive interference of two waves
having the same wavelength and amplitude.
When light passes through narrow slits, the slits act as sources of coherent
waves and light spreads out as semicircular waves, as shown in Fig. 2.14(a).
Pure constructive interference occurs where the waves are crest to crest or
trough to trough as shown in part(a) of Figure above. Pure destructive
interference occurs where they are crest to trough as shown in part(b) of Figure
above. The light must fall on a screen and be scattered into our eyes for us to see
the pattern. An analogous pattern for water waves is shown in previous Figures.
Note that regions of constructive and destructive interference move out from the
slits at well-defined angles to the original beam. These angles depend on
wavelength and the distance between the slits, as we shall see below.
Figure: Double slits produce two coherent sources of waves that interfere. (a) Light spreads out
(diffracts) from each slit, because the slits are narrow. These waves overlap and interfere
constructively (bright lines) and destructively (dark regions). We can only see this if the light falls
onto a screen and is scattered into our eyes. (b) When light that has passed through double slits
falls on a screen, we see a pattern such as this.
To understand the double-slit interference pattern, consider how two waves

travel from the slits to the screen (Figure below). Each slit is at a different
distance from a given point on the screen. Thus, different numbers of
wavelengths fit into each path. Waves start out from the slits in phase (crest to
crest), but they may end up out of phase (crest to trough) at the screen if the
paths differ in length by half a wavelength, interfering destructively. If the paths
differ by a whole wavelength, then the waves arrive in phase (crest to crest) at the
screen, interfering constructively.
More generally, if the path length difference 𝛥𝑙 between the two waves is any half-
1 3 5
integral number of wavelengths [( )𝜆, ( )𝜆, ( )𝜆, 𝑒𝑡𝑐.], then destructive
2 2 2
interference occurs. Similarly, if the path length difference is any integral number
of wavelengths (𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆, etc.), then constructive interference occurs. These
conditions can be expressed as equations below the fig.
Figure: Waves follow different paths from

the slits to a common point P on a screen.
Destructive interference occurs where one
path is a half wavelength longer than the
other—the waves start in phase but arrive
out of phase. Constructive interference
occurs where one path is a whole
wavelength longer than the other—the waves
start out and arrive in phase.
∆𝑙 = 𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = 0, ±1 , ±2 , ±3 , … … … (Constructive Interference) Eq. 2.4

1
∆𝑙 = (𝑚 + 2)𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = 0, ±1 , ±2 , ±3 , … (Destructive Interference) Eq. 2.5
Now lets proceed to do some mathematics:

Figure below part(a) shows how to determine the path length difference 𝜟𝑙 for
waves traveling from two slits to a common point on a screen. If the screen is a
large distance away compared with the distance between the slits, then the
angle 𝜃 between the path and a line from the slits to the screen [part (b)] is nearly
the same for each path. In other words, r1 and r2 are essentially parallel. The
lengths of r1 and r2 differ by 𝜟𝑙, as indicated by the two dashed lines in the figure.
Simple trigonometry shows:
∆𝑙 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 Eq. 2.6
Where 𝒅 is the distance between the slits.
Figure (a) To reach P, the light waves from S1 and S2 must travel different distances. (b) The path
difference between the two rays is 𝛥𝑙.
Combining this Eq. 2.6 with Eq. 2.4, we obtain constructive interference for a
double slit when the path length difference is an integral multiple of the
wavelength, or
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = 0, ±1 , ±2 , ±3 , …………… (Constructive Interference)

Eq. 2.7
Combining Eq. 2.6 with Eq. 2.5, we obtain Destructive Interference for a double
slit when the path length difference is an Half integral multiple of the wavelength,
or
1
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑚 + )𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = 0, ±1 , ±2 , ±3 , ………… (Destructive Interference)
2
Eq. 2.8
Where 𝜆 is the wavelength of the light, 𝒅 is the distance between slits, and 𝜃 is
the angle from the original direction of the beam as discussed above. We
call 𝒎 the order of the interference. For example, 𝑚 = 4 is fourth-order
interference.
The equations for double-slit interference imply that a series of bright and dark
lines are formed. For vertical slits, the light spreads out horizontally on either
side of the incident beam into a pattern called interference fringes (Figure below).
The closer the slits are, the more the bright fringes spread apart. We can see this
by examining the Eq. 2.7.
Figure: The interference pattern for a double slit has an intensity that falls off with angle. The
image shows multiple bright and dark lines, or fringes, formed by light passing through a double
slit.
𝑚𝜆
For fixed 𝜆 and 𝑚, the smaller 𝑑 is, the larger 𝜃 must be, since 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = . This is
𝑑
consistent with our contention that wave effects are most noticeable when the
object the wave encounters (here, slits a distance 𝑑 apart) is small. Small 𝑑 gives
large 𝜃, hence, a large effect.
Referring back to Fig. 2.16(a), 𝜃 is typically small enough that 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝑦𝑚 /𝐷,
where ym is the distance from the central maximum to the 𝑚𝑡ℎ bright fringe
and 𝐷 is the distance between the slit and the screen. Eq. 2.7 may then be
written as
𝑦𝑚
𝑑 = 𝑚𝜆
𝐷
𝜆𝐷
𝑦𝑚 = 𝑚 Eq. 2.9
𝑑
Width of Bright fringe (Distance between two adjacent dark fringes) can also be
found as below.
𝜆𝐷
For 𝑚𝑡ℎ bright fringe 𝑦𝑚 = 𝑚
𝑑
𝜆𝐷
And for (𝑚 + 1)𝑡ℎ bright fringe 𝑦𝑚+1 = (𝑚 + 1)
𝑑
𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
Taking the difference 𝑦𝑚+1 − 𝑦𝑚 = (𝑚 + 1) −𝑚
𝑑 𝑑
𝜆𝐷
Width of bright fringe: ∆𝑦 = Eq. 2.10
𝑑
Same method can be adopted to determine the distance of 𝑚𝑡ℎ dark fringe from
central bright fringe. So Eq. 2.9 can be modified for dark fringe as:
1 𝜆𝐷
𝑦𝑚 = (𝑚 + ) Eq. 2.11
2 𝑑
Similarly, Width of Dark fringe (Distance between two adjacent bright fringes) can
also be found as below.
𝜆𝐷
Width of dark fringe: ∆𝑦 = Eq. 2.12
𝑑
As clear from Eq. 2.10 and Eq. 2.12 that width of bright as well as of dark fringe
is same.

Think that, why the central spot on screen is always bright?
PRACTICE QUESTION-1
Finding a Wavelength from an Interference Pattern:
Suppose you pass light from a 𝐻𝑒 − 𝑁𝑒 laser through two slits separated by
0.0100 𝑚𝑚 and find that the third bright line on a screen is formed at an angle
of 10.95° relative to the incident beam. What is the wavelength of the light?
Strategy: The phenomenon is two-slit interference as illustrated in Fig. 2.17 and
the third bright line is due to third-order constructive interference, which means
that 𝑚 = 3. We are given 𝑑 = 0.0100𝒎𝒎 and 𝜃 = 10.95°. The wavelength can thus
be found using the equation 𝑑𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 for constructive interference.
Solution: Solving 𝑑𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 for the wavelength 𝜆 gives
𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝜆= = 633 𝑛𝑚
𝑚
Significance: To three digits, this is the wavelength of light emitted by the
common 𝐻𝑒 − 𝑁𝑒 laser. Not by coincidence, this red color is similar to that
emitted by neon lights. More important, however, is the fact that interference
patterns can be used to measure wavelength. Young did this for visible
wavelengths. This analytical technique is still widely used to measure
electromagnetic spectra. For a given order, the angle for constructive interference
increases with 𝜆, so that spectra (measurements of intensity versus wavelength)
can be obtained.
PRACTICE QUESTION-2
Calculating the Highest Order Possible: Interference patterns do not have an
infinite number of lines, since there is a limit to how big 𝒎 can be. What is the
highest-order constructive interference possible with the system described in the
preceding practice question?
Strategy: The equation 𝒅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜽 = 𝒎𝝀 (for 𝒎 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3 ……) describes
constructive interference from two slits. For fixed values of 𝒅 and 𝝀, the
larger 𝒎 is, the larger 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜽 is. However, the maximum value that 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜽 can have is
1, for an angle of 90°. (Larger angles imply that light goes backward and does not
reach the screen at all.) Let us find what value of 𝒎 corresponds to this
maximum diffraction angle.
Solution: Solving the equation 𝒅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜽 = 𝒎𝝀 for 𝒎 gives:
𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝑚=
𝜆
Taking sin 𝜃 = 1 and substituting the values of 𝑑 and 𝜆 from the preceding practice
question.
𝑚 = 15.8
Therefore, the largest integer 𝑚 can be 15.
Significance: The number of fringes depends on the wavelength and slit
separation. The number of fringes is very large for large slit separations.
However, recall that wave interference is only prominent when the wave interacts
with objects that are not large compared to the wavelength. Therefore, if the slit
separation and the sizes of the slits become much greater than the wavelength,
the intensity pattern of light on the screen changes, so there are simply two
bright lines cast by the slits, as expected, when light behaves like rays. We also
note that the fringes get fainter farther away from the center. Consequently, not
all 15 fringes may be observable.

In the system used in the preceding examples, at what angles are the first and
the second bright fringes formed?
Numerical Problems:
1. At what angle is the first-order maximum for 450 − 𝑛𝑚 wavelength blue light
falling on double slits separated by 0.0500 𝑚𝑚?
2. Calculate the angle for the third-order maximum of 580 − 𝑛𝑚 wavelength
yellow light falling on double slits separated by 0.100 𝑚𝑚.
3. What is the separation between two slits for which 610 − 𝑛𝑚 orange light
has its first maximum at an angle of 30.0°?
4. Find the distance between two slits that produces the first minimum for
410 = 𝑛𝑚 violet light at an angle of 45.0°.
5. Calculate the wavelength of light that has its third minimum at an angle of
30.0° when falling on double slits separated by 3.00 𝜇𝑚 .
6. What is the wavelength of light falling on double slits separated by 2.00 𝜇𝑚
if the third-order maximum is at an angle of 60.0° ?
7. At what angle is the fourth-order maximum for the situation in the
preceding problem-7?
8. What is the highest-order maximum for 400 − 𝑛𝑚 light falling on double slits
separated by 25.0 𝜇𝑚?
9. Find the largest wavelength of light falling on double slits separated by
1.20 𝜇𝑚 for which there is a first-order maximum. Is this in the visible part
of the spectrum?
10. What is the smallest separation between two slits that will produce a
second-order maximum for 720 − 𝑛𝑚 red light?
(a) What is the smallest separation between two slits that will produce a
second-order maximum for any visible light?
(b) For all visible light?
11. If the first-order maximum for monochromatic light falling on a double slit
is at an angle of 10.0° , at what angle is the second-order maximum?
12. What is the angle of the first minimum? (c) What is the highest-order
maximum possible here?
13. Shown below is a double slit located a distance 𝑥 from a screen, with the
distance from the center of the screen given by 𝑦. When the distance 𝑑
between the slits is relatively large, numerous bright spots appear, called
fringes. Show that, for small angles (where 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 , with 𝜃 in radians),
𝑥𝜆
the distance between fringes is given by 𝛥𝑦 =
𝑑
14. Using the result of the preceding problem-13,

(a) Calculate the distance between fringes for 633 − 𝑛𝑚 light falling on
double slits separated by 0.0800 𝑚𝑚, located 3.00 𝑚 from a screen.
(b) What would be the distance between fringes if the entire
apparatus were submersed in water, whose index of refraction is 1.33?
15. In a double-slit experiment, the fifth maximum is 2.8 𝑐𝑚 from the
central maximum on a screen that is 1.5 𝑚 away from the slits. If the
slits are 0.15 𝑚𝑚 apart, what is the wavelength of the light being used?
16. The source in Young’s experiment emits at two wavelengths. On the
viewing screen, the fourth maximum for one wavelength is located at
the same spot as the fifth maximum for the other wavelength. What is
the ratio of the two wavelengths?
17. If 500 𝑛𝑚 and 650 𝑛𝑚 light illuminates two slits that are separated by
0.50 𝑚𝑚, how far apart are the second-order maxima for these two
wavelengths on a screen 2.0 𝑚 away?
18. Red light of wavelength of 700 𝑛𝑚 falls on a double slit separated by
400 𝑛𝑚.
(a) At what angle is the first-order maximum in the diffraction pattern?
(b) What is unreasonable about this result?
(c) Which assumptions are unreasonable or inconsistent?
INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS:

The bright colors seen in an oil slick floating on water or in a sunlit soap bubble
are caused by interference. The brightest colors are those that interfere
constructively. This interference is between light reflected from different surfaces
of a thin film; thus, the effect is known as Thin-Film Interference.
As we noted before, interference effects are most prominent when light interacts
with something having a size similar to its wavelength. A thin film is one having a
thickness 𝒕 smaller than a few times the wavelength of light, 𝝀. Since color is
associated indirectly with 𝝀 and because all interference depends in some way on
the ratio of 𝝀 to the size of the object involved, we should expect to see different
colors for different thicknesses of a film, as in Figure below.
Figure: These soap bubbles exhibit

brilliant colors when exposed to
sunlight.
What causes thin-film inter-
ference? Next Figure shows,
how light reflected from the
top and bottom surfaces of a
film can interfere. Incident
light is only partially reflected
from the top surface of the
film (ray 1). The remainder enters the film and is itself partially reflected from the
bottom surface. Part of the light reflected from the bottom surface can emerge
from the top of the film (ray 2) and interfere with light reflected from the top (ray
1). The ray that enters the film travels a greater distance, so it may be in or out of
phase with the ray reflected from the top. However, consider for a moment, again,
the bubbles in Fig above. The bubbles are darkest where they are thinnest.
Furthermore, if you observe a soap bubble carefully, you will note it gets dark at
the point where it breaks. For very thin films, the difference in path lengths of
rays 1 and 2 in Figure below is negligible, so why should they interfere
destructively and not constructively? The answer is that a phase change can
occur upon reflection, as discussed next.
Figure: Light striking a thin film is partially reflected (ray 1) and

partially refracted at the top surface. The refracted ray is
partially reflected at the bottom surface and emerges as ray 2.
These rays interfere in a way that depends on the thickness of
the film and the indices of refraction of the various media.
We have studied in previous standards that reflection

of mechanical waves can involve a 180° phase
change. For example, a traveling wave on a string is
inverted (i.e., a 180° phase change) upon reflection at
a boundary to which a heavier string is tied.
However, if the second string is lighter (or more
precisely, of a lower linear density), no inversion occurs. Light waves produce the
same effect, but the deciding parameter for light is the index of refraction. Light
waves undergo a 180° or 𝜋 radians phase change upon reflection at an interface
beyond which is a medium of higher index of refraction. No phase change takes
place when reflecting from a medium of lower refractive index (Figure below).
Because of the periodic nature of waves, this phase change or inversion is
𝜆
equivalent to ± in distance travelled, or path length. Both the path length and
𝟐
refractive indices are important factors in thin-film interference.
Figure Reflection at an interface for light traveling from a medium with index of refraction n1 to a
medium with index of refraction n2, n1<n2, causes the phase of the wave to change by 𝜋 radians.
If the film in second last Figure is a soap bubble (essentially water with air on
𝝀
both sides), then a phase shift of occurs for ray 1 but not for ray 2. Thus, when
2
the film is very thin and the path length difference between the two rays is
negligible, they are exactly out of phase, and destructive interference occurs at all
wavelengths. Thus, the soap bubble is dark here. The thickness of the film
relative to the wavelength of light is the other crucial factor in thin-film
interference. Ray 2 in second last Figure travels a greater distance than ray 1.
For light incident perpendicular to the surface, ray 2 travels a distance
approximately 2𝑡 farther than ray 1. When this distance is an integral or half-
𝜆
integral multiple of the wavelength in the medium (𝜆𝑛 = , where 𝝀 is the
𝑛
wavelength in vacuum and 𝑛 is the index of refraction), constructive or
destructive interference occurs, depending also on whether there is a phase
change in either ray.
PRACTICE QUESTION-3:
Calculating the Thickness of a Non-reflective Lens Coating: Sophisticated
cameras use a series of several lenses. Light can reflect from the surfaces of these
various lenses and degrade image clarity. To limit these reflections, lenses are
coated with a thin layer of magnesium fluoride, which causes destructive thin-
film interference. What is the thinnest this film can be, if its index of refraction is
1.38 and it is designed to limit the reflection of 550 − 𝑛𝑚 light, normally the most
intense visible wavelength? Assume the index of refraction of the glass is 1.52.
Strategy: Refer to Fig. 2.21 and use 𝑛1 = 1.00 for air, 𝑛2 = 1.38, and 𝑛3 = 1.52.
𝜆
Both ray 1 and ray 2 have a shift upon reflection. Thus, to obtain destructive
2
interference, ray 2 needs to travel a half wavelength farther than ray 1. For rays
incident perpendicularly, the path length difference is 2𝑡.
Solution: To obtain destructive interference here,
𝜆𝑛2
2𝑡 =
2
𝜆
where 𝜆𝑛2 is the wavelength in the film and is given by 𝜆𝑛2 = . Thus,
𝑛2
𝜆⁄
𝑛2
2𝑡 =
2
𝜆⁄ 550 𝑛𝑚⁄
𝑛2 1.38 = 90.6 𝑛𝑚
𝑡= =
4 4
Significance: Films such as the one in this example are most effective in
producing destructive interference when the thinnest layer is used, since light
over a broader range of incident angles is reduced in intensity. These films are
called non-reflective coatings; this is only an approximately correct description,
though, since other wavelengths are only partially cancelled. Non-reflective
coatings are also used in car windows and sunglasses.
DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT:

Like Interference, Another proof of wave nature of light is Diffraction. Simply
speaking, Bending of light from sharp edges or obstacles is declared as
Diffraction. While speaking technically, it is something more to be evaluated.
Figure: A steel ball bearing illuminated by a laser does not cast a sharp, circular shadow.
Instead, a series of diffraction fringes and a central bright spot are observed. Known as Poisson’s
spot, the effect was first predicted by Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1788–1827) as a consequence of
diffraction of light waves. Based on principles of ray optics, Siméon-Denis Poisson (1781–1840)
argued against Fresnel’s prediction.
Imagine passing a monochromatic light beam through a narrow opening—a slit

just a little wider than the wavelength of the light. Instead of a simple shadow of
the slit on the screen, you will see that an interference pattern appears, even
though there is only one slit.
In previous articles on interference, we saw that you need two sources of

waves for interference to occur. How can there be an interference pattern when
we have only one slit? In THE NATURE OF LIGHT, we learned that, due to
Huygens’s principle, we can imagine a wave front as equivalent to inﬁnitely many
point sources of waves. Thus, a wave from a slit can behave not as one wave but
as an infinite number of point sources. These waves can interfere with each
other, resulting in an interference pattern without the presence of a second slit.
This phenomenon is called diffraction.
Another way to view this is to recognize that a slit has a small but finite width. In
the preceding articles, we implicitly regarded slits as objects with positions but
no size. The widths of the slits were considered negligible. When the slits have
finite widths, each point along the opening can be considered a point source of
light—a foundation of Huygens’s principle. Because real-world optical
instruments must have finite apertures (otherwise, no light can enter), diffraction
plays a major role in the way we interpret the output of these optical
instruments. For example, diffraction places limits on our ability to resolve
images or objects. This is a problem that we will study later in this chapter.
We’ll see that diffraction is purely a wave behavior of light. Matter can never be
diffracted.
SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION:
After passing through a narrow aperture (opening), a wave propagating in a
specific direction tends to spread out. For example, sound waves that enter a
room through an open door can be heard even if the listener is in a part of the
room where the geometry of ray propagation dictates that there should only be
silence. Similarly, ocean waves passing through an opening in a breakwater can
spread throughout the bay inside. (Figure below). The spreading and bending of
sound and ocean waves are two examples of Diffraction, which is the bending of
a wave around the edges of an opening or an obstacle—a phenomenon exhibited
by all types of waves.
Figure: Because of the diffraction of waves,

ocean waves entering through an opening in a
breakwater can spread throughout the bay. (map data from Google Earth)
The diffraction of sound waves is apparent to us because wavelengths in the

audible region are approximately the same size as the objects they encounter, a
condition that must be satisfied if diffraction effects are to be observed easily.
Since the wavelengths of visible light range from approximately 390 𝑡𝑜 770 𝑛𝑚,
most objects do not diffract light significantly. However, situations do occur in
which apertures are small enough that the diffraction of light is observable. For
example, if you place your middle and index fingers close together and look
through the opening at a light bulb, you can see a rather clear diffraction
pattern, consisting of light and dark lines running parallel to your fingers.
Figure: Single-slit diffraction pattern.

(a) Monochromatic light passing through a single slit has a central maximum and many smaller
and dimmer maxima on either side. The central
maximum is six times higher than shown.
(b) The diagram shows the bright central
maximum, and the dimmer and thinner maxima
on either side.
Light passing through a single slit forms a

diffraction pattern somewhat different
from those formed by double slits or
diffraction gratings, which we discussed in
the article on interference. Fig. 2.24 shows
a single-slit diffraction pattern. Note that
the central maximum is larger than
maxima on either side and that the intensity decreases rapidly on either side. In
contrast, a diffraction grating produces evenly spaced lines that dim slowly on
either side of the center.
The analysis of single-slit diffraction is illustrated in Figure below. Here, the light
arrives at the slit, illuminating it uniformly and is in phase across its width. We
then consider light propagating onwards from different parts of the same slit.
According to Huygens’s principle, every part of the wave front in the slit emits
wavelets, as we discussed earlier. These are like rays that start out in phase and
head in all directions. (Each ray is perpendicular to the wave front of a wavelet.)
Assuming the screen is very far away compared with the size of the slit, rays
heading toward a common destination are nearly parallel. When they travel
straight ahead, as in part (a) of the figure, they remain in phase, and we observe
a central maximum.
However, when rays travel at an angle 𝜃 relative to the original direction of
the beam, each ray travels a different distance to a common location, and they
can arrive in or out of phase. In part (b), the ray from the bottom travels a
distance of one wavelength 𝜆 farther than the ray from the top. Thus, a ray from
𝜆
the center travels a distance less than the one at the bottom edge of the slit,
2
arrives out of phase, and interferes destructively. A ray from slightly above the
center and one from slightly above the bottom also cancel one another. In fact,
each ray from the slit interferes destructively with another ray. In other words, a
pair-wise cancellation of all rays results in a dark minimum in intensity at this
angle. By symmetry, another minimum occurs at the same angle to the right of
the incident direction (toward the bottom of the figure) of the light.
Figure: Light passing through a single slit is diffracted in all directions and may interfere
constructively or destructively, depending on the angle. The difference in path length for rays
from either side of the slit is seen to be 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃.
3𝜆
At the larger angle shown in part (c), the path lengths differ by for rays
2
from the top and bottom of the slit. One ray travels a distance 𝜆 different from the
ray from the bottom and arrives in phase, interfering constructively. Two rays,
each from slightly above those two, also add constructively. Most rays from the
slit have another ray to interfere with constructively, and a maximum in intensity
occurs at this angle. However, not all rays interfere constructively for this
situation, so the maximum is not as intense as the central maximum.
Finally, in part (d), the angle shown is large enough to produce a second
minimum. As seen in the figure, the difference in path length for rays from either
side of the slit is 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃, and we see that a destructive minimum is obtained when
this distance is an integral multiple of the wavelength.
Thus, to obtain Destructive Interference For A Single Slit,
𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = ±1 , ±2 , ±3 … … …. (𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ) Eq. 2.13
where a is the slit width, 𝜆 is the light’s wavelength, 𝜃 is the angle relative to the
original direction of the light, and 𝑚 is the order of the minimum. Figure
below shows a graph of intensity for single-slit interference, and it is apparent
that the maxima on either side of the central maximum are much less intense
and not as wide.
Figure: A graph of single-slit diffraction

intensity showing the central maximum
to be wider and much more intense
than those to the sides. In fact, the
central maximum is six times higher
than shown here.
Calculating Single-Slit Diffraction: Visible light of wavelength 550 𝑛𝑚 falls on a
single slit and produces its second diffraction minimum at an angle
of 45.0°° relative to the incident direction of the light, as in Fig. 2.27.
(a) What is the width of the slit?
(b) At what angle is the first minimum produced?
Strategy: From the given information, and assuming the screen is far away from
the slit, we can use the equation 𝑎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 first to find 𝐷, and again to find the
angle for the first minimum 𝜃1 .
Solution
a. We are given that 𝜆 = 550𝑛𝑚, 𝑚 = 2, and 𝜃2 = 45.0°. Solving the
equation 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 for 𝑎 and substituting known values gives
𝑚𝜆
𝑎= = 1.56 × 10−6 𝑚
sin 𝜃2
b. Solving the equation 𝑎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜃 =

𝑚𝜆 for 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜃1 and substituting the known
values gives
𝑚𝜆 1(550 × 10−9 𝑚)
sin 𝜃1 = =
𝑎 1.56 × 10−6 𝑚
sin 𝜃1 = 0.354
𝜃1 = sin−1 0.354 = 20.7𝑜
Significance: We see that the slit is narrow

(it is only a few times greater than the
wavelength of light). This is consistent with
the fact that light must interact with an
object comparable in size to its wavelength in
order to exhibit significant wave effects such as this single-slit diffraction pattern.
We also see that the central maximum extends 20.7° on either side of the original
beam, for a width of about 41°. The angle between the first and second minima is
only about 24° (45.0° − 20.7°). Thus, the second maximum is only about half as
wide as the central maximum.
CHECK YOU UNDERSTANDING:

1. Suppose the slit width in Practice Question-4 is increased to 1.8 ×
10−6 𝑚. What are the new angular positions for the first, second, and third
minima? Would a fourth minimum exist?
2. As the width of the slit producing a single-slit diffraction pattern is
reduced, how will the diffraction pattern produced change?
3. Compare interference and diffraction.
4. If you and a friend are on opposite sides of a hill, you can communicate
with walkie-talkies but not with flashlights. Explain.
5. What happens to the diffraction pattern of a single slit when the entire
optical apparatus is immersed in water?
6. In our study of diffraction by a single slit, we assume that the length of the
slit is much larger than the width. What happens to the diffraction pattern
if these two dimensions were comparable?
7. A rectangular slit is twice as wide as it is high. Is the central diffraction
peak wider in the vertical direction or in the horizontal direction?
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS:
1. (a) At what angle is the first minimum for 550 − 𝑛𝑚 light falling on a single
slit of width 1.00 𝜇𝑚?
(b) Will there be a second minimum?
2. (a) Calculate the angle at which a 2.00 − 𝜇𝑚 wide slit produces its first
minimum for 410 − 𝑛𝑚 violet light.
(b) Where is the first minimum for 700 − 𝑛𝑚 red light?
3. (a) How wide is a single slit that produces its first minimum for 633 − 𝑛𝑚
light at an angle of 28.0°?
(b) At what angle will the second minimum be?
4. (a) What is the width of a single slit that produces its first minimum
at 60.0° for 600 − 𝑛𝑚 light?
(b) Find the wavelength of light that has its first minimum at 62.0°.
5. Find the wavelength of light that has its third minimum at an angle
of 48.6° when it falls on a single slit of width 3.00 𝜇𝑚.
6. (a) Sodium vapor light averaging 589 𝑛𝑚 in wavelength falls on a single slit
of width 7.50𝜇𝑚. At what angle does it produces its second minimum?
(b) What is the highest-order minimum produced?
7. Consider a single-slit diffraction pattern for 𝜆 = 589𝑛𝑚, projected on a
screen that is 1.00 𝑚 from a slit of width 0.25 𝑚𝑚. How far from the center
of the pattern are the centers of the first and second dark fringes?
8. (a) Find the angle between the first minima for the two sodium vapor lines,
which have wavelengths of 589.1 and 589.6 𝑛𝑚, when they fall upon a
single slit of width 2.00𝜇𝑚.
(b) What is the distance between these minima if the diffraction pattern
falls on a screen 1.00 𝑚 from the slit?
(c) Discuss the ease or difficulty of measuring such a distance.
9. (a) What is the minimum width of a single slit (in multiples of 𝜆) that will
produce a first minimum for a wavelength 𝜆?
(b) What is its minimum width if it produces 50 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎?
(c) 1000 minima?
10. (a) If a single slit produces a first minimum at 14.5°, at what angle is the
second-order minimum?
(b) What is the angle of the third-order minimum?
(c) Is there a fourth-order minimum?
(d) Use your answers to illustrate how the angular width of the central
maximum is about twice the angular width of the next maximum (which is
the angle between the first and second minima).
11. If the separation between the first and the second minima of a single-slit
diffraction pattern is 6.0 𝑚𝑚, what is the distance between the screen and
the slit? The light wavelength is 500 𝑛𝑚 and the slit width is 0.16 𝑚𝑚.
12. A water break at the entrance to a harbor consists of a rock barrier with a
50.0 𝑚 wide opening. Ocean waves of 20.0 𝑚 wavelength approach the
opening straight on. At what angles to the incident direction are the boats
inside the harbor most protected against wave action?
13. An aircraft maintenance technician walks past a tall hangar door that acts
like a single slit for sound entering the hangar. Outside the door, on a line
perpendicular to the opening in the door, a jet engine makes a 600 − 𝐻𝑧
sound. At what angle with the door will the technician observe the first
minimum in sound intensity if the vertical opening is 0.800 𝑚 wide and the
speed of sound is 340 𝑚/𝑠?
POLARIZATION AND POLARIZING SHEETS:
Figure: These two photographs of a river show the effect of a polarizing filter in reducing glare in
light reflected from the surface of water. Part (b) of this figure was taken with a polarizing filter
and part (a) was not. As a result, the reflection of clouds and sky observed in part (a) is not
observed in part (b). Polarizing sunglasses are particularly useful on snow and water.
Polarizing sunglasses are familiar to most of us. They have a special ability to cut
the glare of light reflected from water or glass (Figure above). They have this
ability because of a wave characteristic of light called Polarization. What is
polarization? How is it produced? What are some of its uses? The answers to
these questions are related to the wave character of light.
Light is one type of electromagnetic
(EM) wave. As noted in the previous
standards, EM waves are transverse
waves consisting of varying electric
and magnetic fields that oscillate
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation (Fig. 2.29). However, in
general, there are no specific
directions for the oscillations of the Figure:
An EM wave, such as light, is a transverse
electric and magnetic fields; they wave. The electric (𝑬) and magnetic (B) fields
are perpendicular to the direction of
vibrate in any randomly oriented propagation. The direction of polarization of
plane perpendicular to the direction the wave is the direction of the electric field.
of propagation.
Polarization is the attribute that a wave’s oscillations do have a definite
direction relative to the direction of propagation of the wave. (This is not the same
type of polarization as that discussed for the separation of charges.) Waves
having such a direction are said to be polarized. For an EM wave, we define
the direction of polarization to be the direction parallel to the electric field.

Thus, we can think of the electric field arrows as showing the direction of
polarization, as in Figure above.
Figure: The transverse oscillations in one rope (a) are in a vertical plane, and those in the other
rope (b) are in a horizontal plane. The first is said to be vertically polarized, and the other is said
to be horizontally polarized. Vertical slits pass vertically polarized waves and block horizontally
polarized waves.
To examine this further, consider the transverse waves in the ropes shown
in Figure above. The oscillations in one rope are in a vertical plane and are said
to be vertically polarized. Those in the other rope are in a horizontal plane and
are horizontally polarized. If a vertical slit is placed on the first rope, the waves
pass through. However, a vertical slit blocks the horizontally polarized waves. For
EM waves, the direction of the electric field is analogous to the disturbances on
the ropes.
The Sun and many other light sources produce waves that have the electric
fields in random directions (part(a) of Figure below). Such light is said to
be Unpolarized, because it is composed of many waves with all possible
directions of polarization. Polaroid materials—which were invented by the
founder of the Polaroid Corporation, Edwin Land—act as a polarizing slit for
light, allowing only polarization in one direction to pass through. Polarizing filters
are composed of long molecules aligned in one direction. If we think of the
molecules as many slits, analogous to those for the oscillating ropes, we can
understand why only light with a specific polarization can get through. The axis
of a polarizing filter is the direction along which the filter passes the electric field
of an EM wave.
Figure: The slender arrow represents a ray of unpolarized light. The bold arrows represent the
direction of polarization of the individual waves composing the ray. (a) If the light is unpolarized,
the arrows point in all directions. (b) A polarizing filter has a polarization axis that acts as a slit
passing through electric fields parallel to its direction. The direction of polarization of an EM wave
is defined to be the direction of its electric field.
Figure below shows the effect of two polarizing filters on originally unpolarized
light. The first filter polarizes the light along its axis. When the axes of the first
and second filters are aligned (parallel), then all of the polarized light passed by
the first filter is also passed by the second filter. If the second polarizing filter is
rotated, only the component of the light parallel to the second filter’s axis is
passed. When the axes are perpendicular, no light is passed by the second filter.
Figure: The effect of rotating two polarizing filters, where the first polarizes the light. (a) All of the
polarized light is passed by the second polarizing filter, because its axis is parallel to the first. (b)
As the second filter is rotated, only a part of the light is passed. (c) When the second filter is
perpendicular to the first, no light is passed. (d) In this photograph, a polarizing filter is placed
above two others. Its axis is perpendicular to the filter on the right (dark area) and parallel to the
filter on the left (lighter area).
Only the component of the EM wave parallel to the axis of a filter is passed. Let
us call the angle between the direction of polarization and the axis of a filter 𝜃. If
the electric field has an amplitude 𝑬, then the transmitted part of the wave has
an amplitude 𝑬 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 (Fig. 2.33). Since the intensity of a wave is proportional to
its amplitude squared, the intensity 𝐼 of the transmitted wave is related to the
incident wave by
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 Eq. 2.14
where 𝐼0 is the intensity of the polarized wave before passing through the filter.
This equation is known as Malus’s law.
Figure:
A polarizing filter
transmits only the
component of the wave
parallel to its axis,
reducing the intensity
of any light not
polarized parallel to its
axis.
Calculating Intensity Reduction by a Polarizing Filter: What angle is needed
between the direction of polarized light and the axis of a polarizing filter to reduce
its intensity by 90.0%?
Strategy: When the intensity is reduced by 90.0%, it is 10.0% or 0.100 times its
original value. That is, 𝐼 = 0.100 𝐼0 . Using this information, the equation 𝐼 =
𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 can be used to solve for the needed angle.

Solution: Solving the equation 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 for 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜃 and substituting with the
relationship between 𝐼 and 𝐼0 gives
𝐼 0.100 𝐼0
cos 𝜃 = √ =√ = 0.3162
𝐼0 𝐼0
Solving for 𝜃 yields

𝜃 = cos −1 0.3162 = 71.6𝑜
Significance: A fairly large angle between the direction of polarization and the
filter axis is needed to reduce the intensity to 10.0% of its original value. This
seems reasonable based on experimenting with polarizing films. It is interesting
that at an angle of 45°, the intensity is reduced to 50% of its original value. Note
that 71.6° is 18.4° from reducing the intensity to zero, and that at an angle
of 18.4°, the intensity is reduced to 90.0% of its original value, giving evidence of
symmetry.

1. Although we did not specify the direction in Practice Question-5, let’s say
the polarizing filter was rotated clockwise by 71.6° to reduce the light
intensity by 90.0%. What would be the intensity reduction if the polarizing
filter were rotated counterclockwise by 71.6°?
2. Can a sound wave in air be polarized? Explain.
3. No light passes through two perfect polarizing filters with perpendicular
axes. However, if a third polarizing filter is placed between the original two,
some light can pass. Why is this? Under what circumstances does most of
the light pass?
4. Explain what happens to the energy carried by light that it is dimmed by
passing it through two crossed polarizing filters.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS:
1. What angle is needed between the direction of polarized light and the axis
of a polarizing filter to cut its intensity in half?
2. The angle between the axes of two polarizing filters is 45.0°. By how much
does the second filter reduce the intensity of the light coming through the
first?
3. Two polarizing sheets P1 and P2 are placed together with their
transmission axes oriented at an angle 𝜃 to each other. What is 𝜃 when
only 25% of the maximum transmitted light intensity passes through
them?
4. Suppose that in the preceding problem the light incident on P1 is
unpolarized. At the determined value of 𝜃, what fraction of the incident
light passes through the combination?
5. If you have completely polarized light of intensity 150 𝑊/𝑚2 , what will its
intensity be after passing through a polarizing filter with its axis at
an 89.0° angle to the light’s polarization direction?
6. What angle would the axis of a polarizing filter need to make with the
direction of polarized light of intensity 1.00𝑘𝑊/𝑚2 to reduce the intensity
to 10 𝑘𝑊/𝑚2 ?
7. At the end of Practice Question-5, it was stated that the intensity of
polarized light is reduced to 90.0% of its original value by passing through
a polarizing filter with its axis at an angle of 18.4° to the direction of

polarization. Verify this statement.
8. Show that if you have three polarizing filters, with the second at an angle
of 45.0° to the first and the third at an angle of 90.0° to the first, the
intensity of light passed by the first will be reduced to 25.0% of its value.
(This is in contrast to having only the first and third, which reduces the
intensity to zero, so that placing the second between them increases the
intensity of the transmitted light.)
9. Three polarizing sheets are placed together such that the transmission
axis of the second sheet is oriented at 25.0° to the axis of the first,
whereas the transmission axis of the third sheet is oriented at 40.0° (in
the same sense) to the axis of the first. What fraction of the intensity of
an incident unpolarized beam is transmitted by the combination?
10. In order to rotate the polarization axis of a beam of linearly polarized light
by 90.0°, a student places sheets P1 and P2 with their transmission axes
at 45.0° and 90.0°, respectively, to the beam’s axis of polarization.
(a) What fraction of the incident light passes through P1 and
(b) through the combination?
(c) Repeat your calculations for part (b) for transmission-axis angles
of 30.0° and 90.0°, respectively.

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BS Information Technology Applied Physics First Semester

You have studied in Intermediate Physics about a phenomenon “Pair Production”

Where ɛo = 8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2 is called permittivity of free space.

Charge on second charge = q2 = 4.0 µC = 4.0 x 10-6 C

We can see that r1 = x and r2 = 3 + x

⃗F = (1.44 î – 1.08 ĵ) N

Magnitude of force = F = √(1.44)2 + (−1.08)2 = 1.8 N

Exercise 5:- Two pith balls of mass 0.1 g each

r = 2 (0.50) sin 20o

F r2 3.5 x 10−4 x 0.34 2

𝐫̂ gives the direction of applied

E = 9.8 V m-1 = 9.8 N C-1

ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE

NEGATIVE POINT CHARGE:

PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR:

CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRIC FIELD LINES:-

CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTON

2) SURFACE CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

3) VOLUME CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A RING OF CHARGE

Total charge on the ring = q = λ L = λ (2 π R)

Replace the value of q = λ (2 π R), we get electric field as under:-

In vector form, we can write as under:-

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A DISK OF CHARGE

Charge on each ring = dq = σ (2πR’) d𝑹′

In vector form, we can write as under:-

POINT CHARGE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD

CASE 2:- (POINT CHARGE MOVING IN THE DIRECTION OF UNIFORM ELECTRIC

CASE 5:- (POINT CHARGE MOVING OBLIQUELY IN UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD)

vfx = vix = 𝐯𝐢 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉

ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD

FLUX OF A VECTOR FIELD

It is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is N m2 C-1.

WHERE TO APPLY GAUSS’S LAW:-

CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION:-

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO AN INFINITE LINE OF CHARGE:-

Thus ∫ ⃗E. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Flux through end faces of Gaussian surface is ϕe = ∮ E dA + ∮ E

the field is directed away from the plate.

Suppose, we arrange these two oppositely charged

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO HOLLOW CHARGED SHELL

Since, area vector and electric field are

surface. In this case ∮ ⃗⃗E . ⃗⃗⃗⃗

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO SPHERICAL CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

INSIDE THE SPHERICAL SYMMETRY:-

A CHARGED ISOLATED CONDUCTOR

ISOLATED CONDUCTOR WITH A CAVITY:-

However, the electric field just outside the

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

where VA and VB are defined as potentials at point A and point B respectively.

Electric potential at any point in an electric field is equal to

Now, we set Vf = 0 V at infinity and Vi = V at distance R

Put this value to find V at point R:

We can switch R to r for generalization of case

A positively charged particle produces a positive electric potential. A negatively

P.E. = Work done = -e V = (-1 e) (27.20 V)

POTENTIAL DUE TO A DIPOLE:-

Naturally occurring dipoles such as possessed by many molecules are quite

Where p = q d is dipole moment of the dipole.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO FINITE LINE OF CHARGE:-

This element produces an electric potential dV at point P, which is a distance r =

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO RING OF CHARGE:-

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO DISK OF CHARGE:-

figure suggests, the field 𝐸⃗ at any point P is perpendicular to the equipotential