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Review
Required viscosity values to assure proper
transportation of crude oil by pipeline
José A. D. Muñoz, Jorge Ancheyta, and Luis C. Castañeda
Energy Fuels, Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b01908 • Publication Date (Web): 20 Sep 2016
Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on September 22, 2016

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Required viscosity values to assure proper transportation of crude oil by
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José A. D. Muñoz, Jorge Ancheyta, Luis C. Castañeda
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10 Instituto Mexicano del Petróleo, Eje Central Lázaro Cárdenas Norte 152, Col. San Bartolo
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Atepehuacan, Mexico City, 07730, Mexico, Email: jancheyt@imp.mx
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Abstract
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18 Transportation of crude oils has recently received much attention than in the past, the main
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20 reason for this is because the changes that petroleum production has experienced. The
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increasing availability of heavy and extra-heavy crude oil and the depletion of the
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25 production of light crude oil have motivated the mid-stream oil sector to search for methods
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27 to reduce the viscosity to values that assure the transportation of crude oils by pipeline. The
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30 target for viscosity varies according to the type of crude oil and the region where it is
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32 transported. In order to define and propose a range of viscosity, the different reports in the
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34 literature were reviewed and it was concluded that the maximum value of viscosity to allow
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37 crude oil transportation ranges between 250 and 400 cSt at 37.8ºC.
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39 Keywords: viscosity, crude oil, transportation
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1. Introduction
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44 According to worldwide definition, the API gravity of heavy crude oil ranges from 10° to
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46 20°, while extra-heavy crude oil and bitumen exhibit value less than 10°. In addition, heavy
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crude oil and extra-heavy crude oil reach values of dynamic viscosity between 100 and
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51 10,000 cSt while the dynamic viscosity of bitumen is always greater than 10,000 cSt [1].
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53 Various studies indicate that the viscosity of extra-heavy crude oil or bitumen depends on
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3 the concentration and type of asphaltenes that are present in the crude oil and not by their
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6 chemical composition [2, 3].
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8 Bitumen exhibits higher viscosity than extra-heavy crude oil at pressure and temperature of
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the reservoir. While the former does not move at reservoir temperature, the latter has some
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13 degree of mobility [4], which is the ratio of the effective permeability to the oil flow to its
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15 viscosity. These oils possess high viscosity and low API gravity. Due to this, crude oils can
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cause a series of complications during the production, separation, transportation by
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20 pipeline, and refining [4, 5]. The high viscosity of heavy petroleum is an important issue
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22 that adversely affects the up-stream recovering, mid-stream surface transportation, and
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25 down-stream conversion processes. As example, Table 1 shows API gravity and viscosity
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27 of various heavy crude oils. It is observed that an increase in API gravity is not directly
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29 proportional to a decrease in viscosity and other structural factors affect this fluid property
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32 [6, 7].
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34 Nowadays, the worldwide resources of heavy petroleum and bitumen duplicate those of the
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conventional light crude oil. The transportation of heavy crude oil and bitumen is a
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39 challenge due to their incapacity to flow easily. Without reducing the viscosity, the
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41 transportation of heavy crude oil and bitumen viscosity is difficult, which is due to the high
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demand of energy required to handle the high-delta P in pipelines [7]. For instance, Figure
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46 1 shows oil viscosity as function of reservoir temperature for the two largest deposits in the
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48 world: Athabasca bitumen in Canada (1,000,000 cP; ~ 980,000 cSt at 11°C) and Orinoco
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51 extra-heavy crude oil in Venezuela (1,500 to 3,000 cP; ~ 1,600 to 3,200 cSt at 53°C).
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53 Table 2 report the values of viscosity and density for different heavy oils and their mobility
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55 at reservoir conditions. Oils with API gravity higher than 18 and viscosity lower than 100
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3 mPa-s (~ 111 cSt) exhibit mobility, while oils with API gravity lower than 18 and viscosity
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6 higher than 100 mPa-s do not move [8].
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8 Oil transportation involves a highly technical and complex operation. The most important
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problem in pipeline transportation is the high viscosity of the fluids that need efficient and
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13 economical methods to be transferred [9, 10]. Other reasons are the high concentrations of
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15 asphaltenes and the associated problems of incompatibility during the blending of crude
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oils and instability during storage.
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20 The following different types of heavy crude oils and approaches for their production have
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22 been reported based on viscosity [4]:
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25 • Class A (Medium heavy crude oils). Those with viscosity in the range of 10-100 cP
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27 (~ 11-111 cSt)
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• Class B (Extra-heavy crude oils). Those having viscosity in the range of 100-10,000
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32 cP (~ 111 to 10,150 cSt)
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34 • Class C (Bitumen). Hydrocarbons with viscosity higher than 10,000 cP (~ 10,150
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37 cSt) and API gravity less than 7°, which are immovable at reservoir conditions.
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39 They require thermal recovery methods (steam injection or mining techniques)
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• Class D (Bituminous shales). They are considered as source rock, and are extracted
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44 using mining or in situ techniques
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46 Classes A and B, which API gravity ranges from 25 to 7, comprise oils that can be
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49 recovered by cold production. Figure 2 shows the API gravity of some samples for classes
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51 A, B and C.
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53 Previous experimental studies have demonstrated that the viscosity of heavy oil depends on
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56 three factors: volume fraction, chemical structures, and physicochemical properties of the
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3 recovered asphaltenes, these latter being the heaviest and most polar components present in
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6 the composition of heavy oil [11-13].
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8 The effect of the content and quality of asphaltenes on the viscosity of heavy oil has been
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studied with the following conclusions: the viscosity of a liquid is dependent on the
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13 molecular attraction and is influenced by the polarity and molecular weight, mainly added
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15 by asphaltenes and resins. Any concentration of asphaltenes higher than 4 wt% forms a
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colloidal system that determines the viscosity. Moreover, asphaltenes tend to associate in
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20 diluted solutions and they are associated with resins by intermolecular hydrogen bonds. The
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22 origin of the high viscosities in heavy oil comes from such an interaction [14, 15].
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25 Heavy crude, extra-heavy crude and bitumen present problems for transportation via
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27 pipeline due mainly to their high viscosities. Typically, they are transported after the
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29 addition of lighter hydrocarbons (dilution). The amount of added diluent is a key factor
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32 because of its higher cost compared with that of the crude oil alone. So that proper
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34 definition of the amount of crude oil and diluent to be blended is crucial to allow the oil to
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be transported at the lowest cost. Flow properties, particularly viscosity, are of high
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39 relevance to define the most appropriate quantities of the blend components. In this sense,
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41 maximum values of viscosity required for transportation have been reported by several
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authors, which are based on field experience, laboratory experiments and local regulations.
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46 It is then the objective of this work to discuss the different literature reports on this topic in
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48 order to define and propose a range of viscosity to allow for the crude oils to be fluidly
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51 transported and thus minimizing the use of diluents with the consequent economic benefits.
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53 2. Reports of crude oil viscosity values for transportation
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55 The following reports are found in the literature regarding proposed values for viscosity of
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58 crude oil to allow its transport by pipeline:
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In the US patent 4343323, assignee to Research Council of Alberta, Canada in
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6 1982, it is considered essential for pipeline transportation of crude oil to have a
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8 viscosity lower than 200 cSt when measured at 15°C [16]
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Canada and Europe recommend a viscosity value of 25 cSt at 50°C for crude oil and
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13 Venezuela states a viscosity of 180 cSt at the same temperature [17]
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Europe and North America report a viscosity specification of 25 cSt at 50ºC for
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crude oil transportation [18]
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For diluted extra heavy oils with naphtha or lighter crude for transportation by
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22 pipeline is API gravity 19 and viscosity < 350 cP (~ < 355 cSt) for Canada and 400
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25 cP (~ 420 cSt) for Venezuela [19].
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In Canada, the dynamic viscosity for pipeline transportation is 350 cP (~ 355 cSt) at
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29 11ºC [20].
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Canadian specifications for transportation by pipeline of heavy crude oil and
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34 bitumen are: 19°API min, 350 cSt max at 7°C and 0.5 vol% max of basic sediment
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and water (BS&W) [21]
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The specifications of transportation of heavy oil depend on the lease agreement
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41 between the producer and the transportation company. Generally, the viscosity,
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gravity and sulfur for transportation purposes are in the range of 350 cSt, 19ºAPI
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46 and < 2wt% respectively [22].
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Pipeline specifications for crude oil transportation were defined in 2009 tube: 350
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51 cSt at 11°C and 19°API, for viscosity and API gravity, respectively [23]
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Heavy crude oils that require to be transported need to be upgraded to a viscosity
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55 specification, i.e. < 250–300 cSt at pumping temperature conditions [24].
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The viscosities for the heavy crudes oil at room temperature vary from 100 mPa s
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6 (~111 cSt) to more than 105 mPa s (~ 101,500 cSt). Generally, crude oil with
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8 viscosity <400 mPa s (~420 cSt) is the classical maximum desired pipeline viscosity
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[5].
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In 2012, Canmet Energy reported that the final pipeline specifications for the dilbit
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15 require density at 15°C of ≤940 kg/m3 and viscosity at pipeline temperature ≤350
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cSt [25].
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The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) is in charge of the regulation
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22 of pipeline transport of crude oils In the USA. The specifications for the kinematic
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25 viscosity at pipeline reference temperature is 350 cSt maximum. For instance, for
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27 the Keystone XL pipeline system in Canada and the United States the operating
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29 temperature has been reported to be around 8 and 18°C for winter and summer,
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32 respectively [26]
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For proper transportation of heavy crude oil and bitumen via pipeline, the viscosity
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of diluted or blended oil must be less than 200 mPa s (~211 cSt). However, the use
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39 of large volume of diluents is needed to reach this pipeline viscosity specification,
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41 which is due to the viscosity of heavy crude oil and bitumen that can have a value of
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more than 105 mPa s (~101,500 cSt) [7]
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Diluted bitumen, the so-called dilbit, is prepared by dilution of the bitumen with
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48 lighter petroleum products. The produced dilbit must satisfy the pipeline
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51 specification of viscosity for transportation ≤350 cSt [5, 25]
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Crude oil pipeline specifications such as maximum viscosity at 37.8 ºC of 250 cSt,
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55 minimum API gravity of 16° and maximum vapor pressure of 14.9 psia are also
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Pennsylvania State University indicates that some heavy crude oils can have
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6 viscosities in excess of 15,000 cSt at 37.8°C, which to be transported via pipeline
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8 from the source, the viscosity must be lower than 150 cSt at 37.8°C [28]
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3. Discussion of results
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13 The values of viscosity to allow the oil to be transported have changed during time. At the
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15 end of the last century, the viscosity value was between 25 and 200 cSt at 15 and 50°C
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respectively due to the production and transportation was mainly of light and medium crude
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20 oils, which present viscosity values lower than heavy crude oils. At the beginning of the
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22 present century, the production of light and medium crude oils started to diminish and that
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25 of heavy crude oil increased, this later having viscosity values higher than 1000 cSt at
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27 reservoir conditions, which caused the specification of viscosity value for oil transportation
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29 to increase to a value of 400 cSt. Figure 3 summarizes the changes of the viscosity values
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32 for transportation of crude oils in the period of 1980-2015. These values correspond to
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34 viscosities measured at temperatures between 7 and 50ºC.
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The values reported in this figure belong to different regions. The crude oil viscosity
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39 depends on the temperature of the reservoir as shown in Figure 1, being higher for cold
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41 regions such as the northern United States and Canada, compared with warmer or hot
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regions such as Venezuela. There is also heat transfer between the pipe and environment
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46 thus reducing the crude oil temperature as function of the distance of the pipe to
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48 temperatures slightly higher than the ambient, so that viscosity value is increased and that is
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51 why the measured viscosity values are reported at low temperature. For warm places such
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53 as Mexico, Central and South America, South of Europe and Asia, the viscosity values are
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55 reported to be 200-350 cSt at temperature between 37.8 and 50 ºC.
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3 Figure 4 was prepared according to the previous observations, that is, viscosity value as
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6 function of the temperature at which it is reported. The following limits are clearly
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8 observed: 150 cSt at 37.8ºC, and 350 cSt at 7ºC.
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On the other hand, the required viscosity for transportation of crude oil is different if it is
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13 compared by temperature or by region. Due to this, and to standardize values of viscosity at
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15 a given temperature, e.g. 37.8ºC (100°F), the most common range is 250-400 cSt as
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maximum for the transportation of any crude oil. The corresponding value of API gravity
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20 for this viscosity specification is around 16º. The values of viscosity may change depending
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22 on the oil, however for transportation purposes, values higher than 400 cSt at 37.8ºC will
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25 difficult the mobility of the crude oil.
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27 The mechanism that is more accepted for asphaltene aggregation comprises [29, 30]:
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• π−π overlap between aromatic sheets
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32 • Hydrogen bonding between functional groups
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34 • Other charge transfer interactions
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37 Resins have been suggested that are responsible for contribution to the improvement in the
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39 asphaltenes solubility in petroleum by means of a strong local interaction of the aggregates
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of asphaltenes due to resin molecules.
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44 The empty spaces of solvent in aggregates of asphaltenes created by their reticulated
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46 structure are definitely filled by resins [31-34]. Therefore, the cause of the high viscosity of
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49 heavy crude oil can be attributed to such an interaction [35, 36].
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51 4. Conclusions
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53 From the literature reports and analysis of the available data, it can be pointed out the
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56 following:
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3 ‒ Viscosity is function of the concentration and type of asphaltenes in crude oil, and
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6 does not depend on their chemical composition
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8 ‒ The origin of the high viscosity of heavy oil comes from a strong interaction of
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asphaltene aggregation by resin molecules
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13 ‒ The reported values of viscosity for transportation of heavy and extra-heavy crude
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15 oils range between 350 cSt at 7°C and 150 cSt at 50°C
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18 ‒ The most common maximum specification of viscosity for transportation of heavy
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20 and extra-heavy crude oils is 250 – 400 cSt at 37.8ºC
21
22 References
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24
25 (1) Vahid Hoshyargar; Seyed Nezameddin Ashrafizadeh., Industrial & Engineering
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27 Chemistry Research, 2013, 52(4), 1600–1611
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25 (16) US 4343323 patent. Pipeline transportation of heavy crude oil, 1982
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3 Table 1. Properties of different crude oils
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8 Crude oil Origin Type API gravity Viscosity (cSt)
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11
25°C 50°C
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13 Duri Indonesia Heavy 20.8 779 175
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15 Maya Mexico Heavy 21.2 240 66
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18 Cold lake Canada Heavy 21.2 133 40.1
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20 Zuata Venezuela Extra-heavy 14.8 4,349 305
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22 Boscan Venezuela Extra-heavy 8.9 69,543 4,190
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3 Table 2. Classification of crude oils according to their mobility
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8 Type of crude oil Density API Viscosity Comments
9 kg/m3 gravity mPa-s
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11
Heavy oil 903 -946 25 to 18 100 to 10 Fluid mobile at
12 reservoir
13 conditions
14 Extra heavy oil 933 - 1021 20 to 7 10000 to 100 Fluid not
15 mobile at
16
reservoir
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18 conditions
19 Tar sand and bitumen 985 - 1021 12 to 7 <10,000 Not a fluid at
20 reservoir
21 conditions
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3 FIGURE CAPTIONS
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6 Figure 1. Relationship between viscosity and temperature in bitumen reservoirs
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8 Figure 2. Viscosity-API gravity for oil classes A, B and C
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Figure 3. Evolution of the viscosity values for transportation of crude oil
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13 Figure 4. Viscosity specification at different temperatures
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4
5
6 10,000,000
7
8
9 1,000,000 Athabasca (Canada)
10
11
12 100,000
13
Viscosity (cP)

14
15 10,000
16 Orinoco (Venezuela)
17
18 1,000
19
20
21 100
22
23
24 10
25
26
27 1
28 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
29
30 Reservoir temperature, °C
31
32
33 Figure 1.
34
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4
5
6 10,000,000 Class C. Bitumen
1 1 Wabasca
7 2
2 Athabasca
3 Peace river
8 4 Cold Lake
9 1,000,000 5 Upper &lower Ugnu
6 Cat canyon
10 Class B. Extra heavy oil
7 Elijobo
11 8 Mormora mare
12 100,000 9 Boscan
Downhole viscosity (cP)

10 Yorba linda
3
13 5
4 11 Bosco creek
12 Llancanelo
14 6 13 Fazenda belem
15 14 Belridge

16 10,000 15 Alto do rodrigues 1

16 Lannister
7 9 17 Tia Juana
17 10
11 13 15 18 Midway
18 12 14 16
19 Grenada
20 Bressay
19 1,000 17 18 21 Estreito
8 19 20 21 22 Morichil
20 22 23 Bati raman
33 24 Mariner H
21 23
24 34 25 Sargo mare
25 26
22 100 27 30 31 26 Pilon
29 28 27 Becharaii
23 32 35 28 Rospomare
36 37 29 Varadero
24 Class A. Medium heavy oil
36 Captain
39
30 Mount poso
38
25 37 Emeraude 31 Qaum alam

26
10 38 West sale
40
32 Balol
39 Shoonebeck 33 Alto do rodrigues 2
34 Duri
27 40 Laca
41 Dalla
41
35 Bachanquero
28
29 1
30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
31
32 API gravity
33
34
35
36
37 Figure 2
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3
4
450
5 400
6
7 350
8
9 300
10
Viscosity, cSt

11 250
12
13 200
14
15 150
16
17
100
18 50
19
20 0
21 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
22
23 Year
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28 Figure 3
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2
3
4
5
6 400
7
8 350
9
10 300
11
12 250
Viscosity, cSt

13
14 200
15
16 150
17
18 100
19
20 50
21
22 0
23
24 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
25 Temperature, °C
26
27
28
29
30
31 Figure 4
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