Botony 1st Year Final Chapter 04

CHAPTER # 04 86 BIOENERGETICS
CHAPTER # 04
BIOENERGETICS
OBJECTIVES
1. is the most efficient light in driving the process of photosynthesis.
a. Green b. Blue c. Red d. Both b & c
2. Dark reaction of photosynthesis take place in
a. Thyalkoid b. stroma
c. cytosole d. chloroplast membrane
3. The empirical formula of chlorophyll “a” is
C56 H 70 O6 N 4 Mg C55 H 77 O5 N 4 Mg
a. b.
c.
C55 H 70 O6 N 4 Mg d. C55 H 72 O5 N 4 Mg
4. The electron deficiency of photosynthesis “II” is fulfilled by
Co2
a. Photosynthesis I b. water c. d. non of them
5. The primary electron acceptor of PII is
a. Plastocynine b. plestoquinone
b. c. ferdoxine reducing substance (FRS) d. both a & b
6. The ATP which is formed in light reaction of photosynthesis is called.
a. Substrate level phosphrelation b. Photophosphorelation
c. both a and b d. non of them
7. Light reaction of photosynthesis take place in
a. Thyalkined membrane b. stroma
c. cytoplasm d. mitochondria
8. When plant adopt cyclic photophosphorelation, it needs more
a. NADPH2 b. NADP c. ATP d. NADH2
9. The O2 evolved during photosynthesis come from
a.
Co2 b. water c. both a and b d. non of them
10. One of the following is not used in photosynthesis
a.
Co2 b. RUBP
H 2O d. non of them
11. The most common respiratory substrate is

a. Fructose b. Glucose c. organic acid d. Fat
12. In respiration the potential energy stored in food is released in the form of
a. Kinetic energy b. physical energy
c. chemical energy d. reliant energy
13. Which of the following process make direct use of oxygen?
a. Glycolysis b. Fermentation
c. Citric acid cycle d. ETC
14. One of the product of aerobic respiration is
a. Malic acid b. lactic acid c. pyruvic acid d. Ethyle alcohol
15. Electron transport system in mitochondria is located in
a. Outer membrane b. inner membrane
c. inner chamber d. non of them
16. The net gain of ATP in glycolysis is
a. 2 b. 4 c. 8 d. 6
17. Metabolic water is the water produced in
a. Dark reaction b. terminal oxidation
c. When
O2 combine with 2H in ETC d. all of the above
18. The cell store energy released by cellular respiration
a. In the form Glucose b. in the form of ATP
c. In the form of
Co2 d. in the form of oxygen
19. Substrate level phosphorelation take place in____ phase of respiration

a. Citric acid cycle b. glycolysis
c. oxidative phospherylatin d. both a & b
20. Glycolysis
a. Does not occur in bacterial cells b. take place in all cells.
c. does not occur in yeast cells d. does not occur in animal cell
21. is the end product of glycolysis
a. two molecule of
Co2 b. two molecule of pyruvic acid
c. two molecule of NADH2 d. two water molecule
22. The number of

Co2 molecules produced in citric acid cycle is
a. 4 b. 2 c. 6 d. 8
23. The ATP formation in glycolysis and Krebs cycle is called
a. Oxidative phosphorylation b. substrate level phosphorylation
c. photophasphorylation d. both a and b
24. Step of respiration is common in aerobic and anaerobic respiration
a. Krebs cycle b. link reaction c. glycolysis d. ETC
25. How many

Co2 and ATP molecules are formed during one complete turn of the
citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle).

2Co2 & 2 ATP 2Co2 &16 ATP
a. b.
c.
2Co2 &12 ATP d.
2Co2 &1 ATP
26. One of the following reaction does not occur in mitochondria

a. Glycolysis b. citric acid cycle
c. ETC d. oxidative phosphorylation
27. The 1st product of “C” fixation in

C3 plant is
a. Glycolic acid b. malic acid

c. citric acid d. phosphoglyceric acid
28. Chloroplast of bundle sheath cells in

C4 plants contain
a. Grana b. stroma c. thyalkoids d. all of them

C4
29. The 1st stable compound formed in pathway is
a. Oxalo acetic acid b. pyruvic acid
c. malic acid d. citric acid
30. Only is involved in cylic electron transport
a. Only PSI b. only PS II
c. both PSI and PS II d. None of these
31. Photorespiration occurs in cellular organelles.
a. Mitochondria b. peroxisome c. chloroplast d. all of these
Answer Keys:-
1. D 2. B 3. D 4. B
5. B 6. B 7. A 8. C
9. B 10. B 11. B 12. C
13. D 14. A 15. B 16. A
17. D 18. B 19. D 20. B
21. B 22. B 23. B 24. C
25. D 26. A 27. D 28. D
29. C 30. A 31. D
CHAPTER # 04
BIOENERGETICS
SHORT QUESTIONS
Q:-1.What is the difference between action spectrum and absorption spectrum?
Answer: Absorption spectrum:
The amount of light absorbed at different wavelength from the visible spectrum of light is
called abortion spectrum.
For example:
The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll ‘a’ and ‘b’ molecule is violet blue (400nm-
460nm) and red light (630nm-660nm).
The absorption spectrum of carotenoids is 430nm-470nm of visible spectrum
The absorption spectrum of a pigment solution can be determined by spectrophotometer.
Action spectrum:
The measurement of effectiveness of light of various wavelengths in driving the process

of photosynthesis is called Action spectrum.
The action spectrum is different from absorption spectrum because all of the energy
absorbed by the pigment is not stored in organic food. Some of this energy is released as
heat
Absorbed Energy Organic food + Heat Energy

Q:-2. Describe the role of carotenoides in photosynthesis?
Carotenenoids
 Carotenoids are yellow, orange, red or brown pigments.
 They absorb light in blue – violet (430 – 470 nm) range of the spectrum.
Photoprotection
 Carotenoids protect the chlorophyll from intense light and from oxidation by
oxygen produced in photosynthesis.
Broaden the absorption spectrum
 They absorb light energy and transfer it to the chlorophyll, therefore they are also
called accessory pigments.
 Carotenoids are of two types.
i) Carotenes (C40H56) ii) Xanthophylls (C40H56 O2).
Q:-3. What is the difference between C 3 and C 4 plants?
C 3 Plants C 4 Plants
They have no well developed bundle They have well developed buddle sheath
sheath cells .cell.
In mesophyll cell CO2 acceptor is In mesophll cell CO2 acceptor is
Riboluse biphosphate (RUBP) posphoenol phyruvate (PEP).
In mesophyll cell RUBISCO enzyme In mesophyll cell PEPCO enzyme act

act both as Carbooxlyase and only, as carbooxylase.
oxgenase
They follow only C 3 pathway i.e the They follow both C 3and C 4 pathway.
1st stable compound is 3 carbon The 1st stable compound is 4 carbon
glycericacid formed during dark Malic acid formed during dark reaction
reaction
C 3 pathway occur in mesophyll cell C 4 pathway occur in mesophyll cell
and C3 pathway occur in buddle sheath
cell
Photorespiration take place in C 3 Photorespiration does not occur in C 4
Plant plant.
There is no increase in dry mass of There is increase in dry mass of the cell
the Plant
Example: Rice, wheat, barely, oat etc Examples: Maiz, sugar cane, sorgham .
Q:-4. What is the difference between cyclic and non- cyclic pathway?
Non-Cyclic Pathway Cyclic Pathway

It involve both Photosysytem I and It involve only photosystem I
Photosystem II
The electron remove from photosystem The electron removed from P I, fall back
does not fall back into Photsystem into P I
ATP and NADPH2 both are produced Only ATP is produced
Q: -5. What is Glycolysis?
Answer: Glyco means Glucose and Lysis means splitting
Gylcolysis is first step of respiration
It is common step which occur both in aerobic as well as anaerobic respiration because it
does not use oxygen.
In Glycolysis one glucose molecule is broken down into two molecule of pyruvic acid
and as result two net ATP and two NADPH2 are produced
Glucose + 2ATP +2 NADP.→ 2 pyruvic acid + 4ATP + 2NADPH2
Q:-6. What do you mean by chemiosmosis?
Chemiosmotic synthesis of ATP

The process in which the energy stored in the form of hydrogen ion
gradient across a membrane is used to drive the synthesis of ATP is called
chemiosmotic ATP synthesis.
Explanation
 Chemiosmotic theory relates electron transport system with synthesis of ATP.
 In mitochondria there is a free space in between the outer and inner membrane
called inter membrane space.
 On the surface of inner membrane, there is a protein complex called ATP
synthases (i.e. the enzyme that makes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate).
 As the electron passes through electron carriers it pumps hydrogen ion from
mitochondrial matrix into inner membrane space.
Q: -7. What is the significance of C 4 photosynthesis?
Significance of C4 Photosynthesis
 C4 photosynthesis is an alternate pathway of photosynthesis for C 4 plants to avoid
photo respiration in hot and dry weather.
 C4 photosynthesis enable C4 plants to follow both C3 and C4 pathway, because
decarboxylation of malate in bundle sheath cell keep Co2 concentration high and
allow RUBISCO to work as carboxylase and fix Co2 into PGA by C3 pathway.
The rate of photosynthesis remains high even when stomata are closed in high
temperature
CHAPTER # 04
BIOENERGETICS
The study of transformation of energy in biological process of living organism is
called Bioenergetics.
OR
The study of that process by means of which living cells, store, use and release
energy.
 Photosynthesis and respiration are two main processes for energy transformation
in living organisms.
 Photosynthesis is an energy storing process and respiration is an energy releasing
process.
 Green cells of the plant bring about photosynthesis, by which radial energy is
trapped (stored) into chemical energy.
 Animal, human beings and other living organism, convert this energy into ATP,
which is then used form various mechanical work and heat production.
Photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis is a process through which green plants convert radial energy into
chemical energy. OR
 Photosynthesis is a process through which green plants synthesis organic food
(glucose) from carbon dioxide and water using sunlight as source of energy.
Light
 6 C O 2 +12 H 2 O → C6 H 12 O 6 +6 O2 +6 H 2 O
Chlorophyll
 The C o 2 and H 2 O are the raw material or reactants in photosynthesis, while
glucose and oxygen are the products.
 This glucose or carbohydrate, serve as food not only for plants, but for all living
organisms on the earth.
 Therefore, all living organisms, directly or indirectly depends on photosynthesis.
 Those organisms that can prepare its own food by the process of photosynthesis
are called Autotrophic organism.
 Those organisms that can’t carry out the process of photosynthesis and depends
on green plants for their food and energy requirement are called Heterotrophic
organisms. e.g. all animals, fungi etc.
ROLE OF SUN LIGHT IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Sunlight is the ultimate source of energy for all living organisms.

 But it is only the green plants which convert this radial energy into chemical
energy, by photosynthesis, no other living organism can use direct sunlight
energy.
 Sun light energy travels in the form of electromagnetic waves, of different
wavelength.
 But only a small portion of solar radiation called visible spectrum of 390 nm to
76onm wavelength is important for photosynthesis.
 This visible light has the right amount of energy to be absorbed by the
photosynthetic pigments for photosynthesis.
 This light of shorter wavelength than the visible light i.e. ultra violet radiation are
more energetic and dangerous to the cells, because they damage the organic
molecules. Such high energy light is screened out by ozone layer and upper layers
of atmosphere.
 The light of longer wavelength than the visible light i.e. infrared radiation has low
energy therefore, reflected by water vapors or another atmospheric gases.
Function of Light in Photosynthesis

 The visible light performs two functions, in the process of photosynthesis.
Excitation of photosystem II and Photosystem I

 When visible light falls on the pigments of photosystem II and I, they absorb light,
become excited and release electrons which are accepted by an electron acceptor.
Photolysis of water
 When light falls on water inside chloroplast, it bring about the lysis of water into
electron, proton and oxygen
H 2O 2 H   2 e  1 O2
2
Photosynthetic pigments
 Photosynthetic pigments are complex organic compound that can absorb visible
light.
There are two types of photosynthetic pigments
i) Chlorophyll (ii). Caratenoids
 In eukaryotic cells, they are located in thyalkoid membrane of the chloroplast.
 In prokaryotic cells, they are located in infolded region of the cell membrane.
Chloroplast
A Chloroplast Consist of three components.
 Outermost covering (envelop)

 Grana
 Stroma
 The envelop of chloroplast consist of double membrane structure that encloses,
grana and stroma,
 The stoma is a gel-like solution matrix surrounded by envelop. The matrix is
enriched with enzymes and other organic molecules.
 The dark reaction of photosynthesis takes place in stroma.
 The grana consists of many flattened fluid filled membranous sacs or discs called
thyalkoids which form stakes and resemble a pile of coins. There are many grana
which are interconnected by lamellae called intergrana.
 Chlorophyll and carotenoids pigments of thyalkoids are present within membrane
of Thyalkoids
 The light reaction of photosynthesis takes place within the thyalkoid membrane.
Chlorophylls
 Chlorophylls are complex organic compounds that absorb light of violet blue
wavelength and red wavelength.
 They reflect the light of green (500 – 560 nm) wavelength, therefore appears
green.
Types of chlorophylls.
 There are various types of chlorophylls on the basis of structure\.
 They are given below:
Chlorophyll a
 They are most abundant chlorophyll
 They are present in all photosynthetic organisms except bacteria.
 They are most important chlorophyll and form the reaction center of photosystem
I and II, which drive the process of photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll b
 They are present in all higher plants and green algae.
 Along with chlorophyll “a” some of chlorophyll “b” molecule also forms the
reaction center of photosystem I &II.
Chlorophyll c, d and e
 These chlorophyll c, d and e are found in various groups of algae.
Bacteria-chlorophyll
 They are present only in photosynthetic bacteria.
Structure of chlorophyll
 Chlorophyll molecule consists of two portions.
i. Head ii. Tail
Head
 The head of the chlorophyll consists of central magnesium “Mg” atom to which is
attached with four N-rings called Pyrrole.
 The four rings (Tetra pyrrole rings) are collectively called Porphyrin.
 The head is hydrophilic (water loving) and lies on the surface of the thyalkoid
membrane.
Tail
 The tail of chlorophyll is a long hydrocarbon chain called phytol side chain,
attached to one of the pyrrole rings.
 The tail is hydrophobic (water hating) and lies embedded in the thyalkoid
membrane.
Carotenenoids
 Carotenoids are yellow, orange, red or brown pigments.
 They absorb light in blue – violet (430 – 470 nm) range of the spectrum.
Photoprotection
 Carotenoids protect the chlorophyll from intense light and from oxidation by
oxygen produced in photosynthesis.
Broaden the absorption spectrum

 They absorb light energy and transfer it to the chlorophyll, therefore they are also
called accessory pigments.
 Carotenoids are of two types.
ii) Carotenes (C40H56) ii) Xanthophylls (C40H56 O2).
 The Most important is B-Carotene (orange pigment of carrots), Which is break
down into two molecule of vitamin “A” by vertebrates
Difference between chlorophyll “a” and “b”

 The chlorophyll “a” and “b” molecule differ
from one another, only due to one functional
group attached to the porphyrin.
 Chlorophyll “a” molecule has methyl group
(CH3), while chlorophyll “b” has carbonyl
(CHO) group.
 The empirical formula of chlorophyll “a” and
“b” are
 Chlorophyll “a” (C55 H72 O5 N4 Mg)
 Chlorophyll “b” (C55 H70 O6 N4 Mg)
Absorption spectrum
 Absorption spectrum is a graph of relative
amounts of light absorbed at different
wavelength by a pigment.
OR
 The amount of light absorbed at different
wavelength from the visible spectrum of light is
called absorption spectrum. For example the
absorption spectrum of chlorophyll “a” and “b” molecule is violet blue (400 – 460
nm) and red light (630 nm – 660 nm) respectively.
 The absorption spectrum of carotenoids is 430 – 470 nm of visible spectrum and
transfers this energy to chlorophyll “a” molecule.
 The absorption spectrum of a pigment solution can be determined by
spectrophotometer.
 A spectrophotometer is a machine through which light of different wave length is
passed through a pigment solution.
 The amount of light absorbed can be determined from the amount of light
projected on the pigment solution minus the amount of light received at other end
after passing through the pigment solution.
Action Spectrums
 Action spectrum is a graph which show the effectiveness of light of different
wavelength in driving photosynthesis
OR
 The measurement of effectiveness of light of various wavelengths in driving the
process of photosynthesis is called action spectrum.
 The action spectrum is different from absorption spectrum, because all of the energy
absorbed by the pigment is not stored in organic food some of this energy is released
as heat.
Absorbed energy  organic food + Heat Energy
 The action spectrum of a particular pigment can be measured by measuring the
rate of photosynthesis at all types of wavelength of visible light.
 The rate of photosynthesis can be measured by calculating the rate of production
of oxygen.
 It has been proved that red and blue light are the most effective wavelength, in
photosynthesis.
 Red light is more effective than blue light.
Role of CO2 as one of the raw material of photosynthesis
 Carbon dioxide is one of the raw materials in photosynthesis.
 It provides “carbon which is important component of the organic compounds.
 In absence of CO2 no photosynthesis occurs.
Role of water in photosynthesis:-
 Water is also used as raw material in the process of photosynthesis.
 Water molecule inside the chloroplast is split down by light (photolysis) into
hydrogen and oxygen.
 The hydrogen reduces CO2 to glucose and oxygen is released in the atmosphere.
 This oxygen is then used by all living organisms for respiration.
Experiments to prove that oxygen evolved comes from carbon dioxide
Experiment I
 In 1930 C. B. vein Neil Performed an experiment using green Sulfer bacteria.
 The green Sulfer bacteria use CO2 and H2S instead of water (H2O) as raw material
& release sulfer instead of oxygen.
6 Co2  6 H 2 S C6 H12O6  S
Bacteriophyll
 From this experiment V. Nail concluded that oxygen evolved comes from water
and not from carbon dioxide.
Experiment II
 In 1937 Robin Hill and Scaris-brick confirmed V. Neil idea by using isolated
chloroplast in the presence of light, H 2O and “H” acceptor (DCPIP i.e. 2, 6 –
Diclorophenon indophenon) and no CO2 was used, even then oxygen (O2) was
released.
Experiment III
 In this experiment Samuel Rubin used two groups of chlorella (Algae).
18
 1st group was supplied with water (H O) having O2 isotope. The released oxygen
2
18
was O isotope.
2
 2nd group of algae was supplied with carbon dioxide (CO2) having oxygen isotope
O218 and the water had normal ( O216 ) oxygen. The released oxygen was O216
which comes from water.
Group I CO216  H 2O18  C6 H12 O6  O218   H 2O
Group II CO218  H 2O16  C6 H12 O6  O216   H 2O
 Hence proved that oxygen evolved during photosynthesis comes from water.
Mechanism of photosynthesis
The process of photosynthesis involves two main steps.
1. Light dependant reaction / light reaction
2. Light independent reaction / Dark reaction.
1. Light Dependant Reaction / Light Reaction
 This is light dependant reaction occurs only in the presence of light.

Site of occurance
 Light reaction takes place in thyalkaid membrane of grana inside chloroplast
because thyalkoid membrane of the grana contains photosystems.
PHOTOSYSTEM
 Photosystem are organized clusters of photosynthetic pigments.

 There are two types of photosystems
i) Photosystem I ii) Photosystem II
 They are named I and II on the basis of order of discovery.
 Each photosystem consists of several hundred pigments molecules including,
Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoids and electron acceptor and electron
carriers.
 The photosystem I absorbs light of 700 nm, so called P700 the Photosystem II
absorbs light of 680 nm, so called P 680.
Components of Photosystem
 Each photosystem consists of two portion i.e. an Antenna complex and Reaction
center.
The Antenna complex

 It consists of many molecules of chlorophyll ‘’b’’ and Carotenoids, they absorb
light energy at different wavelength and transfer it to reaction center.
The Reaction Center

 It consists of one or more chlorophyll “a” molecules along with primary electron
acceptor and electron carriers.
 The primary electron acceptor traps electrons from the reaction center transport
them through a series of electron carriers.
 There are two possible pathways for electron transport in light reaction.
 Non – cyclic electron transport / Z – scheme
 Cyclic electron transport
Non – Cyclic Electron Transport / Z scheme

 The non–cyclic electron transport chain involves the following steps.
 When sunlight falls on photosystem II (P 680) it absorb energy, due to which
chlorophyll molecules become excited and release its two high energetic
electrons, the chlorophyll molecules is oxidized having deficiency of two
electrons.
 This deficiency of electron in chlorophyll molecule of photosystem II is fulfilled
by electrons released from breakdown of water (photolysis) inside chloroplast.
 
4 H 2O  4 H   4(0 H )  2 e

4(O H )  2 H 2O  O2
 The high energetic electron released from photosystem II are accepted by primary
electron acceptor called plastoquinone (P Q)
 From plastoquinone the electron move through a series of electron carrier
molecules called electron, transport chain i.e. from plastoquinone to cytochrome
“b” then to cytochrome “f” then to plastocynin (pc).
 Each electron carrier is alternately reduced when it gains electron and oxidized
when it release electrons.
 Each electrons carrier is at low energy state tan the previous one, because when
electron pass from one carrier to other, some of its energy is lost.
 The energy lost between cytochrome “b” and cytochrome “f” is utilized in
formation of ATP from ADP and iP.
 This process is called photophasphorelation because energy for adding iP to
ADP comes from sunlight.
 From plastocynine electron are passed to photosystem I, which has already
released two electrons when sunlight fall on its chlorophyll molecules.
 The high energetic electrons released from photosystem I (P 700) are accepted by
ferridoxin reducing substance (FRS)
 From FRS electrons are passed to NADP, which is reduced to NADPH 2 the
overall equation for non – cyclic electron transport chain is:
 1
H 2O  NADP   ADP  2 Pi O2  NADPH 2  ATP
Chlorophyll 2
 This ATP and NADPH2 (Assimilatory product) formed during light reaction is
used to reduced the CO2 into carbohydrates in Dark reaction.
Cyclic electron Transport
 Unlike non cyclic electron transport, the cyclic electron transport involves only
one photosystem i.e. P700.
 In cyclic electron transport the electrons released from photosystem I (P700),
after passing through a series of electron carriers fall back into photosystem I
(P700).
 Cyclic electron transport involves the following steps.
 When light falls on (P 700), its chlorophyll molecules become excited, and
released two energetic electrons.
 The chlorophyll molecule of P 700
is oxidized leaving the deficiency of
two electrons.
 The electron released from
photosystem I (P 700) is accepted by
FRS (electron acceptor).
 The electrons from FRS are then
passed through a series of electron
carriers i.e. fall from FRS to
cytochrome b, then to cytochrome “f” and then plastocynine and finally fall back
to photosystem I (P 700)
 In cyclic electron transport only ATP molecule are formed and no NADPH 2 is
formed
 The ATP formed is called cyclic photophasphorelation.
Light independent (Dark) Reaction

 Light independent reaction does not need sunlight, it occurs in day light as well as
in dark.
 It is also called Melvin Calvin cycle, because it was discovered by Melvin Calvin
in 1950, and it involves series of reactions, that occur in cycle.
 It is also called C3 pathway, because the 1st stable compound formed during the
dark reaction is three carbon compounds, (i.e phosphoglyceric acid)
Site of occurance
 Dark reaction occur in stoma region of chloroplast
 The Calvin cycle completes in three stages.
 Carbon fixation (ii) Reduction (iii) Regeneration of RUBP.
Carbon fixation
 When “C” of CO2 becomes part of organic molecule this is called carbon fixation.
 In this step CO2 react with ribulosebiphesphate (5 – carbon sugar) present in
stroma to form a 6 carbon unstable intermediate compound.
 This 6–carbon compound soon split up into two molecules of three carbon
compound i.e. phosphoglycerate (PGA)
 This step is catalysed by RUBISO (Ribulose and biphosphate carboxylase
oxidase) enzyme.
 Rubisco is most common protein in the world and act both as carboxylase and
oxidase, depending upon the concentration of CO2 and O2
H 2O
RUBP  CO2  6  Compound  2 PGA
(5  C sugar (unstables) 3  C Compound OR
RUBP Carboxylase
RUBP  CO 2  H 2O  2 PGA
(3  C  acid )
Reduction
 In this step phosphoglyceric acid is reduced to phosphosphoglyceraldehyde
(PGAL) by using assimilatory product NADPH2 and ATP from light reaction.
 PGAL is a three carbon sugar.
PGA  ATP  NADPH 2  PGAL  ADP  iP  NADP
3  c  acid 3  c  sugar
Regeneration of RUBP
 In this step the 5–C compounds RUBP is regenerated to accept another carbon
dioxide molecule and repeat the cycle.
 Actually 6 molecules of RUBP react with 6 CO 2 molecules to form 12 molecules
of PGA (3C) which are then reduced to 12 PGAL molecules.
 Among 12 molecules of PGAL (3C) only two molecules of PGAL are used up in
making glucose (6C sugar) while remaining 10 molecules of PGAL are arranged
and rearranged to regenerate 6 molecules of RUBP (5C).
 RUBP are regenerated through several intermediate compounds, like 3 – C, 4-C, 6
– C, 7– C etc.
 The process also uses some ATP from light reaction.
Respiration
Introduction
Respiration is an oxidation reduction reaction in which organic food (carbohydrates) is

oxidized into inorganic compounds like carbon dioxide and water and energy is released.
 “C” of organic compound is oxidized to CO2 and “O” is reduced to water and
energy stored in bonds of organic compound is released.
 The energy released is stored into ATP molecules, which are used by living
organisms for various metabolic functions.
 “H” removed in this process is accepted by hydrogen acceptor NAD
(Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) but final hydrogen acceptor in aerobic
respiration is oxygen, resulting in formation of water.
Respiration occur all the time in each and every living cells, of the living organism
there are two types of respiration.
i). Aerobic respiration ii) Anaerobic respiration
Aerobic Respiration
 Aerobic respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen.
 In aerobic respiration Glucose (organic molecule) is completely break down into
CO2 and H2O and large amount of energy is produced which is stored in the form
of ATP.
 Aerobic respiration completes in three steps
a). Glycolysis b) Krebs cycle c) Electron transport chain (ETC)
Glycolysis: Glycol = glucose, lysis splitting

 Glycolysis is 1st step of respiration in which single glucose molecule is broken
down into two molecule of pyruvic acid (3c).
 Glycolysis is common both in aerobic and anaerobic respiration, because it does

not need oxygen.
Site of occurance
 Glycolysis occur in cytosole region of cytoplasm

 Glycolysis completes in two phases.
i) Preparatory phase ii) Oxidative phase
Preparatory phase
 In this step glucose is Phosphorelated by use of two ATP molecules. It involves

the following reaction.
 Glucose react with ATP to form glucose 6–phosphate and ADP
 Glucose 6–phosphate isomerizes into fructose 6 – phosphate
 Fructose 6–phosphate reacts with another ATP to form fructose 1, 6 bi-phosphate
and ADP.
 The fructose 1,6 biphosphate is then split into 3 carbon phasphoglyceraldehyde
(PGAL) and dihydroxy acetone phosphate (DAP), both are isomers and
interconvertible.
 Dihydroxy acetone (DAP), changes to phosphoglyceraldehyde (PAGA).
Glucose + ATP Glucose 6 – phosphate+ ADP
Glucose 6-phosphate Fructose 6 – phosphate
Fructose 6-phosphate Fructose 1, 6-biphosphate
Fructose 1,6-biphosphate PGAL+ DAP
Oxidative Phase
It involves the following reactions, each one of which occurs twice
because two PGAL (phosphoglyeraldehyde) are formed at the end of Preparatory
phase.
 Phosphoglyceralolehyde (PGAL) is oxidized to 1,3- biphosphoglyceric acid in the
presence of NAD and inorganic phosphate (ip).
 NAD is reduced to NADH2
 The phosphate group comes from phosphoric acid already present in cytoplasm.
 1, 3 biphosphoglyceric acid is dephosphorelated into 3 PGA. The released
phosphate group is accepted by ADP to form ATP.
 3 PGA is mutated (changed) into 2 PGA.
 2 PGA is converted into phsphoenol pyruvic acid by removal of water molecule.
 Phasphoenol pyruvate is then dephosphorelated to form pyruvic acid, the released

phosphate group is accepted by ADP to form ATP.
2  (3PGAL)2( NAD )  2(iP)  2  (1,3 BiP GA)  2( NADH 2 )

2  (1,3 PGA)  ADP  2  (3 PGA)  2( ATP)
2  (3 PGA)  2  (2 PGA)
2  (2 PGA)  Phosphoenolpyruvic acid  2 H 2O 2  ( PEP )
2  ( PEP )  2( ADP )  2  ( Pyrovic acid )  2 ( ATP )
“Over all reaction of Glycolysis”

Glu cos e  2 ATP  2( Pyruvic acid )  2 NADH 2  4( ATB )
 But 2ATPs are consumed in preparatory phase therefore, Net 2 ATPs are
produced.
 The formation of ATP in glycolysis is called substrate level phosporelation,
because phosphate group (high energy bond) is directly transferred by substrate to
ADP.
Conversion of pyruvic acid to Acetyl CO-A or Link Reaction
 The pyruvic acid and product of glycolysis enter into mitochondria, but does not
start Krebs cycle directly.
 The pyruvic acid undergoes oxidative decarbooxylation releasing one CO2
molecule and two hydrogen (2H).
 The pyruvic acid is converted into 2 carbon acetyl group.
 The acetyl group combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl Co A which enters
Krebs cycle.
 The released hydrogen are accepted by NAD and reduced to NADH2
Pyruvic acid Acetyl group + CO2 + 2H
Acetyl group + CO A Acetyl Co A
NAD + 2 H NAD H2
Krebs cycle / citric acid cycle / Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA)

 In this step acetyl Co A is completely oxidized into two molecules of Co 2 and the
hydrogen atoms, which reduce NAD and FAD to NADH2 and FADH2
respectively.
Krebs cycle involves the following reactions.
 Acetyl Co-A react with oxaloacetic acid (4 - C) in the presence of a water

molecule to form citric acid (6- C). Co A becomes free to react with next acetyl
group.
 Citric acid is converted into isocitric acid which is isomer of citric acid.
 Isocitric acid undergoes oxidative decarboxyation i.e. release one Co 2 molecule
and two hydrogen atoms.
 Isocitric is converted into α–Ketogluteric acid (5 c) and hydrogen are taken by
NAD to reduce to NADH2
 α–Ketogluteric acid also undergoes oxidative decarboxylation, releasing second
Co2 molecule and two hydrogen atoms which are accepted by NAD and reduce to
NADH2
 α – Ketogluteric acid is converted to succinyl group (4 c) which react with Co A
to form succinyl CoA
 Succinyl co-A is converted into succinic acid (4c) in the presence of water.
 During This Step Co A is released and some energy is also released which is used
in the synthesis of GTP (Guanosine Triphosphate) which then transfer its
phosphate to ADP to produce ATP.
 Up to this step, the oxidation of acetyl group (2c) is completed and there is no
further loss f CO2 in this Krebs cycle.
 Succinic acid (4c) is oxidized into fumeric acid (4c) and the hydrogen is accepted
by FAD to reduce to FADH 2
 The fumaric acid is converted into malic acid (4c) by hydration (addition of
water)
 Malic acid is finally oxidized to oxaloacetic acid (4c) and NAD is reduced to
NADH 2
Overall reaction of Krebs cycle
2 (Acetyl group) + 2ADP + 6 NAD + 2 FAD 4CO2
NADH FADH
+ 2ATP + 6 2+ 2 2
 Respiratory electron transport chain (Etc) or Terminal oxidation:-

 This is the last step of aerobic respiration which occurs on inner membrane of
mitochondria because electron carriers are present on the inner membrane.
 In this step the reduced NADH 2 and FADH 2 produced during glycolysis and
Krebs cycle are oxidized and the electron removed passes through a series of
electron carriers called electron transport chain (ETC).
 The molecules in electron transport chain are co-enzyme “Q” and cytochrome
complex (i.e. cyto b, cyto c, cyto a and cyto a3).
 The pathway of electron transport is such that 1st electrons move from NADH 2 to
FAD , from FADH 2 to cyto “b”, from cyto “b” to cyto “c” , from cyto “c” to cyto
“a” and cyto “a” to cyto “a3”.
 The final electron acceptor is oxygen which is reduced to water.
 During transport, the coenzyme ‘Q” and cytochrome are alternately reduced
(receive e ) and oxidized (give e ).
 During transport the electron release energy which is used in synthesis of ATP
from ADP and iP.
 One ATP molecule is formed at each step when electron transfer from NADH 2 to
FAD, reduced cyto “b” to cyto “c” and cyto “a” to “a3”.
 The chain of electron transport is given below

NADH 2  FAD NAD  FADH 2

ADP  iP  ATP
FADH 2  Coenyzme Q ( oxi )  FAD  Co.enzymeQ (red )

Co.enzym Q (rad )  cyto b ( oxi ) Co.enzyme Q( oxi )  cyto b (red )

2H 

Cyto b (red )  cyto c( oxi ) cyto b( oxi )  cyto c (red ).

ATP ADP  iP
Cyto c (red )  Cyto a ( oxi )  Cyto c ( oxi )  Cyto a (red )

Cyto a (red )  Cyto a3 ( oxi ) Cyto a ( oxi )  Cyto a3 (red )

ATP ADP  iP
Ctyo a3 ( red )  2 H   1 02  cyto a3 (oxi )  H 2O
2
 Thus by oxidation of one NADH 2 three ATPs are formed and two ATP, are
formed by oxidation of FADH2, this is because the 1st step is bypassed.
Chemiosmotic synthesis of ATP

The process in which the energy stored in the form of hydrogen ion
gradient across a membrane is used to drive the synthesis of ATP is called
chemiosmotic ATP synthesis.
Explanation
 Chemiosmotic theory relates electron transport system with synthesis of ATP.
 In mitochondria there is a free space in between the outer and inner membrane
called inter membrane space.
 On the surface of inner membrane, there is a protein complex called ATP
synthases (i.e. the enzyme that makes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate).
 As the electron passes through electron carriers it pumps hydrogen ion from
mitochondrial matrix into inner membrane space.
 Thus hydrogen ions concentration is increased in inner membrane space and
hydrogen ion gradient is established across the inner membrane.
 The hydrogen ion now move down the electro-chemical gradient from inner
membrane space to matrix through ATP synthases.
 The ATP synthases powered by H – ion flow synthesis ATP from ADP and iP.
Cellular Respiration of Protein
 Inside the cell protein is first break down into amino acids.
 Amino acid is deaminated i.e. amino group (NH2) is removed from amino acid.
 The amino group is converted into Ammonia.
 The remaining molecule enters into Krebs cycle.
 The point of entry into Krebs cycle depend upon the number of carbon atoms of
remaining organic molecule i.e. weather it is 4 carbon or 5 carbon (α –
Ketogluteric acid).
Cellular Respiration of Fats

 Inside the cell fat is first break down into Glycerol and Fatty acid.
 The glycerol is converted into phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL), a three carbon
sugar.
 The PGAL enter the glycolytic pathway and oxidized into pyruvic acid.
 The fatty acid is break down into two carbon fragments acetyl group (β –
oxidation) inside mitochondria.
 The acetyl group enters into Krebs cycle.
 For Example:-
 Oleic acid is an 18 carbon fatty acid which breaks down into nine (9) acetyl group
and produces 108 ATP molecules.
Anaerobic Respiration
 Anaerobic respiration takes place in the absence of oxygen.
 In anaerobic respiration incomplete oxidation of glucose (organic molecule) occur
which release very small amount of energy.
 The anaerobic respiration is also called fermentation.
 Fermentation completes in two steps.
1). Glycolysis
2). Reduction of Pyruvate to alcohol or Lactic acid.
Types of Fermentation
Fermentation is two types:-
 i). Lactic acid Fermentation ii) Alcoholic Fermentation
Lactic acid Fermentation

 It complete in two steps.
Glycolysis
Glucose is break down into pyruvic acid
Fermentation
 The pyruvic acid is reduced by NADH2 into lactic acid.
 Only two net ATP molecules are produced.
 This anaerobic respiration is necessary or rapid production of ATP (energy) when
demanded.
 Lactic acid fermentation occurs in muscle cells of human and in many
microorganisms.
Glucose + 2ATP 2Pyruvic acid + 4 ATP + 2NADH2
2Pyruvic acid Lactic acid
2NADH 2NAD
Alcoholic Fermentation
 It also completes in two steps.
Glycolysis
 Glucose is break down into two pyuvic acid.
Fermention
 In this step first pyruvic acid is decarboxylated to form acetaldehyde and then
acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH2 to form ethylalcohol.
 It also yield only two ATP molecules.
 Alcoholic fermentation occurs in plant and many microorganism like bacteria,
yeast etc.
 C6 H12 O6 + 2ATP 2C3 H4 O3 + 4 ATP + 2 NADH2
2C3 H4 O3 2(C2 H4 O) 2(C2 H3 OH)
(Pyuvic acid) 2co2 acetldehyde
Photorespiration
Photorespiration is a process in which ribulosbiphosphate (RUBP) combine with

oxygen (O2) instead of carbon dioxide in the presence of sunlight.
 The light (photon) is used and Co2 (respiration) is evolved, therefore called
photorespiration.
 Photorespiration occur in three cellular organelles i.e. chloroplast, peroxisome and
mitochondria.
 Photorespiration occurs in C3 plants.
 No ATP and sugar is formed in photorespiration.
Mechanism of Photorespiration
 In dry and hot conditions plant close their stomata to stop loss of water.
 Due to closing of Stomata Co2 cannot enter inside leaf and already present Co2 is
consumed in photosynthesis, oxygen evolved also cannot come out due to closing
of stoma.
 Thus Co2 concentration is decrease and oxygen concentration is increased inside
the leaf cells.
 In such a condition Rubisco (ribulose biphosphate carboxylase/ oxygenase)

enzymes act as oxygenase and combine oxygen with RUBP instead of Co2 to form
glycolate (2C) inside stroma of chloroplast.
RUBP + O2 Rubisco glycolate (Stroma of Chloroplast)

Oxygenase (2C)
 Glycolate is converted into simple amino acid glycine inside peroxisome

 Glycolate Glycine (peroxisome)
 Glycine is converted into amino acid serine and a molecule of Co 2 inside
mitochondria.
 Glycine Serine + Co2 (mitochondria)
Disadvantage of Photorespiration
 Photorespiration reduces the dry mass of the plant because most of the Co 2 is not
fixed into carbohydrates.
 Instead of producing ATP, energy is consumed in the process.
C4 Photosynthesis
 In C4 Photosynthesis the 1st stable compound produced during dark reaction of
photosynthesis is 4 carbon malate or malic acid therefore called C4 pathway or
Hatch slack pathway.
C4 Plants
 C4 plants do not undergoes photo respiration in dry and hot conditions.
 They follow C4 pathway (C4 photosynthesis) in dry and hot condition.
 They have special leaf anatomy called kranz leaf anatomy in which vascular
bundle are surrounded by tightly packed bundle sheath cell.
 Both mesophyll and bundle sheath cells have chloroplast.
 Mesophyll cell have PEP (Phosphoenol Pryuvate) as Co2 acceptor and PEPCO
enzyme (Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase)
 The Pepco combine Co2 to PEP even when Co2 is lower than oxygen.
 Bundle sheath cells have RUBP (biphosphate) as Co 2 acceptor and RUBISCO
(Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase) enzyme which combine Co 2 to
RUBP only when Co2 concentration is high, therefore follow normal C3 pathway.
Mechanism of C4 Photosynthesis
 It involves the following step.

 In Mesophyll cell Co2 react with PEP in the presence of enzyme Pepco to form
oxaloacetic acid (4C) which is unstable and soon converted (reduced) to stable
malic acid (4c).
 Co2 + PEP Pepco Oxalo-acetic acid Malic acid

(4c) (4c)
 The malic acid is transported to bundle stealth cell through plasmodesmata.The

malic acid is decarboxylated inside bundle sheath cell, producing Co2 and pyruvic
acid.
 The Co2 is accepted by RUBP and fixed into PGA (3C) by RUBISCO enzyme.
(C3 pathway). While pyruvic acid is transported to mesophyll cell and converted
to phosphoendpyruvate PEP) to repeat the cycle.
Malic acid Pyruvic acid

Co2 (3c)
Significance of C4 Photosynthesis
 C4 photosynthesis is an alternate pathway of photosynthesis for C 4 plants to avoid
photo respiration in hot and dry weather.
 C4 photosynthesis enable C4 plants to follow both C3 and C4 pathway, because
decarboxylation of malate in bundle sheath cell keep Co2 concentration high and
allow RUBISCO to work as carboxylase and fix Co2 into PGA by C3 pathway.
 The rate of photosynthesis remains high even when stomata are closed in high
temperature.
Kranz leaf anatomy (C4 Plant leaf)

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CHAPTER # 04 86 BIOENERGETICS

9. The O2 evolved during photosynthesis come from

11. The most common respiratory substrate is

19. Substrate level phosphorelation take place in____ phase of respiration

22. The number of

25. How many

citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle).

26. One of the following reaction does not occur in mitochondria

27. The 1st product of “C” fixation in

a. Glycolic acid b. malic acid

28. Chloroplast of bundle sheath cells in

a. Grana b. stroma c. thyalkoids d. all of them

Q:-1.What is the difference between action spectrum and absorption spectrum?

Answer: Absorption spectrum:

The absorption spectrum of carotenoids is 430nm-470nm of visible spectrum

The absorption spectrum of a pigment solution can be determined by spectrophotometer.

The measurement of effectiveness of light of various wavelengths in driving the process

Absorbed Energy Organic food + Heat Energy

Q:-2. Describe the role of carotenoides in photosynthesis?

Q:-3. What is the difference between C 3 and C 4 plants?

In mesophyll cell RUBISCO enzyme In mesophyll cell PEPCO enzyme act

Non-Cyclic Pathway Cyclic Pathway

ATP and NADPH2 both are produced Only ATP is produced

Q: -5. What is Glycolysis?

Answer: Glyco means Glucose and Lysis means splitting

Gylcolysis is first step of respiration

Glucose + 2ATP +2 NADP.→ 2 pyruvic acid + 4ATP + 2NADPH2

Q:-6. What do you mean by chemiosmosis?

Chemiosmotic synthesis of ATP

Q: -7. What is the significance of C 4 photosynthesis?

ROLE OF SUN LIGHT IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS

 Sunlight is the ultimate source of energy for all living organisms.

Function of Light in Photosynthesis

Excitation of photosystem II and Photosystem I

 Outermost covering (envelop)

Broaden the absorption spectrum

Difference between chlorophyll “a” and “b”

 This oxygen is then used by all living organisms for respiration.

Experiments to prove that oxygen evolved comes from carbon dioxide

1. Light Dependant Reaction / Light Reaction

 This is light dependant reaction occurs only in the presence of light.

 Photosystem are organized clusters of photosynthetic pigments.

The Antenna complex

The Reaction Center

Non – Cyclic Electron Transport / Z scheme

Cyclic electron Transport

Light independent (Dark) Reaction

Respiration is an oxidation reduction reaction in which organic food (carbohydrates) is

i). Aerobic respiration ii) Anaerobic respiration

a). Glycolysis b) Krebs cycle c) Electron transport chain (ETC)

Glycolysis: Glycol = glucose, lysis splitting

 Glycolysis is common both in aerobic and anaerobic respiration, because it does

 Glycolysis occur in cytosole region of cytoplasm

 In this step glucose is Phosphorelated by use of two ATP molecules. It involves

Fructose 1,6-biphosphate PGAL+ DAP

 Phasphoenol pyruvate is then dephosphorelated to form pyruvic acid, the released

2  (3PGAL)2( NAD )  2(iP)  2  (1,3 BiP GA)  2( NADH 2 )

“Over all reaction of Glycolysis”

Conversion of pyruvic acid to Acetyl CO-A or Link Reaction

Krebs cycle / citric acid cycle / Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA)

Krebs cycle involves the following reactions.

 Acetyl Co-A react with oxaloacetic acid (4 - C) in the presence of a water

 Respiratory electron transport chain (Etc) or Terminal oxidation:-