REVISION GUIDE TO CARIBBEAN STUDIES

The Effects of Soil Erosion and Conservation on Caribbean Society

and Culture
The hilly and remote terrain in the interior of Caribbean countries
can limit settlement. This is because these areas are harder and more
expensive to clear. The thin soils are also not favourable to the expansion
of farming here and this has historically made the flatter areas more
useful, as thicker soils have formed around river valleys as alluvial
deposits.
Alluvial deposits occur during a flood in a river valley when more
water arrives than can be drained, so the river breaches its banks. Soil,
pebbles and boulders are deposited in the channel and can cause
displaced water to break river levees and flood the adjacent area. Eroded
soil carried by the river spreads fresh sand and silt onto the flood plain,
increasing soil fertility and making these areas prime sites for farming and
settlements close by.

Figure 8.7 In Haiti, deforestation for fuelwood, farming and wood craft
has led to soil erosion on a large scale, resulting in some abandoned areas.
However, some tree planting has started in small areas

The loss of small amounts of topsoil is to be expected, but when large

amounts of soil are washed away this can reduce crop yields and make
agriculture less sustainable. When the local supply of food crops is
reduced, there is less or none to export and so foreign exchange earnings
Key Term
will decline. Sometimes, to satisfy the local demand for agricultural oasta
Coral reef - corals are products, expensive substitutes must be imported and this can create a
e reef in
animals made of numerous trade imbalance.
forces
tiny individuals called
coral polyps. Hard corals oastline.
inhabit shallow seawater ring sto
and the polyps secrete e reef me
calcium carbonate to Coral Reefs p speed
create exoskeletons, ing gro
forming coral reefs. They A coral reef is a large underwater strip, or atoll, made from the skeletons In Barba
are at risk from coastal of marine animals called polyps. There are hard and soft corals and oastlines i
development,overfishing colonies of these inhabit shallow water along rocky coasts in the tropical Iders al
and nutrients from sewage latitudes. Coral atolls exist offshore and are circular reefs enclosing a ch attra
and agricultural fertiliser. lagoon, as in The Bahamas. As sea levels were lower in the past, some
 GEOGRAPHICAL PHENOMENA

lciety reefs, such as the Belize Barrier Reef, are now far offshore and have
created large lagoons for fishing and the collection of seafood, including
lobster. Most reefs are fringing reefs, which grow close, and are often
e attached, to the shore and enclose a small lagoon. Coral polyps need
nsion sunlight, few nutrients and saline seawater to grow well, so are not found
near large rivers or in polluted water.
The coral reefs absorb wave energy and, as a result, pieces may break
off. This rubble is deposited on the shore, creating white sandy beaches
e (volcanic islands have black sand). This sheltered coastline can create
oil, wetland ecosystems and mangrove swamps, which are a breeding ground
for juvenile fish. The crevices in the reef and the reef itself are home
roded and food for a very rich marine ecosystem and the ecology is studied
ain, by many scientists. Spawning corals create the basis for a food chain for
19 and fish and small reef dwellers, which can support fishing industries and
their communities. The beauty of these reefs, such as the Buccoo Reef in
Tobago, attract tourism. Leisure and tourism activities, including scuba
craft
diving, photography, snorkelling and boating, create foreign exchange
Iareas.
flows into a country.

Figure S.S A coral reef food web

I Consumers
Sea
Turtles

~ __ s_n_a_il_s II~ S_q_U_id_

Parrotfish Worms

Sea Sea
Zooplankton Crabs
cucumber urchins

This represents a large number of complex relationships that are

Ilarge not well understood. The fine balance of these is threatened by coastal
nake development, which increases fishing and adds alien nutrients from
agricultural runoff (fertilisers) and sewage.
irnings
II Coastal Protection
ue a The reef front faces the incoming waves and this shallowing of the sea
bed forces the waves to break and slow down before they reach the
coastline: When destructive waves and storm surges reach the coral reef
during storms, the reef acts as a buffer for the shore. Some damage to
the reef may occur and, since corals grow slowly, transplantation can
help speed up the regeneration process. To protect beaches that are turtle
nesting grounds, some governments have constructed artificial reefs.
-letons In Barbados artificial structures using tetrapods are used to protect
:l coastlines at a marina in Port St Charles. These are less reflective than
'opical boulders and reduce backwash erosion. Reefs are made using reef balls,
~a which attract coral and fish.
orne
 REVISION GUIDE TO CARIBBEAN STUDIES

Sustainability of the Fishing Industry

Quick Fact
Fishing villages rely on the sea to support their livelihood. Often, inside
Scientific research the calm lagoon is an ideal fish-landing harbour. Fish and seafood,
has indicated that the including lobster, crab and conch, can be supplied for export, but
properties of some marine
controls on numbers taken (known as quotas) ensure sustainable fish
organisms can be usefully
stocxs exist lOT the iuture. Governments can pass iegistauon to protect
applied to medicine. Some
medicinal value has been certain species from extinction, such as the sea urchin, by establishing a
found in the chemical closed season for fishing them. They can also ban dynamite and cyanide
repellents excreted by fishing, both of which are indiscriminate in their impact, and the mining
marine dwellers of coral of coral for construction materials or as souvenirs for the tourist trade.
reefs. This has had some success, but poaching is still a problem in some
countries. Protected areas, or marine parks, prohibit fishing and pollution,
and allow the ecosystem to thrive.

Threats to and Preservation of Coastal Habitats

The threats to coastal habitats are numerous because these areas are in
high demand as marinas, ports, houses and hotels:
• Coastal development can destroy habitats by draining wetlands and
causing soil erosion and siltation of the sea, which blocks sunlight
from the corals.
• Cruise ships and watersports can pollute the sea with oil and can
damage corals. Anchors, anchor chains and divers walking on and
touching the reef can damage the polyps.
• Toxic chemicals from industries near the coast leave some coastlines
barren.
• The overuse of agricultural pesticides and fertilisers, along with
improper sewage disposal in the sea, can cause the groWth of algae
over the reef.
• Global warming has been linked to higher sea temperatures and
QuiCk Fact
may cause widespread coral bleaching to occur as polyps die, which
Algae growth blocks out restricts its growth.
the sunlight necessaryfor • Ocean acidification, where the pH of the ocean interferes with a
much marine life.This is shellfish's shell formation, has been linked to CO2 emissions and
called eutrophication.
localised pollution. Using solar and wind energy for heating water
and electricity generation, rather than using fossil fuels, has been
encouraged by governments as a way to reduce carbon emissions.

Islanders have a special tie to the sea even though today its primary
QuiCk Fact
use in many areas has changed from being a natural resource, used
The Barbados SeaTurtle mainly as a fishing ground, to a tourist attraction. Local organisations
Project has a hotline to have formed links with large hotels to protect the habitats of turtles
monitor hatching beaches. and fish. Unspoilt beaches are prized by tourists the world over and
Hotel staff.visitors and every winter tourists arrive, mainly from Europe and North America, to
locals can call and get sunbathe and pursue leisure activities. Preserving the sea, the coral reefs
advice about turtles.
and the fishing communities is important as these have become features
of the Caribbean's culture and natural beauty known worldwide.
 it

GEOGRAPHICAL PHENOMENA

Droughts arid Floods Key Terms

n, inside
od, Drought - a climatic
Jut Some experts believe that an EI Nino event in the second half of the year condition where insufficient
Ie fish brings unpredictable weather patterns, including droughts and floods. rainfall occurs over an
protect extended period. This
olishing a
Drought causes a drying up of water
supplies and affects people.
:i cyanide A drought is a period when there is insufficient rainfall to sustain plant
towns. agriculture. livestock
ie mining growth. In turn, crop yields decline and there may be a shortage of
and industry.
trade. planting materials, including seedlings or cuttings for grafting. The
Flood - these occur when
)me reduced harvest may lead to food shortages. Droughts can also be a
heavy and continuous
j pollution, problem for the leisure and tourism sector, which consumes a large
rainfall overwhelms the soil
amount of water for maintaining golf courses, swimming pools and other
or river systems. Water
uses. Dry conditions can create the danger of bush fires, which may
builds up in places where
threaten people's lives and property. Additionally, the shortage of water it is normally dry. which
as are in makes fires harder to extinguish. affects homes. crops and
In response to droughts, governments may have to borrow money or businesses. Storm surges
nds and divert capital from other sectors. With reduced water supplies, farmers can result in floods in
.mlight may have to limit the number of animals kept on farms and water coastal areas and river
companies may have to spend more money on creating new or additional valleys.
d can supplies; for example, desalination plants run on solar energy (in 2013
on and lonics began using a solar grid to power desalination of brackish water
in Barbados). The government can help by introducing water usage
toastlines restrictions and creating tax incentives for people to install more water
tanks. In Jamaica and Barbados, it has been known for the water supply
ith to households to be restricted to certain days and at certain times, and
pi algae water trucks are sent to the affected areas so everyone must share the
available water. Individuals can reduce water wastage by reporting any
and burst water mains and generally using water responsibly.
e, which
Floods
I ith a A flood happens when water is unable to permeate the soil or rises
and above its surface, resulting in overflowing river valleys with blocked
, water roads and flooded buildings. They are usually the result of heavy or
been persistent rainfall. Normally, residents are warned to expect flooding
sions. along a whole river system during a storm, but sometimes heavy showers
can create floods in a relatively small area, called localised flooding.
primary
The Intertropical Convergence Zone (lTCZ), roughly situated along the
sed
equator, is a boundary zone between the north-east trade winds and
ations
the south-east trade winds. The ITCZ can experience heavy downpours
les
lasting days and this may be beyond the capacity of the drainage systems.
'and
In Guyana, where some coastal areas are below sea level, flooding is
erica, to
possible during periods of instability at the ITCZ.
oral reefs
A flash flood can happen rapidly when the drainage system is blocked.
! features
This may occur because of illegal dumping in gullies or rivers. Areas with
e.
clay soils (where water does not permeate easily) and steep slopes (where
saturated soil makes it prone to landslides that can endanger lives and
property) should be avoided for settlements. Land use on these slopes
should also maintain the vegetation cover, to aid slope stability. Rural
 GEOGRAPHICAL PHENOMENA

Droughts and Floods Key Terms

e
Drought - a climatic
Some experts believe that an EI Nino event in the second half of the year condition where insufficient
brings unpredictable weather patterns, including droughts and floods. rainfall occurs over an
extended period. This
,a
Drought causes a drying up of water
A drought is a period when there is insufficient rainfall to sustain plant supplies and affects people,
de
towns, agriculture, livestock
ng growth. In turn, crop yields decline and there may be a shortage of
and industry.
planting materials, including seedlings or cuttings for grafting. The
reduced harvest may lead to food shortages. Droughts can also be a Flood - these occur when
heavy and continuous
ion, problem for the leisure and tourism sector, which consumes a large
rainfall overwhelms the soil
amount of water for maintaining golf courses, swimming pools and other
or river systems. Water
uses. Dry conditions can create the danger of bush fires, which may
builds up in places where
threaten people's lives and property. Additionally, the shortage of water it is normally dry, which
makes fires harder to extinguish. affects homes, crops and
In response to droughts, governments may have to borrow money or businesses. Storm surges
d divert capital from other sectors. With reduced water supplies, farmers can result in floods in
may have to limit the number of animals kept on farms and water • coastal areas and river
companies may have to spend more money on creating new or additional .valleys.
supplies; for example, desalination plants run on solar energy (in 2013
lonics began using a solar grid to power desalination of brackish water
in Barbados). The government can help by introducing water usage
es restrictions and creating tax incentives for people to install more water
tanks. In Jamaica and Barbados, it has been known for the water supply
to households to be restricted to certain days and at certain times, and
e water trucks are sent to the affected areas so everyone must share the
available water. Individuals can reduce water wastage by reporting any
burst water mains and generally using water responsibly.
ch
Floods
A flood happens when water is unable to permeate the soil or rises
above its surface, resulting in overflowing river valleys with blocked
roads and flooded buildings. They are usually the result of heavy or
persistent rainfall. Normally, residents are warned to expect flooding
along a whole river system during a storm, but sometimes heavy showers
can create floods in a relatively small area, called localised flooding.
The Intertropical Convergence Zone (lTCZ), roughly situated along the
equator, is a boundary zone between the north-east trade winds and
the south-east trade winds. The ITCZ can experience heavy downpours
lasting days and this may be beyond the capacity of the drainage systems.
In Guyana, where some coastal areas are below sea level, flooding is
:l
possible during periods of instability at the ITCZ.
efs
A flash flood can happen rapidly when the drainage system is blocked.
es
This may occur because of illegal dumping in gullies or rivers. Areas with
clay soils (where water does not permeate easily) and steep slopes (where
saturated soil makes it prone to landslides that can endanger lives and
property) should be avoided for settlements. Land use on these slopes
should also maintain the vegetation cover, to aid slope stability. Rural
 REVISION GUIDE TO CARIBBEAN
Did You Know!
In August 20 I S.Tropical
Storm Erika hit Dominica.
especially the town of
Petite-Savanna,on the
south-east coast.Thirteen
inches of rainfall caused
rivers to overflow. and then
flooding. The saturated
hillside soils. plus rocks
and vegetation. all moved
downhill. causing mudslides
and landslides.Thirty-four
residents lost their lives and
271 homes were destroyed.
STUDIES
areas, often with steep slopes, form the source of rivers and these areas
are increasingly being cleared for use by agriculture and settlements.
These forested areas, along with coastal wetlands, soak up a lot of water
and their destruction increases the likelihood of flooding. In paved urban
areas, especially, flooding can occur when storm drains are blocked by
littering or are unable to cope with the volume of water. A tsunami can
cause devastating flooding in coastal regions if an earthquake or volcanic
eruption occurs offshore.
Social and Economic Impacts of Drought and Flooding
Droughts and floods can both cause major disruptions to local
communities. Agriculture employs many people, and creates food and
raw materials for secondary industries. However, a scarcity of water will
reduce the cultivable area, which can cause a reduction in agricultural
workers needed to plant and harvest crops as well as having a detrimental
effect on the income of farmers. Expensive irrigation may be necessary:
water tankers can be used, but this is only a temporary measure; the
construction of water tanks to collect rainwater is a longer-term solution.
Droughts can have social and health effects, such as poor sanitation,
malnutrition and food contamination.
Drought can occur over a number of years due to dry weather patterns.
On the leeward side of coastal mountains, in the rain shadow, the effects
may be more pronounced. Islands where large areas of limestone are
found, such as Jamaica and Barbados, tend to have arid areas here. A
lack of rivers and underground water may result in the spread of scrub
vegetation in these areas and make them unsuitable to man)' forms of
agriculture.
Figure 8.9 Effects of tropical Storm Erika
 GEOGRAPHICAL PHENOMENA

People can be swept away and drowned by floodwater. Buildings,

furniture and businesses can be ruined. Closure of businesses results
in a loss of revenue and lower economic activity overall. Vehicles are
damaged; bridges and roads are destroyed; and crops can be lost. Towns
may need to be relocated by government, especially squatter settlements.
Flooding also carries health issues. Drinking water can become
contaminated, which is especially a threat to vulnerable people
because it carries illnesses such as dysentery, and diseases such as those
transmitted by mosquitoes can easily spread in areas of dirty or stagnant
water.

Did You Knowt Quick Facts

During the Zika outbreak in 20 IS, people were encouraged to be tested in Mosquitoes lay their eggs
order to pinpoint where the outbreak was occurring. In response, stagnant on or around still water, for
water was sprayed with oil in order to kill mosquito larvae and a pesticide example, ponds, puddles
fog was sprayed to eradicate adult mosquitoes. Residents were advised to and water butts. The large
use insect repellents, especially pregnant women because of the suspected number of diseases they
association of the Zika virus with serious birth defects. transmit, such as Dengue
Fever,Yellow Fever and
To combat the effects of flooding, trees are planted, surfaces made Chikungunya and Zika
more permeable, and the installation of concrete or solid paving viruses, makes them the
floors is avoided as these tend to need drains. Any drains need to be deadliest creature in the
cleaned regularly, especially before a storm, and the public needs to be world.
educated on anti-littering through signs in public areas and the media.
People also need to be educated on the dangers of illegal dumping
and of squatting, which tends to occur in vulnerable areas, and on
how to reduce mosquito breeding and protect themselves from being
..
bitten. Residents need to be warned in advance of flood threats through
bulletins and know where there is an emergency shelter to which they
can evacuate. Vulnerable settlements may need to be relocated and this
can be costly to governments. Other, more costly, prevention measures
are: installation of underground cables for utilities and improvements to
buildings, for instance by using stilts or raising the ground level. Taking
out flood insurance can facilitate the recovery process. Fostering a strong
community spirit can help people get support and safety from their
neighbours.