ELECTRONIC DOCUMENT PREPARATION AND

MANAGEMENT NOTES FOR CXC EXAM

WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
 An electronic machine or device that accepts and processes data to produce
information.
 An electronic device that can accept data and instructions, process data into
information which m ay be output or stored for later use.

Data – is a collection of unprocessed items which can include text, numbers, images, audio and
video.  Data is also referred to as unprocessed facts and figures.

Information – is data that has been processed and is useful to people; data that has been
organized in some way to make it more useful/meaningful to the user.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS
1. Supercomputers
2. Mainframe
3. Minicomputer
4. Microcomputers eg. laptop, desktop, tablet, palmtop

SUPER COMPUTERS
These are the fastest, most powerful computers ever designed. Additionally, they have the
capacity to perform scientific simulations; analysis of geological data, nuclear energy research
and meteorology and structural analysis, just to name a few. They can handle thousands of
connected users. They also store an exceptionally large amount of data, instructions and
information.  They are used by large universities, multinational cooperations and governments.

MAINFRAME COMPUTERS
These are large and expensive machines which have at least one gigabyte of memory. The
mainframe has the ability to run both batch and online programmes. They are used by quasi
government agencies, local government agencies, banks, hospitals and commercial and
industrial users. These machines also have the capacity to handle hundreds of connected users.

MINICOMPUTERS
Minicomputers are computers that fall with the group of mid-range servers. This computer can
run the same type of applications as a mainframe, but just does not have the speed or storage
capacity. They can support several hundred and sometimes up to a few thousand connected
computers. These computers are used in medium-sized businesses.

MICROCOMPUTERS
Microcomputers are small-scale single-user computers. Also called a personal computer (PC)
and only have one processor.  These computers are used at schools, homes, small and medium-
sized businesses. Examples: (a) Desktop computers (b) Notebook computers (c) Tablet PCs
(d) Personal digital assistants (PDAs) (e) Smart phones

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER

Advantages:
 Speed – data can be processed quickly at high speeds
 Accuracy – can perform calculations more  quickly and accurately than humans
 Storage – can store large volume of data in a small amount of space
 Reliability- can work continuously and perform repetitive tasks well

Disadvantages:
 Employees may lose their jobs if a computer can do a job more efficiently and more
cheaply
 Computers can make it easy for people to misuse information.
 Productivity can stop or slow down when a computer breaks down or data become
corrupted.
 It is expensive to purchase computer equipment and to train staff to use these systems.
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  Health risks are associated with excessive or improper use of computers

COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM: A computer system consists of the following:

1. Hardware – the physical parts of the computer eg. Mouse, keyboard, system unit,
monitor
2. Software – programs or instructions that tells the computer hardware what to do
3. Procedures – instructions that tells the user how to use the computer
4. Data – unprocessed facts or figures entered into the computer
5. Users – people who use, program and maintain the computer system

MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS

A typical computer system is designed to carry out four basic functions or operations:

i. Input – data, commands or programs entered into a computer

ii. Process – taking raw data and turning it into information
iii. Output – the results of processed data
iv. Storage – area that holds data temporarily while the computer is in use

The series of operations carried out by the computer is often referred to as The Information

Processing Cycle.  The diagram below shows how the typical computer system functions:

Hardware Components of a Computer System

Any hardware component that is under the control of the CPU is called a peripheral device.
The four hardware components of a computer system are:

1. The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

2. Input Devices
3. Output Devices
4. Secondary Storage
5. System Unit

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

Also referred to as the processor, is found inside the system unit.  It is primarily responsible for
interpreting and carrying out the basic instructions that operate the computer.  

Components/Parts of the CPU:

1. The Arithmetic Logic Unit (A.L.U.)

 performs arithmetic or mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction,
division, multiplication
 performs logical and comparison operations such as greater than, less than,
equal to, true or false.

2. The Control Unit  

 coordinates and controls other parts of the computer system.
 reads a stored program, one instruction at a time
 directs other components of the computer system to perform the required tasks.

3. Main Memory/Primary Storage/Primary Memory – stores data and instructions

temporarily during processing.  

INPUT DEVICES AND THEIR USES

Input device allows users to enter data and instructions into the computer. Examples of input
devices are:
 Keyboard – To enter commands and textual data into the computer system
 Touch screen – to allow input direct from the screen
 Mouse – to position a cursor on a computer screen and to manipulate objects

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  light pen – have a built-in laser which may be used to point to items of interest
 microphone – to enter sounds into the computer system
 document scanner – to convert hard copy (printed) documents to digital format
 character readers- optical character reader (OCR), optical mark reader (OMR), - to
capture handwritten or printed text
 barcode readers – to capture the information contained in a bar code
 PC Camera(webcam) – to capture images and sound
 Digital Camera – to capture still images and sound
OUTPUT DEVICES AND THEIR USES
An output device translates information processed by the computer into a form that humans
can understand.  Output can be put into two main groups: (i) Softcopy (ii)  Hardcopy.

Softcopy – output is temporary and refers to information displayed on a screen (monitor) or in

audio or voice form through speakers.  Hardcopy – output is permanent and refers to output
printed on paper. It is tangible (touchable).

Examples of output devices are:

 Printers – to produce printed copies of documents on a range of stationery

 Monitors – to display the document being processed by the user
 speakers, headsets – to give off sound from the computer
 multimedia projector – to display an enlarged image produced by a computer system

Types of Printers: Impact and Non-Impact

Impact Printers
An impact printer makes contact with the paper. It usually forms the print image by pressing an
inked ribbon against the paper using a hammer or pins. Impact printers are noisy and
inexpensive.  Examples of impact printers: Dot-matrix, daisy wheel, line, drum, chain, band
Dot matrix and daisy wheel printers print characters per minute while line, drum, chain and
band printers usually prints lines per minute.  Dot matrix printers are used to produce output
on pre-printed forms which may be single sheets or continuous.

Non-impact printers
Non-impact printers do not use a striking device to produce characters on the paper; and
because these printers do not hammer against the paper they are much quieter. Non-impact
printers are quiet and expensive. Examples of non-impact printers are: inkjet and laser printers
Non-impact printers are page printers that print a page at a time  (faster than line printers).
Laser printers are ideally suited for printing legal and technical documents.  Laser printers are
suitable for printing newsletters and presentations on transparencies.

STORAGE MEDIA AND THEIR PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS;

Storage is the means by which a computer holds data, instructions and information available for
immediate or later use, in its memory or on a storage media.  Storage can be grouped into two
categories:
i. Primary Storage/Main Memory/Immediate Access Store (IMAS) and
ii. Secondary Storage/Auxiliary Storage

Primary Storage
 Primary storage holds data that is being processed or programs while the computer is in
use.
 Primary storage  is a group of chips which resides on the motherboard (main circuit
board) in the computer. A memory chip holds data and programs either temporarily or
permanently. Examples of primary storage are RAM (Random access memory) and ROM
(read  only memory)

Secondary Storage
 Secondary or Auxiliary Storage holds data permanently, and is therefore non-volatile, as
it retains data even when the computer is turned off.  
 Secondary storage is used for relatively long term storage of data outside the CPU.  

A storage medium (media is the plural), is the physical material on which a computer keeps
data, instructions and information.  Examples of storage media are:
 Compact Disc (CD) or CD-ROM (Read Only Memory)

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 Digital Video Disc (DVD) – used mainly for videos and data storage because of their large
capacity
 Floppy Disk -
 Hard Disk
 CD-RW  - a CD that allows data to be rewritten to it.
 Flash drives  - a thumb-sized device with a USB connector.
 Memory cards – used in devices such as cameras and smartphones
System Unit
This is the case that houses the computer internal processing circuitry, including the CPU,
connection ports for peripherals and some storage devices such as hard disk drives and DVD
drives.

SOFTWARE
Software refers to the programs or set of instructions that tells the computer hardware how to
operate.  Without software, input devices would just sit idly by, monitors would be blank and
disk drives would be empty.

TYPES OF SOFTWARE
1. Operating system software
2. Application software

Operating System Software

An operating system is a set of programs that co-ordinate the activities among computer’s
hardware devices. They contain instructions that allow the user to run application software.

Eg. Windows (XP, Vista, 2000, 7 and 8), Linux, UNIX, MacOS, Apple, BlackberryOS, DOS

Application Software
Programs that perform specific tasks for users are called application software.  Examples of
application software are word processing software, spreadsheet software, database
management software, presentation software, anti-virus software, web browsers, email.

Word processing software – used to manipulate textual data. Eg. Microsoft Word, Corel
WordPerfect, Open Office Writer
Spreadsheet software – used to store and manipulate numeric data. Eg. Microsoft Excel, Lotus
1-2-3
Database management system software – used for electronic storage and manipulation of data
in tables for easy retrieval. Eg. Microsoft Access, Open OfficeBase
Presentation software – used to deliver lectures, speeches and reports in slide form to a large
audience. Eg. Powerpoint, Open Impress, Keynote
Web browsers – used to search the web eg. Microsoft Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google
Chrome
E-Mail – used to send and receive electronic messages eg. Microsoft Outlook Express, Gmail,
Hotmail, Yahoo

Main Difference Between Operating System and Application Software

Operating system software manage system resources
Application software performs specific taks

Tasks Performed by Operating Systems and Application Programs

Operating System Application Software

Create files Play music
Manage folders Draa a flowchart
Keep documents secure Produce a document
Allocate memory to different job Send a document  via fax
Manage the CPU to ensure that jobs are Request and display web pages
processed
Provide users with an easy-to-use interface Insert a chart in a presentation

GENERAL CARE AND PHYSICAL PROTECTION OF THE COMPUTER.

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Like any other electronic equipment, computers and their peripherals need special care and
protection to prevent them from damage and for them to work properly and safely.  For
example, sticky keyboards make it difficult to type; dirty monitors make it difficult to read what
is on a screen and paper fragments in a printer may cause paper jams.

Ways to Care and Protect Computers and Peripherals

1. Keep equipment away from moisture or external heat.
2. Tidy your workstation, switch off the computer and disconnect  the electrical cord
before leaving the office
3. Use dust covers to protect the computer, monitor and printer when you are not using
the computer for long periods.
4. Never eat or drink at your computer desk.
5. Use a screen cleaner and a soft cloth to clean the monitor screen
6. Do not subject the computer to magnetic fields
7. Do not expose the computer to direct sunlight
8. Do not expose the computer to dust and dirt
9. When unplugging the power cord, do not pull on the cord itself but pull on the plug.
10. Do not spill water or any liquid on the computer
11. To prevent damage, do not move a computer while it is running.
12. Repeatedly turning the computer on and off can also cause problems, as starting up
stresses the hard disk.
13. Keep your computer area clean
14. Keep your operating system, anti-virus software, firewall and other security programs
up to date
15. Install an anti virus program to protect your computer from viruses and other threats
16. Shut down your computer and disconnect it from its power source when not in use.
17. Use a can of compressed air to blow hard to reach dust and particles out of the case.
Keep the can’s nozzle at least four inches away from the delicate components to avoid
causing damage.
18. Scan your hard drive periodically for errors and fix them.
19. Place a keyboard overlay on the keyboard to protect the keyboard from dust.
20. Dust the table surface and chair before you start to work and before you leave the
office.

Health and Safety Factors Associated with Computer Use

Ergonomics is the science of designing the job, equipment and workplace to fit the worker,
reducing fatigue, discomfort and injury.  Ergonomics can be used in the design of equipment
and also in the simple practices such as sitting correctly, using proper lighting, and resting your
eyes from time to time. Good Computer Ergonomics prevents fatigue and muscle injury and
helps keep you alert and focused

The computer and its peripherals should be used with care to avoid health and safety issues.
Workers have the responsibility to ensure the health and safety of themselves and others on
the job by practicing good work habits when using computers.  

Effects of Extended Computer Use:

The long-term use of computers has been linked to a range of potential health problems, or
"computing related disorders" (CRDs).  The health problems most highly associated with the
use of computer equipment are

1. Repetitive strain injury (RSI) – occurs when there is excessive performance of repetitive
activities such as typing, intensive use of the mouse or gaming control pad, which can
lead to swollen muscles or carpal tunnel syndrome (swollen tendons/joints)
2. Eye strain (tiredness of the eyes) and headaches
3. Joint and muscular pains – neck, back, waist and shoulder pains
4. Fatigue - focusing your eyes at the same distance point for long periods of time causes
fatigue. The human eye structurally prefers to look at objects more than six metres
away, so any work performed close up puts extra demands on your eye muscles.
Fatigue is also caused by long sitting

Eye-Strain

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This is caused by looking at a monitor which is a constant distance away. The muscles that
focus your eyes do not move, and so get tired and painful. Eye-strain can also cause headaches.

This problem can be solved:

 Look away from the monitor at regular intervals – re-focus on distant or close objects
to exercise the muscles in the eye.
 Take regular breaks.
 Use an anti-glare filter in front of the monitor to cut down on screen reflections that
can also tire the eyes.
 Roll your eyes around in one direction and then reverse slowly
 Close eyes for one minute

Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) in Wrists and Hands

Any repetitive movement (same movement over and over again) can result in a health problem
called repetitive strain injury (RSI).

In particular, typing and using a mouse for long periods are common causes of RSI in the wrist
(it is often called carpal-tunnel syndrome – pains in the wrist caused by inflammation and
swelling in the fingers).  This problem can be solved:

 Use a wrist-rest to support the wrists while typing and when using the mouse.
 Take regular breaks from typing or using the mouse.
 Adjust keyboard for user comfort
 Flex wrists back toward forearm

Effects of Inadequate Lighting and Computer Use

The most common complaints resulting from poor lighting are:
 difficulty seeing document or screen (too much light or glare, or too little light or
shadows),
 eyestrain,
 eye irritation,
 blurred vision,
 dry burning eyes, and
 headaches.
 stiff necks and aches in shoulder area

How can eye discomfort be reduced?

Monitor

 Adjust the brightness and contrast according to your preference.

 Use a light colour for the background.
 Place the monitor parallel (not directly below) with overhead lights.
 Angle the monitor away from lights and windows.
 Make sure that the task lamp illuminates the document and not the
monitor.

What can you do to reduce eye strain?

Focusing your eyes on objects at the same distance and angle for prolonged periods of time can
contribute to eye strain.
 Every few minutes look away from the screen for a few seconds.
 Look around.
 Focus your vision on distant objects.
 Blink several times.
Frequently "stretching" your eyes like this will prevent feelings of fatigue from accumulating.
Inappropriate Furniture
This will cause discomfort and strain on the muscles, especially if the furniture is not
ergonomically designed.

Effects of Bad Posture When Using Computer

1. Backache
2. Neck Ache

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 Many people suffer from back and neck pain after working at a computer for a long
time. This is usually due to them having a bad sitting posture.

This problem can be solved:

 Use an adjustable, ergonomic chair, and take the time to set it up properly.
 The computer keyboard and monitor should be at the correct height for the seated
person (keyboard lower than the elbow, top of monitor at eye level).
 Take regular breaks: get up, walk around, stretch your muscles
Preventing computer-related muscle and joint injuries
Tips to avoid muscle and joint problems include:

 Sit at an adjustable desk specially designed for use with computers.

 Have the computer monitor (screen) either at eye level or slightly lower.
 Have your keyboard at a height that lets your elbows rest comfortably at your sides.
Your forearms should be roughly parallel with the floor and level with the keyboard.
 Adjust your chair so that your feet rest flat on the floor, or use a footstool.
 Use an ergonomic chair, specially designed to help your spine hold its natural curve
while sitting.
 Use an ergonomic keyboard so that your hands and wrists are in a more natural
position.
 Take frequent short breaks and go for a walk, or do stretching exercises at your desk.
Stand often.

 Position your work so that you can be comfortable while doing it.
 Avoid postures that require extended stretching, twisting or unnatural curvature of the
spine
 Use a properly designed computer desk, with a built-in tray to hold the keyboard and
mouse
 Select a comfortable chair, with adjustable height and arm rest
 Position your monitor at approximately arm’s length away from your body, angled so
that there is no glare on the screen or purchase an anti-glare screen.
 Look away from the screen and blink your eyes every few minutes to reduce the risk of
eyestrain.
 Flex and stretch your muscles at regular intervals
 Take frequent breaks from the computer.
SAFETY ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH COMPUTER USE

You wouldn't imagine that using computers could be dangerous, but there are a few situations
that can result in accidents.
1. Trailing Cables
Computer equipment is often connected to lots of cables: power, network, etc.  If these
cables are laying on the floor, they can cause people to trip over them
Solution: Place cables inside cable ducts, or under the carpet / flooring
2. Spilt Drinks or Food
If any liquids are spilt on electrical equipment, such a s a computer, it can result in
damage to the equipment, or an electric shock to the user.
Solution: Keep drinks and food away from computers
3. Overloaded Power Sockets
Plugging too many power cables into a socket can result in the socket being
overloaded, overheating, and a fire starting.
Solution: Never plug too many cables into a socket. Always make sure there are fire
extinguishers nearby
4. Heavy Objects Falling
Many items of computer equipment are very heavy: CRT monitors, laser printers, etc.
Heavy items can cause serious injury if they fall on people.
Solution: Make sure equipment is placed on strong tables / shelves
5. Opening or Moving Computer
Do not open or move the computer when it is plugged in.
Solution:  If the computer is moved or opened, the power cable must be disconnected.
6. Position of work stations
The workstation or room should be designed to ensure the comfort and ease of the
worker.  The following suggestions will help to make work station fit for work:
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  Use adjustable working tables
 Make sure chair is adjustable and has back rest
 Adjust chair to comfortable seat height
 Use footrest for feet
 Ensure that the keyboard and mouse are at elbow height and close enough so
you can reach them without stretching forward too much, or without stretching
at all.
DOCUMENT FORMATTING AND PROOFING
The format of a document refers to the way all the elements of a document – text, pictures,
title, headers and footers – are arranged on a page.  Formatting is a process during which the
layout and appearance of elements to a document are changed.  

Types of formatting that may be applied to a document are:

 Character formatting
 Paragraph formatting
 Page formatting

Common Formatting Features

Character Paragrapgh Page

Apply text effects Apply borders and shading Apply background
Apply font effects Apply bullets and Change margin
Change font numbering sizes
colour Change alignment Insert
Change font size Change line spacing header/footer
Change font type Change text orientation Set gutter size

Proofreading
Proofreading is the process of reviewing any text, either hard copy on paper or electronic copy
on a computer, and checking for typographical and formatting errors.  It is good practice to
proofread documents after formatting and before printing documents.
FORMATTING AND EDITING TEXT
Formatting means changing the presentation and appearance of a document.  Formatting
tasks include:
 Bold
 Underline
 iitalics.
 Line spacing.
 Alignment – left, centre, right, justify
 Bullets and numbering
 margins
 Symbols
 Borders and Shading.
 Background, watermarks.
 Endnotes
 footnotes
 headers
 footers
 page numbering.
Editing means making changes to a document.  Editing tasks include:

 cut,
 copy
 paste
 move
 search
 find and replace
 add and delete,
 spelling and grammar check
 thesaurus
 font type
 type over and insert mode.
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 THE COMPUTER KEYBOARD:  KEYS WITH SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
Enter
This key is used to send the cursor to the beginning of the next line (for instance when typing text
in a word processing package). It is also used to finish a command and tell the computer to
execute the command just typed. There are usually two of these keys.
Backspace
Used to delete one character at a time to the left of the cursor. You can also click and drag to
highlight text and then press the Backspace key to delete text.
Tab
Used to set tab positions in a document. Setting tab positions allows you to move the cursor to
defined positions, for instance when typing figures in columns. Used in conjunction with the Shift
key you can jump to the previous tab position.
Shift
Changes lower case letters to upper case, and numbers to symbols. There are usually two of
these keys.

Caps Lock
Changes lower case letters to upper case (numbers are not affected). CapsLock mode is activated
by pressing the key once and is indicated by a light on the panel above the numeric keypad. Press
the key again to return to normal mode.
Esc
Short for Escape, is primarily used to cancel a command (instead of pressing Enter) or to escape
from a process which may be in an odd state.
Alt (Alternate)
Used in conjunction with other keys to enter keywords.
Ctrl (Control)
Cannot be used on its own. Used in conjunction with other keys to carry out a specific function eg
Ctrl/Alt/Del performs a system restart. There are usually two of these keys.
Num Lock
Allows the numeric keys to be used on the numeric keypad, rather than the cursor control keys.
NumLock mode is activated by pressing the key once and is indicated by a light on the panel
above the numeric keypad. Press the key again to return to normal mode. Also see the numeric
keypad.

Scroll Lock
Can control the way the cursor control keys operate in some programs. Many applications ignore
this setting. ScrollLock mode is activated by pressing the key once and is indicated by a light on
the panel above the numeric keypad. Press the key again to return to normal mode.

Delete/Del
Deletes the character to the right of the cursor position. The remaining text moves one cursor
position to the left, for each character deleted. You can also click and drag to highlight text and
then press the Delete key to delete text.

Insert/Ins
Inserts characters in a line of text. The remaining text moves one cursor position to the right for
each character inserted.

Print Screen (Prt Sc)

Prints everything displayed on the screen to an attached printer.

Home
Moves your cursor to the beginning of the current line of typed characters.

PgUp (Page Up)

Moves your cursor up one page of information.

PgDn (Page Down)

Moves your cursor down one page of information.

End
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Moves your cursor to the end of the current line of typed characters.

Home
Moves your cursor to the beginning of the current line of typed characters

KEYBOARD SHORTCUTS

The following are shortcuts used for general, editing and formatting commands:

Command Shortcut Keys Command Shortcut

Keys
All capitals Ctrl Shift A Single line spacing Ctrl 1
Bold Ctrl B 1 ½ line spacing Ctrl 5
Underline Ctrl U Double line Ctrl 2
spacing
Double Underline Ctrl Shift D Center text Ctrl E
Italics Ctrl I Justify text Ctrl J
Print Ctrl P Left align Ctrl L
Save Ctrl S or F12 (Save Right align Ctrl R
As)
New document Ctrl N New page Ctrl Enter
Open document Ctrl O Help F1
To select all the text in a Ctrl A Redo or Repeat Ctrl Y
document
Close document Ctrl W Undo Ctrl Z
Subscript Ctrl + = Superscript Ctrl Shift + =

Shortcuts for Navigation Keys

Up One Screen Page Up (PgUp)

Down One Screen Page Down (PgDn)
Beginning of Line Home
End of current Line End
Beginning of document Ctrl + Home
End of Document Ctrl + End
Beginning of Document Ctrl + Home
End of a document Ctrl + End
Previous word Ctrl + Left Arrow
Next word to right Ctrl + Right arrow
Top of next paragraph Ctrl + Down arrow
Previous paragraph Ctrl + Up arrow
Top of previous page Ctrl + PgUp
Top of next page Ctrl + PgDn
Top of window Ctrl + Alt + PgUp
Bottom of window Ctrl + Alt + PgDn
SPACING AFTER PUNCTUATION MARKS

2 spaces after a full stop, exclamation mark or question mark, colon

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1 space after a comma, semi-colon

No space before or after hyphen

One space before and after dash

CAPITALIZATION

 Always begin a sentence with a capital letter

 The first letter of a proper noun such as the name of a person or place should be
capitalized
 The first letters of personal titles are normally written in capital letters eg. Mr, Mrs, Dr,
Rev, Prime Minister

TYPES OF CAPITALS

i. Initial capitals – first letter of each word is in capitals eg.  Computer Lab
ii. Closed capitals – all the letters are in capitals without any space between each and one
space separating each word.  COMPUTER LAB
iii. Spaced capitals – all the letters are in capitals with one space between letters and three
spaces between words. Eg. C O M P U T E R   L A B

LINE SPACING
i. Single line spacing – no space between the line.  Press Enter key once
ii. Double line spacing – one clear line space between lines.  Press Enter key twice
iii. Triple line spacing – two clear line spaces between lines.  Press Enter key three times

TYPES OF HEADINGS
 Main headings
 Sub headings
 Shoulder headings
 Paragraph headings
 Side/Marginal headings
 Column headings
 Subject headings
TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS
 Blocked
 Indented
 Hanging
 Inset

COMMON MANUSCRIPT SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Stet wrong word or
Run on
Lowercase l.c. Underline
Uppercase u.c. underline
New paragraph NP, * or ⁄ ⁄
Indent
Line up (Align)
Move to the left
Start lower on page
Move up
Insert /\
Delete o π
Transpose
Initial caps ini caps
Closed caps cl. caps closed caps
Spaced caps sp. caps spaced caps
Close up clos e
Leave a space #
Move the section in the
balloon to the indicated position

Abbreviations which are always used:

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Open punctuation Closed punctuation
eg e.g.
etc etc.
ie i.e.
Messrs Messrs.
Mr Mr.
Mrs Mrs.
Ms Ms (full stop not necessary)
am a.m.
pm p.m.
Manuscript abbreviations which should be expanded:
accom accommodation
advert advertisement
a/c account
appprox approximately
appt appointment
bn been
co company
dr dear
dept department
ffly faithfully
fr from
hv have
necy necessary
ref reference
sh shall
shd should
sin/sinc sincerely
th that
w with
wl will
yr year/your
yrs yours
Days of the week (for example Mon. Tues.) and months of the year
(for example Jan. Feb.) should be expanded.

FOOTNOTES
Footnotes are used within documents to give further explanations about the text that the
writer may not necessarily want to be stated within the body of the document.  Footnotes are
located at the bottom of the page on which the reference is being made.  Reference may be
made with the use of a letter or number, or with a symbol such as an asterisk if there are just
one or two footnotes.

TEMPLATES
A template is a framework consisting of a standard layout or settings for particular documents.
A template is useful as it allows the preparation of a document to be carried out quickly.  You
can produce documents quite easily by inserting the necessary information in the already
prepared format.

TABULATION
Tabulation is the act or process of tabulating or arranging in table form.

SPREADSHEET BASICS
 Worksheet – a simple working area in a spreadsheet file consisting of a grid of lettered
columns and numbered rows.
 Workbook – a collection of related spreadsheets that are saved as one file.  A new
workbook contains three worksheets.
 Active cell – the cell at the cursor location
 Cell – a box at the intersection of a row and column that can hold one data item
 Cell reference or cell address – the coordinates of a cell , A! means the data is in column
A and row 1
 Formula – an equation that performs a calculations
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  Function – a pre-written formula eg. SUM adds a set of numbers
 Label – a descriptive name that indicates what a data is in a cell, row or column
 Oblique heading – a column heading oriented at 45 degrees.

HEADINGS USED IN TABULATIONS

 Vertical column headings
 Horizontal vertical headings
 Oblique headings

STATIONERY
Stationery refers to writing materials and office supplies including paper, pens, pencils, paper
clips and labels

PAPER, PAPER SIZES AND ENVELOPES

Types of Paper

Paper is measured in reams.  A ream contains 500 sheets.  Paper which contains 25 sheets is
called a quire.  There are five (5) basic types of paper:

 Bond paper – this is a high quality, strong and durable writing paper used for
letterheads and top copy work.
 Parchment paper – is of superior quality that is heavier than the bond paper and usually
has a special finish.  Parchment paper is characterized by a hard surface, high wet-
strength, and resistance to grease and dirt.  Parchment papers come in many colors
although dirty white or light brown shades are often used for an aged look. It is a stiff
white paper oftentimes used to print certificates or invitations to give them a more
distinguished appearance or an old-fashioned look.  It is also used for paintings.
 NCR (No carbon required) paper – is of lightweight and is produced in sets of several
sheets and is used to make copies of an original handwritten or typed document
without the use of carbon of paper.  The back of each paper is specially waxed so that
whatever is written or typed on the top sheet is transferred to the rest of the sheets in
the set.NCR sets usually have different colours and is used for lodgement, invoice
delivery, vouchers etc.
 Flimsy paper – a cheap lightweight or thin paper used to make multiple copies of a
document and set of forms.  This is sometimes called bank paper.   
 Onion skin paper – a light weight bond-type thin and semi-transparent paper that
somewhat resembles the outer skin of an onion.  It is relatively durable because it
contains a high percentage of cotton fibers.  It is used for tracing diagrams or to make
duplicate copies of documents .  May also be referred to as ‘tracing paper’.
 Carbon paper – a lightweight paper coated on one side with a dark waxy pigment placed
between two sheets of blank paper so that the bottom sheet will receive a copy of what
is typed or written on the top sheet.  It is used for making one or more copies of an
original document.

Paper Sizes

Paper is standardized in what is called International Standards Organization (ISO) sizes.  The
following are examples of paper sizes and their measurements used in businesses:

 A0 (1189mm x 841mm)
 A1 (841mm x 594mm)
 A2 (594mm x 420 mm)
 A3 (or Legal) (420mm x 297mm)
 A4 (or Letter) (297mm x 210 mm)
 A5 (210mm x 148mm)
 A6 (148mm x 105mm)
 A7 (105mm x 74mm)

A4 and A5 paper are the most commonly used paper sizes in business.

Uses of Paper

A3 small posters, legal documents, balance sheets, financial statements

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A4/Letter business letters, letterheads, manuscripts, reports, minutes, agendas, forms,
memoranda, specifications, bills of quantities, estimates, quotations, invoices

A5 short letters, short memos, invoices (small), credit notes, statements, greeting cards

A6 post cards, invitations, index cards, requisitions, petty cash vouchers, telephone
message pads, compliments slip

A7 large address labels, small index cards, post it notes

A8 small address labels, business cards

Full range of international paper sizes:

(a) A3 - 29.7 cm. x 42 cm.
(b) A4 - 21 cm. x 29.7 cm.
(c) A5 - 14.8 cm. x 21 cm.
(d) A6 - 41.3 cm. x 5.83 cm.
(e) B5 - 17.6 cm. x 25 cm.
(f) C5 - 16.2 cm. x 22.9 cm.
(g) DL - 11 cm. x 22 cm.

ORIENTATION
Refers to the position layout of the paper.  There are two types of paper orientation:
(i) Portrait – text is printed across the shorter side of paper
(ii) Landscape. – text is printed across the longer side of the paper

SELECTING APPROPRIATE STATIONERY

1. Letterhead – to send business letters to an individual or organization external to your

organization
2. Memo – to make announcements of company policy change, company events,
meetings, employee promotion etc.
3. Copy paper – to prepare documents using a fax machine, photocopier, duplicating
machines
4. Forms – to prepare and dispatch an invoice, a statement of account, internal cheque
requisition
5. Labels – to prepare address labels, business cards, folder tabs, CD labels
6. Index cards – to prepare inventory tags or recipe cards
7. Document covers (card stock) – to create a cover for a document, print business cards,
place card to be used at a function
8. Templates – to prepare pre-set documents

Types/Styles of Envelopes

 Banker –a rectangular envelope that opens along the longer side with a V-shaped flap
 Wallet – an envelope that opens along the longer side with a shorter, squarer flap
 Pocket – an envelope that opens along the shorter side with a short flap
 Window – an envelope with a transparent panel or ‘window’ that reveals the recipient’s
address printed on the paper contained within.  With this envelope, the recipients’
name and address does not need to be typed on the envelope.

Envelope Sizes

The most commonly used sizes of envelopes and their measurements are:

 B5 (176mm x 250mm)
 C3 (324mm x 458mm)
 C4 (229mm x 324mm)

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  C5 (162mm x 229mm)
 DL or C5/6 (110mm x 220mm) *DL – Dimensions Lengthwise
 C6 (114 mm x 162mm)
 C7/6 (81mm x 162mm)
 C7 (81mm x 114mm)
 C8 (57mm x 81mm)

Examples of Common uses for the different sizes of envelopes

Envelope Paper unfolded Paper folded Paper folded twice

once
C3 A3 A2 A1
C4 A4 A3 A2
C5 A5 A4 A3
C6 A6 A5 A4
C7/6 A5

BUSINESS LETTERS

A business letter is a formal way of sending and receiving written information.  Parts of a
business letter include:

 Letterhead
 Reference
 Attention line/Urgent/Personal/Confidential
 Inside name and address
 Salutation
 Subject heading
 Body
 Complimentary close
 Signatory
 Designation
 Enclosure/Attachments/Courtesy copy

LETTER STYLES

1. Blocked
2. Semi/Modified Block
3. Indented

CIRCULAR LETTERS

 Are correspondences with identical content that are sent to several recipients with the
same interest.  May require a tear-off portion for the recipient to return to the sender.
The tear-off portion is separated from the letter with a broken line

MEMORANDUM

 Blocked
 Indented

COMMITTEE OR MEETING DOCUMENTS

1. Notice of meeting
2. Agenda
3. Minutes
4. Chairman’s Agenda

GRAPHICS USED IN DOCUMENTS

1. Charts
2. Pictures
3. Graphs

TYPES OF DISPLAYS
Simple Displays
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  columnar work,
 notices
 menus
 invitations,
 cards
 one and two page programmes
 flyers

Advanced Displays
 Flow Charts
 organisation charts,
 graphs
 newsletters
 4/6/8 page leaflets.

Table Showing How to Select Paper and Page Formatting for Simple Displays

Document Paper Size Orientation No. of Margins

Columns
Notice A3/A4/A5/A Portrait 1 1” or 0.5”
6
Poster A4 Portrait 1 1” or 0.5”
Flyer A4/A5 Portrait 1 1” or 0.5”
Invitation A5/A6 Landscape 1 1” or 0.5”
Programme A4 Landscape 1, 2, or 3 1” or 0.5”
Menu A4/A5/A6 Portriat/Landscape 1 or 2 1” or 0.5”
Newsletter/Brochure A4 Landscape 3 1”
Flow chart A4 Portrait 1 1”
Organization chart A4 Portrait/Landscape 1 1”

LEGAL DOCUMENTS
 wills
 leases
 conveyance documents,
 agreements – hire purchase agreement
 endorsements
 contracts – contract of employment

TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS
 Builder or Architect Specifications
 Bills of Quantity
 Scope of works.

LITERARY DOCUMENTS
 Poems
 Short stories, essays
 Plays for radio, theatre and television;
 Actors’ scripts;
 Index cards.
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
 Trial Balance
 Balance Sheet
 Profit and Loss Statement
 Income and Expenditure,
 Invoice,
 Bank Statement,
 Receipts.
TYPES OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION

 Telecommuting.
 Electronic Mail.
 Internet: World Wide Web.
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  Social media (e.g. Internet forums, weblogs,
 podcasts).
 Social networking Services (e.g. Facebook,
 Twitter).
 Facsimile, multifunctional devices.
 Scan to mail, Scan to file;

NEW AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

 Twitter
 Facebook
 Smart-phones
 Blogging.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING COMMUNICATION MEDIA

 Degree of urgency.
 Genre (oral, written, visual).
 Level of confidentiality.
 Location/time zone.
 Cost
 Efficiency
 Effectiveness.

TYPES OF ELECTRONIC FILING SYSTEMS

 Manual filing system
 Electronic filing system;

TYPES OF DOCUMENTS USED IN DATA PROCESSING;

 Source documents
 Turnaround documents
 Machine readable documents.

ISSUES RELATED TO THE SECURITY OF FILES

 Overwrite protection
 Restricted access
 Virus protection
 Encryption,
 Read only access.
 Use of passwords
 Firewall,
 Disaster recovery mechanisms, for example, fireproof and
 waterproof storage, backup systems.

ISSUES RELATED TO THE RETENTION OF FILES

 Archiving
 Retention period and disposal
 Legal limit for retaining files.

METHODS FOR TRACING DOCUMENT VERSIONS.

 Versioning: Successive versions of documents that change over time;
 Metadata: data stored on document, including date created, date modified, date
accessed, owner, access privileges.

ETHICS

Intellectual Property - protection of the rights of persons who produce, gather or disseminate
ideas and information, including authors, singers and journalists.

Rights that are protected by Intellectual Property Laws

 Economic rights: the level of payment for use of the product by third parties.
 Moral rights: violating the integrity and reputation of the author through
misrepresentation or misquoting of the work.

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Ethical standards with respect to intellectual property

The copyright concept – Copyright is a legal protection that allows a person who creates
original works of art, music, literature, etc. to completely control how others may use his works.

Stakeholders/Persons involved  in Intellectual Property

 Publishers or distributors - as those who enter into agreements with producers to

record, film or print the material and distribute it in ways that would secure the financial
interests of producers and prevent the unethical use of the material.

 Consumers or users - as those who have access to all types of information but must
acknowledge the source or seek permission of the producer through the publisher, who
may charge a fee under certain circumstances.

 Producers or owners - as those who maintain ownership and control over their material
and receive financial reward from the user, through the publisher.             
Plagiarism - the use of someone’s intellectual property without giving appropriate credit.

Guidelines to avoid plagiarism

 Acknowledgement of references in text and bibliography, for example, use of
referencing
 formats.
 Obtaining approval to use other persons’ work.
 Cite reference sources by acknowledging the author
 Paraphrase
 Acknowledge the author
 Place author’s work in quotations
 Make sure you give credit to where it is due
 Use the information to generate your own ideas

ACCEPTABLE WORK STANDARDS

 organisation of work and work station;
 submission of assignments
 execution of effective time management
 follow-up procedures.

ELEMENTS OF DESIRABLE HABITS AND WORK ATTITUDES

(a) Individual responsibility or working without supervision.
(b) Willingness.
(c) Meeting deadlines.
(d) Team spirit.
(e) Co-operation.
(f) Recognition of diversity.
(g) Courtesy.
(h) Punctuality and regularity.
(i) Good grooming.
(j) Personal integrity.
(k) Respect for others.

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