International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research

The role of aesthetic experiential qualities for tourist satisfaction and loyalty
Monica Adele Breiby, Terje Slåtten,
Article information:
To cite this document:
Monica Adele Breiby, Terje Slåtten, "The role of aesthetic experiential qualities for tourist satisfaction and loyalty",
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCTHR-07-2017-0082
Permanent link to this document:
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCTHR-07-2017-0082
Downloaded on: 25 February 2018, At: 07:29 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 0 other documents.
To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 3 times since 2018*
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:353605 []
For Authors
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service
information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please
visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of
more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online
products and additional customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication
Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.

*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

 The role of aesthetic experiential qualities for
tourist satisfaction and loyalty

Abstract
Purpose: - The aim of this study is to examine the role of aesthetic experiential qualities for
tourist overall satisfaction and three types of loyalty.

Design/methodology/approach: - A national tourist route in Norway was chosen as an

empirical context for this study. Totally, the role of five aesthetic experiential qualities were
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

examined, namely: (i) scenery, (ii) cleanliness (iii) harmony, (iv) art/architecture, and (v)
genuineness.

Findings: - The findings reveal that three aesthetic experiential qualities, scenery, harmony
and genuineness, were all positively related to tourist overall satisfaction with the tourist
route. Moreover, tourist overall satisfaction had a direct influence on three types of loyalty,
referring to tourists (i) intentions to recommend the tourist route to other, (ii) to revisit same
tourist route and (iii) to visit similar tourist routes in the future. However, the findings reveal
that only two aesthetic qualities, cleanliness and genuineness, had a direct (positive) effect on
intention to revisit the same tourist route, and thus indicates a more complex explanatory
pattern concerning tourist loyalty.

Research limitations/implications: - This study is limited to five aesthetic experiential

qualities in a specific nature-based tourist context. The results open up some of the areas for
future research on the role of aesthetics in man-made environments (in addition to the
natural environment) in nature-based tourism. When most of the other variables are similar,
aesthetic experiential qualities may make a difference to a nature-based product’s
performance, and thus provide the competitive edge.

Practical implications: - Destination managers and marketers should focus on aesthetic

experiential qualities to increase tourist satisfaction and loyalty, and thereby strengthen a
destination competitiveness and value creation.

Originality/value: - Responding to the need to focus on aesthetic experiential qualities in a

nature-based tourism context, this study measures the effects of the aesthetic experiential
qualities for tourist satisfaction and loyalty in an original destination setting.
 Keywords Aesthetic experiential qualities, Satisfaction, Loyalty, Scenic road, Nature-based
Tourism

Paper type: Research paper

Introduction

The aim of this article is to examine the role of aesthetic experiential qualities for tourist
overall satisfaction and three types of loyalty. Aesthetic qualities have received increasing
attention in the marketing literature in recent decades, especially with regard to its focus on
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

the experiential aspects of products and services. A number of service studies recognize the
role of aesthetics in consumer behaviour and service organisations (e.g., Baisya and Das,
2008; Brady and Cronin, 2001; Charters, 2006; Das et al., 2003; Lagrosen og Lagrosen,
2017). However, this role has only recently become a theme in tourism research directed
towards consumer experiences (e.g., Bonn et al., 2007; Hosany and Witham, 2009; Oh et al.,
2007). It seems that previous tourism research has largely been limited to cultural experiences
(e.g., Mossberg, 2007; O’Dell and Billing, 2005; Mehmetoglu and Engen, 2011). Even
though there are examples of some studies focusing on nature-based experiences (c.f., Hazen,
2009; Hosany and Witham, 2009), there is, according to Vespestad and Lindberg (2011), a
need to further and more fully direct scholarly attention towards the role of aesthetics in
nature-based experiences. Particularly experiences focusing on the physical environments in
nature, and how they influence behaviour and loyalty intensions (Kirillova et al., 2014;
Mossberg, 2007).

Like other service quality attributes, aesthetic qualities should be customer oriented and
strategically important for the customers’ overall experiences (Parasuraman et al., 1985). In
tourism research, it has been acknowledged that aesthetic characteristics affect tourists’
experiences and satisfaction, contributing to their loyalty towards a destination. Hence, a
destinations’ aesthetic qualities, such as scenery and cleanliness, have been an integral
element of many satisfaction scales used in tourism research (e.g., Chi and Qu, 2008;
Moutinho et al., 2012; Yoon and Uysal, 2005). However, to authoress’ knowledge, a study
focusing on the relationship between a variety of aesthetic experiential qualities, tourist
overall satisfaction, and loyalty have not been applied in a nature-based setting. This study
adds knowledge regarding the role of aesthetic experiential qualities on tourist overall

2
 satisfaction and types of tourist loyalty. Consequently, it contributes to reveal in what way
different aesthetic experiential qualities are linked to their outcomes. The study is relevant to
destination marketers and managers to develop appropriate strategies to both increase
tourists’ satisfaction and the likelihood of tourists to recommend a destination to other. Thus,
it contributes to revealing how and in what way aesthetic experiential qualities may be a
source to destination competitiveness and value creation.

Literature review

The concept of aesthetics

Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

Aesthetics and aesthetic experiences have always been important to people. Some examples
are the experience of a beautiful or sublime landscape, and listening to a deeply moving piece
of music. Shusterman and Tomlin (2008) state that aesthetics is of fundamental value to
human beings. The economic and social development from standardization to more
consumer-oriented production in the western world has also contributed to an increased focus
on aesthetic experiences and the symbolic value of products (Charters 2006). This also
appears to be the case in tourism. For example, experiences of nature provide opportunities to
discover, express, and perceive aspects of reality that lie at the root of our existence and make
life valuable, joyful and sometimes painful.

The concept of aesthetics was first expressed by Plato in his consideration of beauty (Plato
[n.d.] 1951). However, the term “aesthetics” was first used at the beginning of the eighteen
century by Baumgarten ([1750] 1983). Baumgarten used the term to denote “the science of
the sensory,” that is, the recognition we extract from dealing with the senses. Later, the focus
of aesthetics was narrowed to a part of the philosophy of art. Philosophers continue to dispute
the nature of art, the scope of the aesthetic experience and aesthetic value. Regarding the
latter issue, objectivists view aesthetic value as inherent in the design of the object (Kant,
[1790] 1987), while subjectivists argue that aesthetic value lies in the subjects’ response to
the design (Hume, [1757] 1998).

The literal meaning of “aesthetics” as per the Oxford English Dictionary is “the branch of
philosophy which deals with questions of beauty and artistic taste.” Among those who take a
psychological approach, the focus on beauty is much debated. What one person considers

3
 beautiful, another person may consider ugly or boring. There is no one story common to all
aesthetic experiences, although certain themes may be more usual than others, owing to
shared biology and shared socialization (Averill et al. 1998). The philosopher Böhme (2001)
characterizes the late stage of the development of capitalism as the “aesthetic economy.”
Aesthetics may include art, nature, and “the real environment,” such as design, parts of
architecture and landscape planning. By calling his book “Aisthetik” (the Greek word for
sense), Böhme links his work back to Baumgarten. According to Bale and Bø-Rygg (2008),
aesthetics is today considered to be a discipline situated between philosophy and art, and
conveys a general sense of learning.
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

Most approaches to environmental psychology emphasize aesthetic experiences as biological.

The research shows that nature has a fascinating and stimulating effect on people. The need
for green parks in cities and the conservation of nature in the form of national parks supports
this proposition. The determinants of aesthetic experiences are similar across cultures and
individuals, reflecting the common evolutionary heritage of humans (Averill et al. 1998). The
biological explanation is much debated, because it excludes a cultural explanation. In an
attempt to overcome the conflict between biological and cultural explanations, Bourassa
(1990) suggests a tripartite theory, making a distinction between biological, cultural and
personal modes of aesthetic experience. An interesting feature of this contribution is that
natural environments should be experienced primarily through a biological mode, implying
universal patterns of preference. On the other hand, human-influenced or built environments
would probably be experienced through the cultural and personal modes and thus be subject
to variability (Strumse 1996).

The different perspectives and theories from philosophy and psychology have inspired the
marketing and management literature on the more practical use of the multidisciplinary
concept of aesthetics regarding consumption. The economy is usually described as a system
for satisfying needs. As a result of increasing satisfaction of basic needs, there may be needs
in the western world today that arise to an even greater extent than functional needs.
According to Read (1965), the evolution of aesthetics came when man, after ensuring that
products served their functional purpose, looked for further uses for them, focusing on
emotions. Hence, the earlier and quite narrow focus on the concept of “usability” has been
replaced with that of “user experience.” As a natural result of this shift, practitioners in the
so-called “experiential economy” now focus increasingly on the role of aesthetic qualities in

4
 customer experiences. Pine and Gilmore (1999) define an experience economy as a staged
economy that creates a memorable consumption experience, in which entertainment,
education, aesthetics and escapism constitute the four realms of the experience. Tourism has
been at the forefront of staging experience, and visiting a particular tourist destination is
typically motivated by a powerful mental image or “pre-experience” that the tourist has of the
expected experience at the destination (Oh, Fiore and Jeoung 2007). Hence, the experiential
economy is relevant to this study, the purpose of which is to examine the effects of aesthetic
qualities on tourists’ satisfaction and loyalty to a nature-based tourist destination.

Much of the attention of marketers has focused on products with a visual dimension, such as
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

advertising and designing websites, rather than on the aesthetic experience itself, such as that
provided by music or architecture (Charters 2006). Furthermore, in the tourism literature, the
visual aspects such as the tourist gaze, beauty, design and style, have been emphasized
(Pikkemaat and Weiermair 2004; Urry 2002; Weaver 2009). However, recent research
highlights the importance of using multiple senses in marketing and experiential development
(Mossberg 2007; Wang, Xia and Chen 2008). Based on the definitions and perspectives
outlined above of the concept of aesthetics, the following can be suggested as a definition for
this study: “The concept of aesthetics is a general sense of learning. The aesthetic experience
has both experiential and symbolic dimensions and provides the consumer with added value.”

Aesthetic qualities and nature-based tourism

There are several reasons for linking the concept of aesthetics to nature-based tourism. First,
there is an obvious historical link between viewing as in sightseeing and tourism (Urry 2002).
Although a substantial body of literature exists on aesthetic notions with regard to landscape
preferences and the establishment of national parks (e.g., Bourassa, 1990; Coghlan and
Prideaux, 2009), the literature on the physical or built environment in nature-based tourism is
scarce (Mossberg, 2007). This is surprising in view of the fact that accommodation, food and
signs may all be central features of a nature-based holiday, and thereby influence satisfaction
and loyalty intentions. For tourists who are likely to value nature-based attractions and
activities such as hiking, driving or cycling in natural areas, some infrastructure is required to
complement. Examples are transport, accommodation, and specific visitor facilities as signs
and maps. Accommodation varies between ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ dimensions (Laarman & Durst,
1987). At the ‘soft’ end of the spectrum, nature-based tourists prefer comfort, and this may
include hotels. Those at the ‘hard’ end choose to rough it by camping in the wilderness.

5
 Creating an inventory of accommodation and other supporting infrastructure is an essential
component of resource assessment (Mehmetoglu, 2007). The focus of this study is not
landscape preferences, but it extends previous research by specifically focusing on the use of
the physical or built environment at a nature-based tourism destination to increase tourists’
satisfaction and loyalty intentions.

Relevant studies from experiential contexts (e.g., heritage attractions, cruises and bed-and-
breakfast accommodation) show that harmony, design and attractive surroundings (Bonn et
al., 2007; Hosany and Witham, 2009; Kwortnik, 2008; Oh et al., 2007; Åstrøm, 2017) affect
customers’ overall satisfaction and future intentions, such as their willingness to recommend.
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

Moreover, genuineness or unique experiences are emphasized in several experiential studies

related to the senses of touch, smell and taste - for example, enjoying unique lodging or
tasting local food and drinks (e.g., Chi and Qu, 2008; Jang and Feng, 2007; Kim and Moon,
2009; Slåtten et al., 2010). In this study aesthetic experiential qualities refer to the five
qualities or dimensions: (i) scenery, (ii) cleanliness, (iii) harmony, (iv) art/architecture and
(v) genuineness, suggested of Breiby (2015), and Breiby and Slåtten (2015).

There is no research-based or universal definition of nature-based tourism. Fredman and

Tyrväinen (2010) concluded that most scholars associate nature-based tourism with leisure
activities that take place in natural surroundings, and that the key components are tourists,
nature and their experiences of nature. This study employs this broad definition. Fredman,
Wall-Reinius and Lundberg (2009) have identified four recurrent themes in nature-based
tourism: visitors to natural areas; experiences of a natural environment; participation in an
activity and normative components related to sustainable development; and local impact. In
this study, we focus mainly on the first theme, and in particular, we stress built environments
in natural surroundings. According to Mehmetoglu (2006, 2007), nature-based tourists are not
a homogeneous group, but can include those from various market segments based on factors
such as trip activities or travel mode choice. This study focuses mainly on the “independent”
tourist, (e.g., not part of an organized tour group) who are likely to value nature-based
activities such as short hiking tours (car walks) or cycling.

6
 Tourist satisfaction and loyalty

Satisfaction is a multifaceted concept and becomes more complex when the setting is a
destination (which potentially is the site of multiple service providers) rather than an
individual service provider. Phillips et al. (2013) define overall satisfaction as the
individual’s subjective consumption evaluation based on all the elements associated with the
experiences, such as accommodation, attractions, activities and food. The concept of
satisfaction is defined by marketers as post purchase behaviour, and this is of strategic
importance to businesses because of its influence on repeat purchases and word-of-mouth
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

recommendations (Heung and Quf 2000). Among other researchers, Soutar (2001) has
concluded that satisfied customers are much more likely to exhibit positive post purchase
behaviour, such as making repeat visits, remaining loyal and providing positive word-of-
mouth recommendations. Hence, to measure customer satisfaction, tourism authorities need
to anticipate which attributes of the service the customers use for their overall quality
assessment (Pizam and Ellis, 1999). This study focuses on aesthetic experiential attributes or
qualities in this respect.

Recommendations to other people and repeat purchases are typically referred to as consumer
loyalty in the marketing literature. Revisiting has generally been regarded as desirable both
because the marketing costs are lower than those required to attract first-time tourists, and
because it is a positive indicator of satisfaction (Oppermann, 2000). The relationship between
service qualities in general, satisfaction and loyalty are therefore well recognized in studies of
tourist behaviour. Of those who visit the specific tourist route (Geiranger-Trollstigen) or
scenic road, 50% are international travellers, and for many tourists this is an once-in-a-
lifetime experience. Thus, the intention to revisit is divided into (1) revisiting this specific
route, and (2) visiting other similar routes. The intention to visit similar routes cannot help
the specific route to build loyalty, but it may indicate that the tourists’ may be loyal to similar
routes or scenic roads in the future. For example, the similar national tourist routes in
Norway. This decomposition is supported by Oppermann (2000), who argued that because of
time and cost constraints or simply the existence of too many appealing destinations, many
tourists are unable to revisit the destination even though they are 100% satisfied with their
experience.

7
 Conceptual model
Figure 1 is the conceptual model for this study.

(Figure 1 in here)
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

In light of Figure 1, aesthetic experiential qualities may appear to affect loyalty in one of
three ways: directly, indirectly as mediated by tourist satisfaction, or both. Earlier findings
show that service quality has both direct and indirect effects on loyalty mediated by overall
satisfaction. Cole and Illum (2006), for example, indicate that service quality did not affect
loyalty directly, but only indirectly through satisfaction. By contrast, Petrick (2004),
Moutinho et al. (2012) and Žabkar et al. (2010) found within a nature-based context that
service quality had a significant and direct effect on loyalty. A few studies also indicate that
service quality exerts both a direct and an indirect effect on loyalty mediated by satisfaction
(Baker and Crompton, 2000; Kozak and Rimmington, 2000; Thrane, 2002). This study
examines the effects of aesthetic experiential qualities on loyalty based on the findings from
these studies as illustrated in Figure 1. The analysis will include a number of control variables
that in previous research have been known to affect loyalty (e.g., nationality, previous visits,
age, travelling company and type of tour). The questionnaire were often filled out in a
discussion with the couple, so gender was not so interesting to focus on.

8
 Empirical study

Method
By 2023, 18 national tourist routes in Norway will have been prepared as new tourist
attractions, of which Geiranger–Trollstigen is one. The route combines nature, architecture,
design, and art at the viewpoints and tourism businesses (e.g., cafeterias and
accommodation). Both the cafeteria and the viewpoint at Trollstigen have received much
international attention. One of the hotels along the route, the Juvet Landscape Hotel, has won
a number of awards because of its distinctive architecture and location. The route is an
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

example of cooperation between public and private actors in the marketing and innovation
processes. It is also the second-most visited nature-based attraction in Norway, and it draws
approximately 600,000 visitors during the summer season.

The population for this survey is composed of independent travellers on holiday along the
tourist route. A total of 1030 questionnaires were randomly distributed to independent tourist
travelling companions along the road in July 2012. The randomness was with regard to
people. The primary market for the route is the independent round-trip tourist (e.g., not part
of an organized tour group). Most of the questionnaires (63.3%) were therefore distributed at
two of the most frequently visited nature attractions, Trollstigen (35.8%) and Gudbrandsjuvet
(27.5%), where the project has combined nature, architecture, and design. The other sampling
points were at ferries, located approximately at the middle of the National Tourist Route. The
tourists answered the questionnaire themselves, and four project assistants collected the
questionnaires directly afterwards. The questionnaire was available in Norwegian, English
and German. The validity was ensured by using mostly closed questions with a number of
defined response choices. The respondents were asked to mark their responses using a cross
for each statement, condition, or feeling. This method allowed us to compare the answers
although using surveys in different language. Allowing the tourists to answer the
questionnaire in their own languages strengthens its reliability. Ten questionnaires were not
usable and ten were answered by respondents who were less than 18 years old. Of the 1030
questionnaires distributed, 1010 could be used for this study.

International travellers constituted 53.3% and domestic travellers 46.7%. Half of the people
in the sample had previously been on a vacation trip along the road (“repeaters”), including

9
 most domestic visitors (65.6%). The other half was comprised of first-time visitors,
dominated by international visitors (72.8%). Most respondents were on a day trip or round
trip (67.8%), while 30.1% where staying for a minimum of one night in the area. Nearly half
of the people in the sample had spent one day or more on the road when they were
interviewed (52.7%). The majority of people in the sample were driving cars (76.8%). Their
average age was 46 years, and half of those in the sample were aged in the range of 40 to 59
years. Most respondents were travelling without children (68.9%).

Measures
The measures and scale items for the aesthetic experiential qualities used in this study, are
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

based on Breiby (2015), and Breiby & Slåtten (2015). The satisfaction items are based on
Philips et al. (2013), and Oppermann (2010) for the loyalty items. The scale items are shown
in Table 1.

(Table 1 in here)

The reliability analysis indicated that the Cronbach’s alpha (CA) coefficients were
sufficiently high for five of the aesthetic experiential qualities; that is, they were
approximately the minimum value of 0.50, which has been considered acceptable as an
indication of reliability for short scales, such as those with fewer than ten items (Pallant,
2004). For the aesthetic quality of scenery/viewing, one of the items (viewpoints to be by
myself) had a higher CA when the item was deleted (0.67) compared with all four items
together (0.57). This item was therefore removed. For the aesthetic quality of
variation/contrast, the CA was 0.32, and it was therefore excluded from further analysis.

The five aesthetic experiential qualities were measured on a seven-point scale, ranging from 1
= completely disagree to 7 = completely agree. It was also possible to answer not relevant
(8). Not relevant was re-coded as 4 to avoid losing too many cases for the multivariate
analyses. Overall satisfaction with the tourist route and the three aspects of loyalty were also
measured on the same seven-point scale.

10
 Regression analysis
To test the proposed model with multiple items for the independent variables and only one
item for the dependent variable, a series of OLS (ordinary least squares) regression analyses
were conducted. The chosen method is based on the principle of parsimony, in contrast to
more complicated methods such as Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). The relationships
between the aesthetic experiential qualities, satisfaction and the dependent (loyalty) variables
were examined using a hierarchical regression procedure. In the first step, only the aesthetic
qualities were included as independent variables explaining the loyalty variables. In the
second step, the satisfaction variable was added to the aesthetic qualities as an independent
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

variable. In this way, the analysis both captures the direct and indirect (through satisfaction)
effects of the aesthetic quality variables on the loyalty variables. The analyses control for the
variables of nationality, previous visits, age, number of stops, travel companion, type of
visits, education and income. These variables contributed little to the statistical explanation of
the various dependent variables, thereby their effects are not reported. The regression models
were checked for multicollinearity by means of the variance inflation factors (VIF), and no
evidence was detected (no scores exceeded 1.89).

Results and findings

In Table 2, satisfaction (the dependent variable) is regressed on the five aesthetic experiential
qualities (the independent variables). The table reveals that scenery has a positive and strong
effect on satisfaction (p<0.001). Harmony and genuineness also affect overall satisfaction
with experiences along the tourist route (significant at the 0.05 level).

(Table 2 in here)

Approximately 18% of the variance in the visitors’ overall satisfaction was explained by the
five aesthetic qualities. The data fit the model predicting the variance in the visitors’ overall
satisfaction level. A general comparison with prior studies of service quality showed that
these results appeared trustworthy (e.g., Chen et al., 2011, Heung and Quf, 2000, Kozak and
Rimmington, 2000). In Table 3, the intention to recommend (dependent variable) is first

11
 regressed on the five aesthetic qualities (left column). The left column reveals that scenery
has a significant influence on the intention to recommend. Cleanliness has also a positive
effect. In the second step of the analysis, overall satisfaction is considered as a new
independent variable together with the effect of the aesthetic qualities on the intention to
recommend (right column). The results show that this effect is insignificant.

(Table 3 in here)
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

Combined, the analyses in Table 3 show that overall satisfaction with the experiences along
the road has a positive effect on the intention to recommend (p < 0.001), whereas the effect of
two of the aesthetic qualities appears to be only indirect. These findings are at odds with the
results in a festival context, where service quality (e.g., music quality) has a direct effect on
the intention to recommend (Baker and Crompton, 2000; Tarn, 1999; Thrane, 2002).
However, as stated above, several studies in a nature-based setting show that loyalty
intentions have both direct and indirect effects, without separating the intention to
recommend and the intention to revisit (e.g., Kim et al., 2012; Moutinho et al., 2012; Žabkar
et al., 2010). Table 4 displays the same kind of information as Table 3, but for the intention to
revisit the road. In contrast to the intention to recommend (Table 3), cleanliness and
genuineness also have significant direct effects when overall satisfaction is controlled for.

(Table 4 in here)

Cleanliness has also a direct effect (p<0.001) on visiting similar routes when satisfaction is
controlled for, whereas scenery has only an indirect effect (Table 5).

(Table 5 in here)

12
 Taken together, the analyses in Tables 4 and 5 again show that overall satisfaction has a clear
and positive effect on the intention to revisit the route and to visit similar routes. The effects
of aesthetic experiential qualities have a more complex explanatory pattern; they appeared to
have a direct effect on the intention to revisit the route, and both direct and indirect effects on
the intentions to visit similar routes. The effect of aesthetic qualities on the intention to revisit
is supported in Petrick’s study (2004) in a cruise context. In contrast, the studies in a festival
context show that service quality has only an indirect effect on the intention to revisit (Baker
and Crompton, 2000; Tarn, 1999, Thrane, 2002). Figure 2 provides a portrayal of this study’s
findings.
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

(Figure 2 in here)

Discussion and research implications

The tourism marketing literature has only recently turned its attention to the role of aesthetic
qualities in the tourist experience as a source of competitive advantages for destinations and
businesses. A central topic that needs to be examined for these marketing strategies is the
effects of aesthetic qualities on satisfaction and loyalty. This study contributes to this
knowledge gap in previous research revealing the role of aesthetic experiential qualities on
tourist overall satisfaction and types of tourist loyalty. The findings of the research to date
show that aesthetic experiential qualities affect satisfaction and the intention to recommend
(Bonn et al., 2007; Hosany and Witham, 2009; Oh et al., 2007). Prior tourism research shows
that service quality in general can affect loyalty in one of three ways: directly (Petrick, 2004;
Žabkar et al., 2010); indirectly (Cole and Illum, 2006; Tarn, 1999); or both (Baker and
Crompton, 2000; Kozak and Rimmington, 2000; Thrane, 2002).

The findings of this study support the latter more complex explanatory pattern, that aesthetic
experiential qualities can affect loyalty both directly and indirectly. The analysis revealed that
the tourist’s evaluation of the aesthetic experiential qualities of scenery, harmony and
genuineness affected their satisfaction with the tourist route (destination) positively, and that
satisfaction had a direct influence on the three types of loyalty (i) intention to recommend the
route to others (ii) intention to revisit the route and (iii) visit other similar routes. In contrast,
the tourists’ evaluation of the aesthetic qualities of cleanliness and genuineness had only a

13
 direct effect on the intention to revisit the route. For the intention to recommend the route to
others, the aesthetic qualities of scenery and cleanliness only had an indirect effect mediated
by overall satisfaction. Aesthetic qualities had both direct (cleanliness) and indirect effects
(scenery) on the intention to visit similar routes. Future research should take these results into
account by not treating the three loyalty intentions as indicators of a more general construct
of loyalty, which is typical of previous studies (e.g., Cole and Illum, 2006; Kim et al., 2012;
Moutinho et al., 2012; Žabkar et al., 2010). Many tourists can be satisfied with a destination
or a specific business and recommend it to others, although they do not intend to revisit it
themselves. The destination may be an once-in-a-lifetime experience, but they may visit
similar destinations, as this study indicated.
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

Even if the aesthetic experiential qualities explained a relatively low proportion of the
variation in the tourists’ overall satisfaction, the results of this study revealed that superior
aesthetic experiential qualities were important for the tourists’ satisfaction with the tourist
route, and that overall satisfaction in turn was a positive key factor to increase tourist loyalty
for both word of mouth (WOM) and intention to revisit the tourist route in the future.

Because of increasing competition, destination marketers and managers are under great
pressure to understand consumers’ experiences and the resulting influence on post-
consumption evaluations. The findings reveal that the relationship between aesthetic
experiential qualities and loyalty intentions are complex, because the effect also works
through overall satisfaction. Hence, destination marketers should continue to focus on
aesthetic experiential qualities in their marketing efforts. To increase overall satisfaction, this
study identifies three aesthetic experiential qualities that can be highlighted in marketing
campaigns with regard to both natural and built environments: (1) scenery, with good
viewpoints of the natural and cultural landscape, including arranged viewpoints along the
road; (2) harmony, with places to experience silence and calm, accommodation close to
nature, the architecture of businesses in harmony with the landscape, and the businesses’
interior in harmony with the outdoor surroundings; (3) genuineness, with ample opportunities
to encounter plants in their natural surroundings, multiple opportunities for eating local
dishes, the presence of businesses that reflect or preserve traditions, and good opportunities to
experience animals in nature. The latter focus on “genuineness” reflects travel trends that
focus on “real” local experiences. Studies such as those of Chi and Qu (2008), Jang and Feng

14
 (2007), and Kim and Moon (2009) emphasize aspects such as local food and drinks, local
handcrafts and unique lodging.

To increase the intention to recommend, the importance of scenery and cleanliness was
emphasized. The latter focuses on pure nature and opportunities for drinking clean water, a
minimum of litter along the road, and cleanliness at the businesses.

On the basis of the finding that overall satisfaction with the tourist route appears to have more
influence on the future intentions of loyalty than the aesthetic experiential qualities, the
marketers of the tourist route need to invest efforts in other strategies that will enhance
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

tourists’ overall satisfaction, and especially the intention to recommend. One relevant
strategy may be to focus on push motivations such as the tourists’ desire. Yoon and Usyal
(2005) found that push motivations as tourists’ relaxation, family togetherness, and safety and
fun, have a positive and direct relationship with destination loyalty. Another strategy may
involve the concept of servicescape, which would entail a thorough consideration of the
tourist route from the point of view of the tourists’ experiences. Kwortnik (2008)
conceptualized the shipscape as a context-specific type of servicescape, including the built,
physical, social, and natural environment, so it may be fruitful to use the concept of
roadscape to visualize an overall marketing strategy for the tourist routes, including the
social environment (i.e., host service and other guests).

This study setting was one particular tourist route or scenic road, the potential for
generalization to other scenic roads and nature-based tourism products in general may be
limited. To overcome this, an application of the scales to other settings would help to produce
more reliable indicators and to validate the constructs further. Even if the analysis did not
reveal any significant differences in the control variables, it is not currently known whether
the same types of aesthetic experiential qualities, satisfaction and loyalty intentions are
always consistent, for example across cultures and age groups. Further investigation of these
issues would therefore make an interesting extension to this study.

Funding
This work was supported by the Research Council of Norway [194527/V10].

15
 References

Averill, J. R., Stanat P. and More, T.A. (1998), “Aesthetics and the Environment.” Review of General
Psychology, Vol. 2 No. 2, pp. 153-174.

Baisya, R.K. and Das, G.G. (2008), Aesthetics in Marketing, Sage Publications Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

Baker, D.A. and Crompton, J.L. (2000), “Quality, Satisfaction and Behavioural Intentions”,
Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 27 No. 3, pp. 785-804.

Bale, K., and Bø-Rygg, A. (2008), Estetisk teori. En antologi [Aesthetic theory: an anthology],
Universitetsforlaget, Oslo.

Baumgarten, A. G. (1983), Aesthetica, Felix Meiner, Hamburg.

Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

Bonn, M.A., Joseph-Mathews, S.M., Dai, M., Hayes, S. and Cave, J. (2007), “Heritage/Cultural
Attraction Atmospherics: Creating the Right Environment for the Heritage/Cultural Visitor”,
Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 45 No 3, pp. 345-354.

Bourassa, S.C. (1990), “A Paradigm for Landscape Aesthetics”, Environment and Behaviour,
Vol. 22 No, 6, pp. 787-812.

Brady, M.K. and Cronin Jr. J.J. (2001), “Some New Thoughts on Conceptualizing Perceived Service
Quality”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 65 No. 3, pp. 34-49.

Breiby, M.A. and Slåtten, T. (2015), “The effects of aesthetic experiential qualities on tourists’
positive emotions and loyalty: A case of a nature-based context in Norway”, Journal of
Quality Assurance in Hospitality and Tourism, Vol. 16, pp. 323-346.

Breiby, M. (2015), “Exploring aesthetic dimensions in nature-based tourist experiences”, Tourism

Analysis, Vol. 20 No 4, pp. 369-380.

Böhme, G. (2001), Aisthetik, Fink Wilhelm Gmbh, Munich.

Charters, S. (2006), “Aesthetic Products and Aesthetic Consumption: A Review”, Consumption,

Markets and Culture, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 235-255.

Chen, C.M., Lee, H.T., Chen, S.H. and Huang, T.H. (2011), “Tourist Behavioural Intentions in
Relation to Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction in Kinmen National Park, Taiwan”,
International Journal of Tourism Research, Vol. 13 No. 5, pp. 416-432.

Chi, C.G.Q. and Qu, H. (2008), “Examining the Structural Relationship of Destination Image, Tourist
Satisfaction and Destination Loyalty: An Integrated Approach”, Tourism Management, Vol.
29 No. 4, pp. 624-636.

Coghlan, A. and Prideaux, B. (2009), “Welcome to the Wet Tropics: The Importance of Weather in
Reef Tourism Resilience”, Current Issues in Tourism, Vol. 12 No. 2, pp. 89-104.

Cole, S.T. and Illum, S.F. (2006), “Examining the Mediating Role of Festival Visitors’ Satisfaction
in the Relationship between Service Quality and Behavioural Intentions”, Journal of Vacation
marketing, Vol. 12 No 2, pp. 160-173.

16
 Das, G. G., Baisya, R.K. and Chandra, B. (2003), “Aesthetic Evolution and its Infusion in
Consumer Durable”, Journal of advances in Management Research, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 69-73.

Fredman, P., & Tyrväinen, L. (2010), “Introduction. Frontiers in Nature-Based Tourism”.

Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, Vol. 10 No. 3, pp. 177–189.

Fredman, P., Wall Reinius, S., & Lundberg, C. (2009), Turism i natur. Definitioner, omfattning och
statistik. Turismeforskningsinstitutet [Tourism in nature: definitions, scope, and statistics]
ETOUR, Mittuniversitetet, Östersund. Rapport R2009:23.

Hazen, H. (2009), “Valuing Natural Heritage: Park Visitors’ Values Related to World Heritage Sites
in the USA”, Current Issues In Tourism, Vol. 12 No. 2, pp. 165-181.

Heung, V. C.S. and Quf, H. (2000), “Hong Kong as a Travel Destination: An Analysis of
Japanese Tourists’ Satisfaction Levels, and the Likelihood of Them Recommending Hong
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

Kong to Others”, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, Vol. 9 No. 1-2, pp. 57-80.

Hosany, S. and Witham, M. (2009), Dimensions of Cruisers’ Experiences, Satisfaction and

Intention to Recommend. School of Management, Royal Holloway, University of London.

Hume, D. ([1757]1998), “Of the Standard of Taste”, in Korsmeyer, C. (Ed.), Aesthetics. The big
questions, Blackwell, Malden, pp. 137-150.

Jang, S.C. and Feng, R. (2007), “Temporal Destination Revisit Intention: The Effects of Novelty
Seeking and Satisfaction”, Tourism Management, Vol. 28 No. 2, pp. 580-590.

Juvet Landscape Hotel (2017), available at: http://www.juvet.com/en (accessed 13 May 2017).

Kim, S.H, Holland, S. and Han, H.S. (2012), “A Structural Model for Examining How Destination
Image, Perceived Value, and Service Quality Affect Destination Loyalty: a Case Study of
Orlando”, International Journal of Tourism Research, DOI:10.1002/jtr.1877.

Kim, W.G. and Moon, Y.J. (2009), “Customers’ Cognitive, Emotional, and Actionable Response to
the Servicescape: A Test of the Moderating Effect of the Restaurant Type”, International
Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 28 No. 1, pp. 144-156.

Kirillova, K., Fu, X., Lehto, X. & Cai, L. (2014), “What makes a destination beautiful? Dimensions of
tourist aesthetic judgment”, Tourism Management, Vol. 42, pp. 282–293.

Kozak, M. and Rimmington, M. (2000), “Tourists Satisfaction with Mallorca, Spain, as an Off-
season Holiday Destination”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 38 No. 3, pp. 260-269.

Kwortnik, R.J. (2008), “Shipscape Influence on the Leisure Cruise Experience”, International
Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 2 No. 4, pp. 289-311.

Laarman, J.G., & Durst, P.B. (1987), “Nature travel in the tropics”. Journal of Forestry, Vol. 85,
pp.43–46.

Lagrosen, Y. and Lagrosen, S. (2017), “Aesthetic service quality – a study of a symphony orchestra”,
Total Quality Management & Business Excellence, Vol. 28 No. 3-4, pp. 318-330.

17
 Mehmetoglu, M. and Engen, M. (2011), “Pine and Gilmore’s Concept of Experience Economy and its
Dimensions: An Empirical Examination in Tourism”, Journal of Quality Assurance in
Hospitality and Tourism, Vol. 12, pp. 237-255.

Mehmetoglu, M. (2006), “Segmenting the Nature-Based Tourists Based on Travel Mode Choice”.
Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, Vol. 14 No. 4, pp. 47–67.

Mehmetoglu, M. (2007), “Typologising nature-based tourists by activity – theoretical and practical

implications”. Tourism Management, Vol. 28, pp. 651–660.

Mossberg, L. (2007), “A Marketing Approach to the Tourist Experience”, Scandinavian Journal of

Hospitality and Tourism, Vol. 7 No.1, pp. 59-74.

Moutinho, L., Albayrak, T. and Caber, M. (2012), “How Far Does Overall Service Quality of a
Destination Affect Customers’ Post-Purchase Behaviours?”, International Journal of
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

Tourism Research, Vol. 14 No. 4, pp. 307-22.

O’Dell, T. and Billing, P. (2005), Experiencescapes: Tourism, Culture and Economy,

Copenhagen Business School Press, Copenhagen.

Oh, H., Fiore, A.M. and Jeoung, M. (2007), “Measuring Experience Economy Concepts: Tourism
Applications”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 46 No. 2, pp. 119-32.

Oppermann, M. (2000), “Tourism Destination Loyalty”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 39 No. 1,
pp. 78-84.

Pallant, J. (2004), SPSS Survival Manual, Open University Press, Berkshire.

Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A. and Berry, L.L. (1985), “A Conceptual Model of Service
Quality and its Implications for Future Research”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 49 No. 4, pp.
41-50.

Petrick, J.F. (2004), “The Roles of Quality, Value and Satisfaction in Predicting Cruise Passengers’
Behavioural Intentions”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 42 No. 4, pp. 397-407.

Phillips, W.M.J., Wolfe, K., Hodur, N. and Leistritz, F.L. (2013), “Tourist Word of Mouth and
Revisit Intentions to Rural Tourism Destinations: A Case of North Dakota, USA”,
International Journal of Tourism Research, Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 93-104.

Pikkemaat, B. and Weiermaier, K. (2004), The Aesthetic (design) Orientated Customer in Tourism:
Implications for Product Development, Centre for Tourism and Service Economics,
University of Innsbruck.

Pine, B. J., and Gilmore, J.H. (1999), The Experience Economy. Work is Theatre and Every
Business a Stage, Harvard Business School Press, Boston.

Pizam, A., and Ellis, T. (1999), “Customer Satisfaction and its Measurement in Hospitality
Enterprises”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 11 No.
7, pp. 1-18.

Plato. [n.d.] 1951, Symposium, translated by Hamilton W., Penguin, London.

18
 Read, H. (1965), “The Origin of Form in Art”, in Kepes (Ed.), Module Symmetry Proportion,
Brazilles, New York.

Shusterman, R. and Tomlin, A. (2008), Aesthetic Experience, Taylor & Francis Group, Routledge,
New York.

Slåtten, T., Krogh, C. and Connoley, S. (2010), “Make it memorable: customer experiences in winter
amusement parks”, International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol.
5 No. 1, pp. 80-91.

Slåtten, T., Mehmetoglu, M., Svensson, G. and Sværi, S. (2009), “Atmospheric Experiences that
Emotionally Touch Customers. A Case Study from a Winter Park”, Managing Service
Quality, Vol. 19 No 6, pp. 721-746.

Soutar, G.N. (2001), “Service quality, customer satisfaction and value: An examination of their
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

relationships”, in Kandampully J., Mok, C. and Sparks, B.A. (Eds.), Service quality
management in hospitality, tourism and leisure, The Haworth Press, New York, pp. 97–110.

Strumse, E. (1996), “Demographic Differences in the Visual Preferences for Agrarian Landscapes in
Western Norway.” Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 16, pp. 17-31.

Tarn, J.L.M. (1999), “The Effects of Service Quality, Perceived Value and Customer Satisfaction
on Behavioural Intentions”, Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing, Vol. 6 No. 4, pp.
31-43.

The Norwegian Public Roads Administration (2017), “Geiranger - Trollstigen National Tourist
Route”, available at: http://www.nasjonaleturistveger.no/en/routes/geiranger-trollstigen
(accessed 20 June 2017).

Thrane, C. (2002), “Music Quality, Satisfaction, and Behavioural Intentions within a Jazz
Festival Context”, Event Management, Vol. 7 No. 3, pp. 143-150.

Urry, J. (2002), The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies. 2nd ed, Sage,
London.

Vespestad, M.K. and Lindberg, F. (2011), “Understanding Nature-based Tourist Experiences: An

Ontological Analysis”, Current Issues in Tourism, Vol. 14 No. 6, pp. 563-80.

Wang, Y., Xia, Z. and Chen, W. (2008), “Aesthetic Values in Sustainable Tourism Development: A
Case Study in Zhangjiajie National Park of Wuling Yuan, China.” Journal of China Tourism
Research, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 205-218.

Weaver, A. (2009), “Tourism and Aesthetic Design: Enchantment, Style and Commerce.” Journal
of Tourism and Cultural Change, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 179-189.

Žabkar, V., Brenčič, M.M. and Dmitrović, T. (2010), “Modelling Perceived Quality, Visitor
Satisfaction and Behavioural Intentions at the Destination level”, Tourism Management, Vol.
31 No. 4, pp. 537-546.

Åstrøm, J.K. (2017), “Theme factors that drive the tourist customer experience”, International
Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 11 No 2, pp. 1-17.

19
 Figures
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

Figure 1. Relationship between service quality, satisfaction and loyalty.

Note: Adapted from Baker and Crompton (2000, p.791).

Satisfaction
Loyalty
intentions:

Aesthetic experiential
Recommend
qualities:
- Cleanliness
- Scenery/viewing
- Harmony Cleanliness and Genuineness
- Art/Architecture Revisit the
- Genuineness road
Cleanliness

Visit
similar roads

Figure 2. How aesthetic experiential qualities affect loyalty, directly and indirectly mediated
by satisfaction.
Note: Direct effects Indirect effects
 Tables

Table 1. Scale Items

Aesthetic experiential
Scale Item
qualities
Pure natural environment along the route
Cleanliness Minimum of litter along the route
Cleanliness of the businesses
Good opportunities for drinking clean water

Scenery/viewing Good viewpoints of the natural landscape

Arranged viewpoints along the route
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

Good view of the cultural landscape

Places to experience silence and calm

Harmony Accommodation close to nature
Businesses’ architecture harmonizes with landscape
Businesses’ interior harmonizes with the surroundings outdoors

Architecture enhances experience of nature

Art/Architecture Signage in the natural surroundings
The artworks at viewpoints enhance experiences of nature
Businesses are artistically conscious

Encountering flora in the natural surroundings

Genuineness Good opportunities to eat local dishes
Businesses reflect traditions
Good opportunities to observe wildlife
 Table 2. Relationship between Satisfaction and Five Aesthetic Experiential Qualities: Linear
Regression Analysis (N = 700)
Independent Standard Variance
B
variables Error Beta Significance Inflation factor
(Constant) 2.888 0.284 0.000
Scenery 0.242 0.051 0.214 0.000 1.690
Cleanliness 0.076 0.060 0.057 0.200 1.688
Harmony 0.153 0.053 0.133 0.004 1.785
Art/architecture 0.020 0.051 0.018 0.699 1.898
Genuineness 0.123 0.047 0.112 0.009 1.573
2
R = 0.177.
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)

Note: The analyses control for the variables nationality, previous visits, age, number of stops, travel companion,
type of tour, income, and education.

Table 3 Relationship between Intention to Recommend, Five Aesthetic Experiential Qualities

and Satisfaction: Hierarchical Regression Analysis (N = 690)
Intention to recommend Intention to recommend
Independent B Std. Beta Sig. R2 B Std. Beta Sig. R2
variables error error
(Constant) 3.639 0.260 0.000 2.398 0.244 0.000
Scenery 0.171 0.047 0.168 0.000 0.062 0.042 0.061 0.133
Cleanliness 0.129 0.054 0.109 0.017 0.088 0.048 0.074 0.065
Harmony 0.078 0.048 0.076 0.107 0.011 0.042 0.011 0.792
Art/Architecture 0.064 0.046 0.068 0.164 0.052 0.041 0.055 0.198
Genuineness 0.083 0.043 0.084 0.057 0.030 0.038 0.031 0.430
Satisfaction 0.445 0.031 0.490 0.000
R2 0.154 0.349
R2 Change 0.195*
* p<0.001.
Note: The analyses controlled for the variables of nationality, previous visits, age, number of stops,
travel companion, type of tour, income and education.

Table 4. Relationship between Intention to Revisit the Road, Aesthetic Experiential Qualities
and Satisfaction: Hierarchical Regression Analysis (N=688)
Intention to revisit the road Intention to revisit the road
Independent B Std. Beta Sig. R2 B Std. Beta Sig. R2
variables error error
(Constant) 3.328 0.442 0.000 2.397 0.457 0.000
Scenery 0.014 0.078 0.008 0.859 -0.071 0.077 -0.043 0.359
Cleanliness 0.227 0.091 0.119 0.013 0.192 0.089 0.100 0.031
Harmony -0.079 0.080 -0.049 0.327 -0.132 0.079 -0.081 0.096
Art/Architecture 0.090 0.077 0.059 0.243 0.085 0.075 0.056 0.262
Genuineness 0.242 0.072 0.155 0.001 0.199 0.071 0.128 0.005
Satisfaction 0.344 0.057 0.243 0.000
R2 0.063 0.111
R2 Change 0.048*
* p<0.001.
Note: The analyses control for the variables nationality, previous visits, age, number of stops,
travel companion, type of tour, income, and education.
 Table 5. Relationship between Intention to Visit Similar Roads Aesthetic Experiential
Qualities and Satisfaction: Hierarchical Regression Analysis (690)
Intention to visit similar roads Intention to visit similar roads
Independent B Std. Beta Sig. R2 B Std. Beta Sig. R2
variables error error
(Constant) 3.597 0.317 0.000 2.745 0.329 0.000
Scenery 0.141 0.057 0.117 0.014 0.070 0.056 0.059 0.208
Cleanliness 0.322 0.066 0.229 0.000 0.300 0.064 0.214 0.000
Harmony –0.034 0.059 –0.028 0.569 –0.077 0.057 –0.063 0.180
Art/Architecture –0.020 0.057 –0.018 0.721 –0.024 0.055 –0.021 0.665
Genuineness 0.054 0.053 0.047 0.307 0.016 0.052 0.014 0.760
Satisfaction 0.291 0.041 0.274 0.000
R2 0.098 0.160
R2 Change 0.062*
* p<0.001.
Note: The analyses control for the variables nationality, previous visits, age, number of stops,
travel companion, type of tour, income, and education.
Downloaded by Universite de Sherbrooke At 07:29 25 February 2018 (PT)