Research Article

Advances in Mechanical Engineering

1–12
Ó The Author(s) 2015
A study of novel regenerative braking DOI: 10.1177/1687814015573762
aime.sagepub.com
system based on supercapacitor for
electric vehicle driven by in-wheel
motors

Li-qiang Jin1, Ying Zheng1, Jian-hua Li1 and Yu-long Liu2

Abstract
Taking supercapacitor and battery pack as the energy storage unit, a novel type of regenerative braking system for elec-
tric vehicle driven by in-wheel motors is presented, and a braking energy regeneration control strategy is set up. Then, a
co-simulation test based on CRUISE and Simulink is conducted. The results of simulation show that the novel type of
system can ensure the safety of battery pack and significantly improve the rate of energy regeneration.

Keywords
In-wheel motor, supercapacitor, regenerative braking, electric vehicle

Date received: 6 December 2014; accepted: 14 January 2015

Academic Editor: Chun-Liang Yeh

Introduction effectively, the driving distance of an EV, driven in the

Because of environmental pollution and energy crisis, it is
inevitable for the wide application of electric vehicle (EV)
to realize sustainable development of the world.1 The tech-
nology of EV driven by in-wheel motors devoid of the tra-
ditional mechanical transmission design constraints
adopts the flexible cable among power producer and dri-
ven motors, which becomes the focus of automotive tech-
nology research.2 In-wheel motor is not a new-born
technology; Lohner-Porsche, an old hybrid EV, using four
in-wheel motors was presented for the first time at the
Universal Exhibition in Paris as early as 1898.3 In 2006,
C-Métisse equipped with an in-wheel motor of TM4
Company was displayed at the Paris Exhibition.4 A proto-
type pure-electric ground vehicle and a four-wheel motor
series hybrid prototype equipped with four in-wheel
motors were studied to show the energy conservation
potential for using in-wheel motors.5–7
The short driving distance is a fatal weakness for the
development of EV. By recycling braking energy
urban areas, could be increased about 26% according
to the statistical data.8 It can be seen that regenerative
braking is an effective approach to extend the driving
range of an EV. Regenerative braking, as an important
working pattern to EV, can recycle and store the brak-
ing energy to the storage unit during the vehicle decel-
eration or braking. In Gao et al.,9 the efficiency of
regenerative braking in the case of three different
braking conditions was evaluated, and the results indi-
cated that a great amount of braking energy can be
recovered. The research on regenerative braking system
1
College of Automotive Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, China
2
Automotive Engineering Research Institute, China Automotive
Technology and Research Center, Tianjin, China
Corresponding author:
Ying Zheng, College of Automotive Engineering, Jilin University,
Changchun 130025, China.
Email: yingzheng13@mails.jlu.edu.cn

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openaccess.htm).
2 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Super
Brake capacitor ,FDS 
9F
& ,O
9FDS
DC/DC ,F
Battery 5OHDN
Controller 

In-wheel Motor Figure 2. The equivalent circuit diagram of supercapacitor.

motor Controller

intensity. If the braking current is less than the charg-

ing current threshold, the braking energy is stored in
Figure 1. Configuration of the regenerative braking system. the battery pack directly. Otherwise, the braking energy
is stored in the supercapacitor for the sake of recycling
more braking energy and preventing battery damage
for a rear-driven electrified minivan was carried out from large current; then, the braking energy is trans-
and a new regenerative braking control strategy named ferred from the supercapacitor into the battery pack in
‘‘modified control strategy’’ was proposed.10 In Zou et the form of low current under non-braking condition.
al.,11 supercapacitors were employed in the regenerative
braking system to recycle high-current braking energy. The model of regenerative braking system
The experiment results showed that the maximum
braking energy regeneration efficiency could reach up Supercapacitor model. According to the equivalent circuit
to 88%. In Hong et al.,12 Gao and Ehsani,13 and diagram shown in Figure 2, the supercapacitor model
Panagiotidis et al.,14 the characteristics of regenerative of the braking energy storage unit is established, which
braking were analyzed and the energy recovery effi- consists of ideal capacitor and equivalent resistor.
ciency was also calculated. Using the analysis method of state equation,
However, not all of the braking energy can be Figure 2 can be expressed by the following formulas
recycled. The regenerative braking process is impacted
by many factors, such as battery state of charge (SOC) x_ = Ax + Bu ð1Þ
and braking intensity.15 The braking power and the y = Cx + Du ð2Þ
braking current of motors are distributed in a wide
range during the process of actual regenerative braking. where x = ½Vc , u = icap , and y = Vcap .
It is obvious that the overlarge current cannot charge According to the Kirchhoff law and the charging
the battery directly. In this article, a new type of regen- and discharging characteristics of supercapacitor, the
erative braking system taking battery pack and super- terminal voltage of the supercapacitor can be expressed
capacitor as energy storage is presented for a higher by the following formula if icap represents the discharge
rate of braking energy recovery in EV driven by in- current in the case of discharging16
wheel motors.
Vcap = Vc  icap RESR ð3Þ
dvc  
The implementation of the regenerative C =  icap + iL ð4Þ
braking system dt
Vc
The configuration of the regenerative braking system is iL = ð5Þ
RLeak
shown in Figure 1; the system comprises in-wheel
motors, direct current (DC)/DC controller, battery where Vcap is the terminal voltage of the supercapacitor
pack, and supercapacitor. The battery using lithium and iL is the leakage current.
iron phosphate and the supercapacitor are the energy According to formulas (4) and (5), formula (6) can
storage units. In order to recycle more braking energy be obtained as follows
in the braking process and prevent battery damage
from large current, a supercapacitor is added to the dVc 1
C = Vc  icap ð6Þ
system. dt RLeak
The working principle of the novel regenerative Vcap = Vc  RESR icap ð7Þ
braking system is as follows. During braking, the
required brake torque is produced by in-wheel motor. The parameters A, B, C, and D shown in formulas
The recovery direction of braking energy is controlled (1) and (2) can be expressed as follows based on formu-
by DC/DC controller according to the braking current las (5) and (6)
Jin et al. 3

   
1 1
A=  , B=  , C = ½1, D = ½RESR  Acceleration˖a
CRLeak C
Braking current˖I_b
Super capacitor SOC˖
A voltage cut-off value VLow is set when the simula- cap_SOC
tion model of the supercapacitor is established to over- Battery SOC˖bat_SOC
come the weakness that supercapacitor under the N
a<0? Non-braking
condition of low energy has low working efficiency. Y
The supercapacitor will be interrupted if the working Braking
N
voltage is less than VLow .17 Therefore, the braking cap_SOC>A3?
N
energy that can be recycled from the supercapacitor is I_b<A1? Y
as follows Y
N
bat_SOC<A2?
N
1  2 2
 bat_SOC<A2?
Y
E= C VCr  VLow ð8Þ Y
2 Braking energy Braking energy
is recovered into Braking energy is transferred Remain
2
where VCr is the rated voltage of the supercapacitor, super capacitor is recovered into from super into unchange
battery pack battery pack
whose unit is volts.
The SOC of the supercapacitor refers to the ratio of
energy stored in the supercapacitor corresponding to Figure 3. The control flow diagram.
the terminal voltage Vcap at one point and that corre-
2
sponding to the terminal voltage VCr when the superca-
pacitor is fully charged. It can be expressed as follows where SOC0 is the initial SOC of the battery, CN is the
rated capacity of the battery, and Ibat is the battery
1 2 2
2 CVcap Vcap current.
SOC = 1 2
= 2
ð9Þ
2 CVCr
VCr
Control strategy for braking energy
Battery pack model. The battery pack model includes the recycling
following calculation modules: In this article, the control strategy for the braking
energy recycling of the regenerative braking system is
1. Terminal voltage calculation module of battery built up based on logic threshold value control.19
According to the logic threshold value of braking
This module is used to calculate the internal resistance current, battery SOC and supercapacitor SOC are set
and terminal voltage of battery pack. The calculation in advance; the process of braking energy recycling is
formulas are as follows divided into three sub-processes: the braking energy is
recycled to the battery when the braking current value
Voc = f (SOC, t) ð10Þ is less than the logic threshold value of braking current.
R = f (SOC, t) ð11Þ The energy is recycled to the supercapacitor when the
braking current value is greater than the logic threshold
V = Voc  IR ð12Þ value of braking current and the energy is translated
from supercapacitor into battery under non-braking
Based on the formulas above, the terminal voltage
condition. The specific control flow diagram is shown
of battery Voc is the function of battery SOC and time
in Figure 3. A1, A2, and A3 represent the logic thresh-
t, so it is the same with the internal resistance R. The
old value of the braking current, the logic threshold
function relationship can be obtained by fitting the
value of the battery SOC, and the logic threshold value
experimental data of battery pack.
of the supercapacitor SOC, respectively.
Acceleration of vehicle, represented by ‘a’, deter-
2. SOC calculation module of battery mines the motion state of the system. The vehicle is run
under braking condition when the acceleration a \ 0.
The SOC of the battery can be obtained according to Taking the maximum allowable charging current of
current integration.18 It is shown in the following lithium iron phosphate battery as the basis of logic
formula threshold design of braking current not damaging the
battery pack, the threshold A1 is set to 50 A. The brak-
ðt
100 ing energy is recycled into the supercapacitor when the
SOC = SOC0   Ibat (t)dt ð13Þ braking current is larger than A1. In order to improve
CN
0 the energy recovery efficiency and decrease the energy
4 Advances in Mechanical Engineering
Figure 4. AVL CRUISE model of electric vehicle driven by in-wheel motors.
loss in the energy transfer process from supercapacitor
to battery pack, first the braking energy should be
recycled into battery pack. Thus, the SOC of the
lithium iron phosphate battery threshold A2 is set to
0.8. The braking energy is recycled into battery pack if
the braking current is less than A2, otherwise it is
recycled into the supercapacitor. The braking energy is
transferred from the supercapacitor to battery pack
when the vehicle is run under non-braking condition.
Setting the SOC of supercapacitor to 0.4 according to
the impact of supercapacitor charging and discharging
characteristics on energy transfer, the braking energy
stored in the supercapacitor is transferred to battery
pack if the SOC of supercapacitor is larger than A3.
Simulation results and analysis
The vehicle dynamics model driven by in-wheel motors
is built up by AVL CRUISE software. In addition, the
EV, in this article, is a four-wheel independent drive
EV. Therefore, the simulation model of the EV driven
by in-wheel motors based on AVL CRUISE is shown
in Figure 4.
AVL CRUISE can provide a precise vehicle system
dynamics model and EV components model. Not only
the vehicle body model but also battery pack model,
driving motor model, tire model, and braking system
are included in the simulation model. The
MATLAB.dll module used to co-simulate with
MATLAB/Simulink is also added in the vehicle
dynamics model. The main parameters of the EV, bat-
tery pack, and in-wheel motor in the simulation process
are shown in Table 1.
The simulation model for the braking energy storage
unit of the regenerative braking system is established in
MATLAB/Simulink. The top-level module of the
supercapacitor model based on the supercapacitor cir-
cuit diagram in Figure 2 and formulas (5) and (6) is
shown in Figure 5, which consists of supercapacitor
SOC calculation module, current calculation module,
and temperature calculation module.
This model can simulate the supercapacitor and one
of the energy storage units, and recycle the large brak-
ing energy in the simulation process. Charge and dis-
charge characteristics of it have been verified, and the
results showed that the characteristics of the above
simulation model met well with the tests of the realistic
capacitor. Therefore, the simulation model of the
supercapacitor which is established in MATLAB/
Simulink can well reflect the actual characteristics of
the supercapacitor.
Simulation conditions
Based on the five typical working conditions, namely,
low-intensity braking, medium-intensity braking, high-
intensity braking, Federal Test Procedure (FTP)-75 cir-
culation condition, and New European Driving Cycle
Jin et al. 5

(NEDC) circulation condition, the simulation tests are
carried out. The low-, medium-, and high-intensity
braking conditions are defined as three driving cycles.
Each loop of the low-intensity braking condition
includes three processes: the acceleration process from
0 to 40 km/h, the driving process at a constant speed of
40 km/h, and the braking process from 40 km/h to 0.
Similarly, each loop of the medium-intensity braking
condition also includes three processes: the acceleration
process from 0 to 80 km/h, the driving process at a
constant speed of 80 km/h, and the braking process
from 80 km/h to 0. The loop process of the high-
intensity braking condition is as follows: the accelera-
tion process from 0 to 120 km/h, the driving process at
a constant speed of 120 km/h, and the braking process
from 120 km/h to 0, which is similar to the above
conditions.

Simulation and verification

Table 1. Simulation parameters.
Parameter
Vehicle Curb weight (kg)
Total mass (kg)
Wheelbase (m)
Height of gravity (m)
Wheel rolling radius (m)
Motor Motor type
Continuous torque (N m)
Peak torque (N m)
Continuous power (kW)
Peak power (kW)
Peak speed (r/min)
Input DC (V)
Number
Battery Monomer voltage (V)
Monomer capacity (A h)
Number of battery monomer
Internal resistance (O)
PSM: power supply motor.
Because of the design targets of improving the energy
recovery efficiency and ensuring battery pack safety,
Value battery SOC, and supercapacitor SOC along with vehi-
cle speed, the comparison of the SOC value of battery
1200 for the system equipped with supercapacitor and with-
1580 out supercapacitor is regarded as the main evaluation
2.61
0.5
index to evaluate the performance of the novel regen-
0.282 erative braking system.
PSM The simulation results of low-intensity braking,
100 medium-intensity braking, and high-intensity braking
200 conditions are shown in Figures 6–11. The battery cur-
5
20 rent and supercapacitor current along with vehicle
1350 speed for vehicle driving on low-intensity braking,
300 medium-intensity braking, and high-intensity braking
4 conditions are shown in Figures 6, 8, and 10. During
3.2 low-intensity braking, the current of supercapacitor
40
94 remained 0, except for some instant impulse current.
7.0E–4 The braking current and supercapacitor current, during
medium-intensity braking, have been more than 80 A.
The maximum braking current has been more than

Figure 5. Simulation model of supercapacitor.

6 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

50 80
speed
capacitor current
60
battery current
40
40
speed 䠄㼗㼙㻛㼔䠅

20

current 䠄㻭䠅
30

20
-20

-40
10
-60

0 -80
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
time 䠄㼟䠅

Figure 6. Battery current and supercapacitor current along with vehicle speed in low-intensity braking cycle.

50 1

0.9
speed
40 capacitor SOC 0.8
battery SOC
0.7
speed 䠄㼗㼙㻛㼔䠅

30 0.6

soc
0.5

20 0.4

0.3

10 0.2

0.1

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
time 䠄㼟䠅

Figure 7. Battery SOC and supercapacitor SOC along with vehicle speed in low-intensity braking cycle.

300 A during high-intensity braking. However, the cur-
rent of battery pack is always less than 50 A, within the
range of setting threshold, which protects the safety of
the battery pack effectively. The battery SOC and
supercapacitor SOC along with vehicle speed for vehi-
cle driving on low-intensity braking, medium-intensity
braking, and high-intensity braking conditions are
shown in Figures 7, 9, and 11. During low-intensity
braking, the braking energy is recovered by battery
pack completely because of the small braking current
so that the SOC of battery pack increases while the
value of supercapacitor is almost unchanged. Because
the braking current is more than 50 A mostly, the SOC
of supercapacitor, during medium-intensity braking,
increases obviously. However, the value of battery pack
has only a slight increase. Similar to medium-intensity
braking, during high-intensity braking simulation, the
capacitor SOC shows a great increase and the battery
SOC gradually increases. As can also be seen from
Figures 7, 9, and 11, the SOC value of supercapacitor
decreases, while the value of battery pack increases dur-
ing non-braking simulation. The above analysis shows
Jin et al. 7

90 200
speed
capacitor current
80 battery current
braking current 100
70

60 0
speed 䠄㼗㼙㻛㼔䠅

current 䠄㻭䠅
50
-100
40

30 -200

20
-300
10

0 -400
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
time 䠄㼟䠅

Figure 8. Battery current and capacitor current along with vehicle speed in medium-intensity braking cycle.

90 speed 1
capacitor SOC
80 battery SOC 0.9

70 0.8

0.7
60
speed 䠄㼗㼙㻛㼔䠅

0.6
50

soc
0.5
40
0.4
30
0.3
20
0.2

10 0.1

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
time 䠄㼟䠅

Figure 9. Battery SOC and supercapacitor SOC with vehicle speed in medium-intensity braking cycle.

that the simulation results can satisfy the control strat-
egy for regenerative braking based on logic threshold.
Figure 12 shows the comparison of battery SOC for
the system equipped with supercapacitor and without
supercapacitor during simulation under medium-
intensity braking condition. The simulation result
shows that the battery SOC has increased slightly when
the system is equipped with supercapacitor. We can
safely conclude that supercapacitor appears to have
played a role in improving the rate of energy
regeneration.
Figure 13 shows the comparison of battery SOC for
the system equipped with supercapacitor and without
supercapacitor during simulation under high-intensity
braking condition. Compared with medium-intensity
braking condition, the battery SOC has increased obvi-
ously when the system is equipped with supercapacitor.
Therefore, adding supercapacitor to the energy storing
device could significantly improve the rate of energy
regeneration.
Figure 14 shows battery SOC and the supercapacitor
SOC along with vehicle speed for simulation under
8 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

140 500
speed
130
capacitor current 400
120 battery current
110 braking current 300
100 200
speed 䠄㼗㼙㻛㼔䠅

90

current 䠄㻭䠅
100
80
70 0
60
-100
50
40 -200
30 -300
20
-400
10
0 -500
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
time 䠄㼟䠅

Figure 10. Battery current and supercapacitor current along with vehicle speed in high-intensity braking cycle.

speed
130 1
capacitor SOC
120 battery SOC
0.9
110
0.8
100
90 0.7
speed 䠄㼗㼙㻛㼔䠅

80 0.6
70

soc
0.5
60
50 0.4

40 0.3
30
0.2
20
0.1
10
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
time 䠄㼟䠅

Figure 11. Battery SOC and supercapacitor SOC along with vehicle speed in high-intensity braking cycle.

FTP-75 cycle condition. It can be seen that the SOC of
the supercapacitor increases significantly when the vehi-
cle brakes at higher speed, while the SOC of the battery
increases gently when the vehicle brakes at lower speed.
During non-braking simulation, the supercapacitor
SOC decreases while the battery SOC increases slowly.
Figure 15 shows the comparison of battery SOC for
the system equipped with supercapacitor and without
supercapacitor during simulation in FTP-75 cycle.
However, the improvement in battery SOC for the sys-
tem equipped with supercapacitor compared to the one
without supercapacitor is not obvious for less-medium
and high-intensity braking conditions of FTP-75 cycle.
It can be seen that the supercapacitor has played a part
in the process of the braking energy recycling.
In order to further verify the performance of the
novel regenerative braking system, the simulation tests
based on NEDC circulation condition were carried out.
The simulation results are shown in Figures 16 and 17.
Figure 16 shows the battery SOC and the supercapaci-
tor SOC along with vehicle speed for simulation under
the NEDC cycle condition. At the beginning of the
Jin et al. 9

speed
100 with capacitor 1
without capacitor

80 0.8
speed 䠄㼗㼙㻛㼔䠅

60 0.6

SOC
40 0.4

20 0.2

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
time 䠄㼟䠅

Figure 12. Comparison of battery SOC for medium-intensity braking.

speed
140 1
with capacitor
without capacitor
120
0.8
100
speed 䠄㼗㼙㻛㼔䠅

0.6
80

SOC
60
0.4

40

0.2
20

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
time 䠄㼟䠅

Figure 13. Comparison of battery SOC for high-intensity braking.

cycle condition, the braking intensity is small and the
braking energy is recovered by battery pack completely
because of low vehicle speed. Hence, the SOC of bat-
tery pack increases during vehicle braking, while the
value of supercapacitor is almost unchanged. However,
the SOC of the supercapacitor increases significantly
when the vehicle brakes at higher speed. During non-
braking simulation, the supercapacitor SOC decreases
while the battery SOC increases slowly.
Figure 17 shows the comparison of battery SOC for
the system equipped with supercapacitor and without
supercapacitor during simulation in NEDC cycle.
However, the improvement in battery SOC for the sys-
tem equipped with supercapacitor compared to the one
without supercapacitor is not obvious for less-, medium-
and high-intensity braking condition of NEDC cycle. It
can be seen that the supercapacitor has played a part in
the process of the braking energy recycling.
10 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

speed
100 1
capacitor SOC
90 battery SOC 0.9

80 0.8

70 0.7
speed 䠄㼗㼙㻛㼔䠅

60 0.6

soc
50 0.5

40 0.4

30 0.3

20 0.2

10 0.1

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
time 䠄㼟䠅

Figure 14. Battery SOC and supercapacitor SOC along with vehicle speed in FTP-75 cycle.

140 speed 1
with capacitor
120 without capacitor
0.8
100
speed 䠄㼗㼙㻛㼔䠅

0.6
80

SOC
60
0.4

40

0.2
20

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
time 䠄㼟䠅

Figure 15. Comparison of battery SOC for FTP-75 cycle.

is carried out. By using supercapacitor and battery pack

Discussion
A novel type of regenerative braking system with super-
capacitor for EV driven by in-wheel motors that can
bear large charging current is presented. The vehicle
simulation model with the supercapacitor model and the
in-wheel motor driving system is built and a braking
energy regeneration control strategy is set up. The co-
simulation for vehicle driving on four typical working
conditions on the basis of AVL CRUISE and Simulink
as energy storage units, the overlarge current can be
recovered in the braking process. The results of simula-
tion show that the novel type of system can ensure the
safety of battery pack and significantly improve the rate
of energy regeneration at the same time. It is evident
that the supercapacitor technologies will improve the
performances of regenerative braking system for EV dri-
ven by in-wheel motors and bring regenerative braking
technology in a new level.
Jin et al. 11

speed
130 1
capacitor SOC
120 battery SOC 0.9
110
0.8
100
90 0.7
speed 䠄㼗㼙㻛㼔䠅

80 0.6
70

soc
0.5
60
50 0.4

40 0.3
30
0.2
20
0.1
10
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
time 䠄㼟䠅

Figure 16. Battery SOC and supercapacitor SOC along with vehicle speed in NEDC cycle.

speed
130 with capacitor 1
120 without capacitor
110
0.8
100
90
speed 䠄㼗㼙㻛㼔䠅

80 0.6

SOC
70
60
50 0.4

40
30
0.2
20
10
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
time 䠄㼟䠅

Figure 17. Comparison of battery SOC for NEDC cycle.

Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests
regarding the publication of this article.
Funding
This work was supported by National Science Foundation of
China (E50907030) and China Postdoctoral Science
Foundation (2013M540248).
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