Beliefs in Society Full Model Exam Paper 1

1. Outline and explain two ways in which science differs from religion.
(10 marks)

Model answer

 Scientific knowledge is based on empirical investigation – the rational

and objective collection of facts. This makes science an open belief
system. Religious knowledge, on the other hand, is based on faith in
that some religions accept without question that God exists and that
sacred texts are literally true. This makes religion a closed belief
system.
 Scientific thinking and practice are regarded as logical and rational
because they follow rules and procedures when gathering evidence
whereas believing in God is both irrational and illogical considering
the lack of evidence. Scientific observation, theories and experiments
can be checked and verified by other scientists, i.e. they are reliable,
whereas although religious belief is shared with others, religious
theology cannot be checked and verified.

2. Read Item A below and answer the question that follows

Item A

Durkheim argued that religious worship brings people together in a collective

communal environment such as a church and encourages both social solidarity
and social integration. People feel common bonds as members of the same
moral Christian, Islamic, Jewish, Sikh etc. community.

Based on his study of a primitive religion called totemism, Durkheim argued

that God or the sacred is symbolic of society. So even in a modern society,
communal worship or identifying with a religion is actually the worship of
society. Religion is the glue that binds the individual to society.
Beliefs in Society Full Model Exam Paper 1

Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, analyse two functions that
religions may perform in modern societies. (10 marks)

Model answer

 Item A observes that a major function of religion is to promote social

integration and consequently a feeling of belonging to one nation or
community. Religion does this by encouraging collective worship so that as
Item A notes people feel common bonds and feel a sense of common identity
as members of Christian, Islamic, Jewish, Sikh etc. communities. However,
religion also ties the individual to society in Durkheim’s view because the
worship of God is actually symbolic of the worship of society.

 Another major function of religion is to socialise society's members into value

consensus by investing particular values with a sacred quality - certain values
are set apart by religion and infused with religious symbolism and special
significance. These values become 'moral codes' - beliefs which society agrees
to revere and socialise children into. These mores aim to socially control our
behaviour in regard to crime, sexual behaviour and obligation to others, and
reinforce social order. For example, The Ten Commandments are a set of
moral codes that have influenced both formal controls such as the law (e.g.
'thou shalt not kill/steal etc'.) as well as informal controls such as moral
disapproval (e.g. 'thou shalt not commit adultery').

3. Read Item B below and answer the question that follows.

Item B

A civil religion is a secular, and often political belief system which induces a mass
response which is similar in terms of passion, dedication and commitment to that
found in a conventional religion. Bellah argues that, despite America’s social and
religious divisions, the American people are largely unified by an overarching
‘civil’ religion - a faith in Americanism. He argues that this civil religion has
successfully incorporated elements of religious worship into American rituals,
ceremonies and ideologies, and consequently it generates widespread loyalty and
commitment to the American way of life. Bellah notes that God and Americanism
appear to walk hand in hand and that ‘God’ underpins most aspects of American
society. For example, students in many US schools recite a daily pledge of
Beliefs in Society Full Model Exam Paper 1

allegiance to the flag of the USA ‘and to the Republic for which it stands, ‘One
Nation under God’.

Some sociologists have attempted to apply this argument to the UK but Beckford
argues that because there are too many economic, social, religious, regional and
racial divisions in the UK for Britishness as a civil religion to unite Britain.
Beckford concludes that if the UK has a civil religion, it is at best occasional – and
at worst weak.

Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate the theory of civil
religion. (20 marks)

Model answer

As Item B observes, Robert Bellah believed that that some secular belief systems,
especially political ones had successfully incorporated elements of religious worship
into their rituals, ceremonies and ideologies.

Bellah particularly applied this argument to the modern day USA. He argues that,
despite America’s social inequalities and divisions, the American people are largely
unified by a faith in a civil religion known as ‘Americanism’. Unlike the
conventional religions of Catholicism, Protestantism and Judaism, which are unable
to claim the allegiance of all Americans, civil religion generates widespread loyalty
to the nation state of the the USA.

Bellah argues that the USA has taken the idea of God and wedded it to American
principles so that Americanism appears to walk hand in hand with religious belief
and worship. In this view, Bellah is very influenced by Durkheim’s idea that the
worship of God or religion is actually the worship of society. Bellah illustrates this
by noting that ‘God’ underpins most aspects of American society. For example, US
patriotism and pride often involves the belief that God is on ‘our side’. American
coins tell the world ‘In God We Trust’, American Presidents swear an oath of
allegiance before God, and the phrase ‘God Bless America’ ends speeches given by
presidents and national events such as the Super Bowl.

O’Toole notes that the USA has re-invented itself as the ‘promised land’ whilst
Americans often see themselves as the ‘chosen people’. McGuire argues that many
Beliefs in Society Full Model Exam Paper 1

American civil ceremonies such as the Fourth of July and Thanksgiving have
religious characteristics. Some places such as the Lincoln Memorial and Mount
Rushmore have become national shrines that invoke awe and reverence like
religious shrines. McGuire notes that the Stars and Stripes flag is a sacred object
whilst folk heroes such as Lincoln, Washington, Kennedy etc have become secular
saints to the American people.

Will Herberg argues that the religious content of churches, denominations and
synagogues in the USA has been watered down. He argues that American religious
institutions place little emphasis on belief in specific religious texts but instead stress
belief in the American Way of Life, especially the core values of American society
such as freedom, democracy and achievement. Herberg and Bellah therefore argue
that this faith in Americanism helps unite the American people. In the same way that
Durkheim argues that belief in and worship of God is really the worship of society,
so belief in God in the USA is actually the worship of US society.

However as stated in Item B, some British sociologists such as Gerald Parsons have
suggested that the UK might have a civil religion demonstrated by events such as
Remembrance Sunday which celebrates Britain’s war dead. He notes that millions
wear red or white poppies and observe a short period of national silence. Taken
together, Parsons argues that such civil rituals and symbols function to celebrate the
civil religion of Britishness and to bring British people together.

Shils and Young also point out that it is difficult to separate national identities from
religious identities in the UK. For example, the monarchy has provided a focus for
symbols of civil religion. For example, the Queen is the symbol of British identity in
that she is head of state yet she is also the Head of the Church of England. The oath
of allegiance sworn by the armed forces and police to the Queen stresses 'God,
Queen and Country'.

However as stated in Item B Beckford rejects the notion of a British civil religion. He
recognises that there are occasions when the nation is drawn together by
nationalistic rituals such as the funeral of Princess Diana in 1997the Queen’s Golden
Jubilee in 2002 as well as the royal weddings of Prince William and Kate Middleton
in 2011 and Prince Harry and Meghan Markle in 2018. However, Beckford rejects
the idea of a British civil religion because there are too many economic, social and
Beliefs in Society Full Model Exam Paper 1

racial divisions as well as too much regional and religious diversity. For example,
the Scots narrowly voted against leaving the UK in 2014. He notes that if the UK has
a civil religion, it is at best occasional – and at worst weak.

The concept of civil religion has been criticised for its methodological vagueness.
There is little empirical evidence to support the view that national ceremonies such
as the funeral of Diana are seen by people as sacred or as reinforcing collective moral
sentiments. Moreover there has been little attempt to prove that these ceremonies
result in social integration. It is merely assumed that they have that effect.

Other sociologists have questioned whether civil religion is really religion. They are
not convinced that it involves worship or the supernatural or that Abraham Lincoln,
Davy Crockett or Diana, Princess of Wales can be compared to the saints of the
Catholic Church.

Finally, Davie notes that conventional religion is still influential yet largely invisible
in terms of its effects on the general population. She believes that the majority
‘believe without belonging’ and often do not feel the need to openly express their
religious beliefs. She believes most countries do not need a civil religion because
they have vicarious religion - the secular proportion of the population is happy to let
the religious minority worship on their behalf, i.e. to take on the ‘spiritual burden’.
However, if there is a national tragedy, the non-practising majority can use the
churches as a source of comfort, spiritual healing etc as when Diana, Princess of
Wales died. Consequently, civil religion does not need to exist because a religious
system always exists just below the surface of society.