INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

Definition of Statistics

 Statistics is a branch of science which deals with the collection,

organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.

NATURE OF STATISTICS

General Uses of Statistics

a. Statistics aids in decision making

 provides comparison
 explain actions that has taking place
 justifies a claim or assertion
 predicts future outcome
 estimate unknown quantities

b. Statistics summarizes data for public use

Examples on the role of statistics

 In the biological and medical sciences, it can help researchers discover

relationships worthy of further attention.

Example:
A Doctor can use Statistics to determine to what extent is an
increase in blood pressure dependent upon age.

 In social sciences, it can guide and help researchers support theories and
models that cannot stand on rationale alone.

Example:
Empirical studies are using Statistics to obtain socio-economic
profile of the middle class to form new socio-political theories on classes
as existing theories apparently are no longer valid.

 In business, a company can use statistics to forecast sales, design

products, and produce goods more efficiently.

Example:
A pharmaceutical company can apply statistical procedures to find
out if a new formula is indeed more effective than the one being used.
Results can help the company decide whether to market the new formula
or not.
  In engineering, it can be used to test properties of various materials.

Example:
A quality controller can be us Statistics to estimate the average
lifetime of the products produced by their current equipment.

Fields of Statistics

a. Descriptive Statistics

 Methods concerned with the collection, description, and analysis of a set

of data without drawing conclusions of inferences about a larger set.
 the main concern is simply to describe the set of data such that otherwise
obscure information is brought out clearly
 conclusions apply only to the data on hand

Example:

1. A bowler wants to find his bowling average for past 12 games.

2. A housewife wants to determine the average weekly amount she spent on
groceries in the past 3 months.
3. A politician wants to know the exact number of votes he received in the
last election.

b. Inferential Statistics

 methods concerned with making predictions or inferences about a larger

set of data using only the information gather from a subset of this larger
set
 the main concern is not merely to describe but actually predict and make
inferences based on the information gathered
 conclusions are applicable to a larger set of data on hand is only a subset.

Example:

1. A bowler wants to estimate his chance of winning a game based on his

current season averages and the averages of his opponents
2. A housewife wants to predict based on last year’s grocery bills, the
average weekly amount she will spend on groceries for this year.
3. A politician would like to estimate, based on an opinion poll, his chance
of winning in the upcoming election.
POPULATION AND SAMPLE

Definition:
A population is a collection of all elements under consideration in a statistical
study. A population data set contains all members of a specified group (the entire list of
possible values.
 Totality of all the observations

Example: All people living in the Philippines, All students in CVSU.

A sample data set contains a part or a subset of a population. The size of the
sample is always less than the size of the population from which it is taken.
 Subset of a population

Example: Some people living in the Philippines, Some students in CvSU..

Example:
A safety inspector conducts air quality test on a randomly selected group of 10
classrooms at Cavite State University.
Population: All classrooms in Cavite State University
Sample: 10 selected classrooms

COLLECTION AND PRESENTATION OF DATA

A variable is a characteristics or attribute of a persons or objects which can
assume different values or labels for different persons or objects under considerations.

TYPES OF VARIABLES

1. Qualitative variable – a variable that yields categorical responses

Example:
 Names
 Color
 Occupation
 Marital status
 Political affiliation

2. Quantitative variable – a variable that takes on numerical values representing

the amount or quantity.

Example:
 Age
 Number of siblings
 Height
 Weight
CLASSIFICATION QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES

1. Discrete vs Continuous

a. Discrete variable – A variable which can assume finite. Usually measured by

counting or enumeration.
Example:
 Number of kids in a class
 Number of eggs in the basket
 Number of votes in an election
 Family members

b. Continuous variable – a variable which can assume infinitely many

corresponding to a line interval.

Example:

 Weight
 Height
 Wind speed
 The amount of sugar in an orange
 The time required to run a mile

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENTS

1. Nominal Level (or Classificatory scale)

The nominal level is the weakest level of measurement where number or

symbols are used simply for categorizing subjects into different groups. Labels
are used to classify the respondents or objects without ordering.
Example:
 Sex (Male , Female)
 Marital Status ( single, married, widowed, separated)
 Color (blue, red, green, yellow, )
2. Ordinal Level (Ranking scale)

The ordinal level of measurement contains the properties of nominal level, and in
addition, the number assigned to categories of any variable maybe ranked or
ordered in some low to high manner.

Example:
 Teaching ratings ( 1-poor 2-fair 3-good 4-excellent)
 Year level ( 1st 2nd 3rd 4th )
 Size of T-shirt (small, medium ,large)
 3. Interval level

The interval level is that which the properties of the nominal and the ordinal
levels and in addition the distance between any two numbers on the scale are of
known sizes. An interval scale must have a common and constant unit of
measurement. Furthermore the unit of measurement is arbitrary and there is “no
true zero point” .

Example:
 IQ
 Temperature (in Celsius)
 SAT score

4. Ratio scale

The ratio level of measurement contains all properties of the interval level and in
addition, it has a’ true zero” point.

Examples:
 Distance
 Weight
 Height

DATA COLLECTION METHODS

1. Direct or Interview method

Direct or Interview method is a person to person encounter between the source

of information, the interviewee and the one who gathers information, the
interviewer. Interview can be done personal, through phone or internet access.

2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method

Indirect or Questionnaire method is a technique in which questionnaire is used

to elicit the information or data needed. The questionnaire is consist of questions
printed or type in the definite order on a form or a set of forms.

3. Registration method

Registration method obtains data from the records of the government agency
authorized by law to keep such data or information and made these available to
the researchers.

Example:
 Birth and Death Rates – National Statistics Office (NSO)
  Number of Registered Cars – Land Transportation Office (LTO)
 List of Registered Voters – Commission on Elections ( COMELEC)

4. Observation method

Observation method is a technique in which data particularly those pertaining to

the behaviours of individuals or group of individuals during the given situation are
best describe through observation.

Example:
 Observing the children’s behaviour
 Observing the costumers movement
 Observing the traffic count

5. Experimental method

Experimental method is a system used to gather data from the results of

performed series of experiments on same controlled and experimental variables.
This is commonly used in scientific inquiries.

DIFFERENT WAYS OR FORMS TO PRESENT DATA

1. Textual Presentation
 Makes use of words, sentences and paragraph in presentation.
 Data incorporated to a paragraph of a text.

Example:
In a statistics class of 40 students, 3 obtain the perfect score of 50.
Sixteen students got a score of 40 and above, while only 3 got 19 and below.
Generally, the students perform well in the test.

Advantages
 This presentation gives emphasis to significant figures and comparisons
 It is simpler and most appropriate approach when there are a few number
to be presented.

Disadvantage
 When a large mass of qualitative data are included in a text or paragraph,
the presentation becomes more incomprehensible.
 Paragraph can be tiresome to read especially if the same words are
repeated so many times.
 2. Tabular Presentation
 the systematic organization of data in rows and columns

Advantages
 more concise than textual presentation
 easier to understand
 facilitates comparison and analysis of relationship among different
categories
 presents data in greater detail than a graph

Parts of Statistical table

 HEADING – Shows table number, title and head note

 TITLE- brief statement of the nature, classification and time reference of
the information presented and the area to which the statistics refer.
 HEAD NOTE – enclosed in bracket between the title and the top rule of
the table
 BOX HEAD- portion that contains the column heads which describe the data in
each column
 STUB- First column on the left of the table, which describes the data on the given
row
 FOOTNOTE- statement inserted at the bottom of the table
 Source Note – exact citation of the source of data which is usually include
acknowledging the origin of the data.

3. Graphical presentation
  A graph or chart is a devise for showing numerical values or relationships
in pictorial form.
Advantages
 Main focus and implications of a body of data can be grasped at a glance
 Can attract attention and hold the reader’s interest
 Simplifies concepts that would otherwise have been expressed in so
many words
 Can readily clarify data, frequently bring out hidden facts and
relationships

Qualities of Good Graph

 ACCURATE –Reflect the highest degree accuracy

 SIMPLE – Basic design should be simple and straight forward
 CLEAR – it should be easily read and understood
 Attractive – holding a neat, dignified, and professional appearance

TYPES OF GRAPH

1. LINE GRAPH

USE WHEN:
 Data cover a long period of time
 Several series are compared
 Movements are to be emphasized
 Trends are to be established
 Estimates are to be forecasted
Example:
2. BAR GRAPH
 used when numerical values of an item over a period of time are
compared
 consist of regular bars represents the quantity or frequency for each
category

3. PIE GRAPH
 used to show the percentage or composition by parts of a whole

Example:

4. PICTOGRAM OR PICTOGRAPH
 use to immediately suggest the nature of data

Example:
Reference Book
Cordial, R. et al. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Panday-Lahi
Publishing House, Inc.
Electronic References
https://mathbitsnotebook.com/Algebra1/StatisticsData/STPopSample.html
http://academic.sun.ac.za/emergencymedicine/TRRM/module5/BS1-3.htm