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Understanding Anchorage Systems for Natural Stone Cladding

Knowing how anchorage systems work, their main components, and the di erence in system types is critical for designing and
engineering a natural stone cladding system
September 2018
Sponsored by MIA+BSI: The Natural Stone Institute
By Andrew A. Hunt

This course is part of the Natural Stone Academy

Continuing Education
(https://continuingeducation.bnpmedia.com/academies/Natural Stone)
Use the following learning objectives to focus
One of the greenest building materials available is natural stone, especially when sustainable extraction practices are considered. your study while reading this month’s
The material itself is taken straight out of the earth from quarries. From there, it is cut to size, finished, and installed as everything Continuing Education article.
from countertops and flooring to fireplace mantles, backsplashes, walkways, garden walls, and exterior cladding. Stone is low
maintenance, easy to clean, and can offer a long lifetime of protection, beauty, and service, making it an ideal material for green Learning Objectives - After reading this
article, you will be able to:
building projects. Dimension stone is natural rock that has been quarried in prespecified block or slab sizes and finished to certain
specifications and requirements. 1. Discuss the main external forces that affect
natural stone cladding, and explain why
anchorage systems are needed to create a
durable installation.
2. Describe the three elements of a natural
stone anchorage system that ensure a safe
and long-lasting exterior cladding
installation and that can support
sustainable building practices.
3. List the various types of natural stone
anchorage systems available.
4. Explain the importance of proper fill used
around the anchorage embedments to
ensure a durable and sustainable exterior
cladding system.

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All images courtesy of MIA+BSI: The Natural Stone Institute

Houston Museum of Natural Science

Exterior cladding made from natural stone can offer both an aesthetic beauty and sustainable surface to the building, and the anchorage system holding the material in place is a
critical feature.

Introduction to Natural Stone and Anchorage Systems

Today, one ideal use for natural stone is in exterior cladding. Whether it is used to help reduce a building’s heat island effect in a hot and dry climate, or to provide a water- and
freeze-resistant exterior in a colder climate, exterior stone cladding is versatile and appealing. The raw and authentic appeal of stone lends itself to bold and interesting design
options, while also satisfying the structural needs of the building.

Natural stone cladding requires a safe, secure, and durable anchoring system. When used as a cladding, the weight of the stone is subject to several forces that it must be able to resist
—namely gravity, wind pressure, and seismic loads. To ensure a safe and durable stone cladding project, architects need to understand how natural stone anchorage systems work,
what key components are involved, and how to work with engineers and installers.

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Northwestern University Bienen School of Music, Evanston, Illinois
Whether inside in a protected environment or outside, the forces of nature are constantly working against cladding, making anchorage systems a critical safety and sustainable
element of design.

Forces that Impact Natural Stone Anchorage Systems

Forces such as gravity, wind load, and seismic activity all can negatively impact natural stone cladding and anchorage systems if the building team does not consider the potential
impact of these forces. One of the best ways to ensure success is to hire an accredited stone installer to work with the project’s structural engineer and architect. These team members
are better suited for understanding the specific needs of the anchorage system and can ensure the final product remains structurally sound for years to come.

With that in mind, let’s take a look at how nature impacts stone cladding, and how choosing natural stone as a cladding material inherently brings strength and durability to a
project.

The Inherent Qualities of Natural Stone

As a natural product, stone is inherently eco-friendly. While it needs to be cut and finished, the material itself is “ready made” right out of the earth. Stone is naturally very strong,
durable, and easy to maintain. When best practices are used for extraction and manufacturing, natural stone is considered one of the most sustainable products available.

As a dense, strong, and durable product, natural stone works well as an exterior cladding. However, in order for the cladding to be safe and secure, it needs to literally be safely
secured to the building structure by anchorage systems that can withstand the forces that impact natural stone cladding.

Forces that Impact Natural Stone Cladding

Stone cladding panels will be subjected to gravity and to applied loads, such as wind load, thermal movement, and seismic movement—anything that impacts the building’s structure.
The three primary forces that can affect the safety and security of natural stone cladding are gravity, wind load, and seismic load.

Gravity is an obvious force and is best understood by considering the very physical characteristic of stone as a heavy material. Gravity is a vertical force, and it is proportional to the
mass of an object—in this case, a stone panel. The heavier the stone, the more work the anchor needs to do to secure it to the structure.

Wind load is a slightly more complicated concept than gravity, and it is much more complicated to predict and protect against. When wind encounters a building, it exerts pressure
on the walls—and thus the cladding. This pressure can be both positive, with the wind pushing directly on the cladding, or negative, with the wind pulling outward on the wall, or
essentially “sucking” the cladding. In most cases, negative wind loads on buildings tend to be stronger than positive loads. Corners and areas with raised or lowered surfaces typically
experience the highest loads. The pressure that is put on the cladding depends on the building design. Wind loads are expressed in terms of pressure, either in pounds per square foot
(lbs/ft2) in U.S. customary units, or in pascals (Pa) in SI units.

With dimension stone cladding, the wind loads will always be proportional to the area of the stone panel. This means that a strong wind on a large panel will exert more force than
the same wind on a smaller panel. In cases with negative wind pressure, force on the stone can act in inverse, creating suction. Depending on the geometry of the anchor clip design,
in some cases, wind loads can exert forces on the anchor clips that are cumulative with the gravity forces. This is always the case when negative wind loads are experienced by soffit
stones. A building’s size, shape, height, location, and neighboring buildings all can influence wind loads.

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Seismic loads stem from earthquakes and aftershocks, and they are unquestionably the most complicated loads to determine since the load can be both perpendicular and parallel
to the face of the stone. As with gravity, this load is also proportional to the mass of the stone panel. Because seismic activity is not usually associated with high-wind events, standard
building codes rarely require that building design consider a combination (or cumulative) load of seismic and wind loads. That said, in cases where forces perpendicular to thin stone
cladding faces are expected, the wind loads in most cases will be greater than potential seismic loads, and thus will govern most design decisions.

Building codes for seismic loading vary among locations. Some regions are prone to significantly strong earthquakes, which can exert extreme force on the buildings and the exterior
cladding. Compared to regions where earthquakes are infrequent, these buildings will have much higher seismic load requirements. These requirements are determined by the
probability of seismic action and the maximum possible intensity of the quake.

Regardless of the type of load, designers and builders need to understand how the actual load path works for natural stone cladding and ultimately how different loads affect that
path. Load paths are foundational to structural engineering, and they consist of two distinct phases: first, building professionals must identify and quantify the loads; second, they
must understand how that load gets transferred downward to the ground. These calculations are typically done by the structural engineer, not the architect.

Tarrant County Civil Courthouse, Fort Worth, Texas

When installing exterior natural stone cladding, to ensure safety and durability, each piece of the load path is important, and building professionals should understand how each
works individually, as part of the building system, and in response to the various forces.

As noted above, the three natural forces that impact natural stone cladding are gravity, wind load, and seismic load. On the most basic level, the load path begins with the individual
stone panel, and it is transferred through the anchor to the building structure and frame, down to the foundation and footings, and eventually down to solid ground. Each piece of the
path is important, and building professionals should understand how each works individually, as part of the building system, and in response to the various forces. The stone panel,
the anchor, and the connection to the building are usually the three components for which the stone installers are responsible; however, they should plan to work closely with
contractors to ensure that the entire system is safe and secure.

Designing to Withstand the Forces of Nature: Anchorage Systems

Anchors, which secure dimension stone to the building frame, are critical to the safety and durability of a building’s external cladding. The anchorage systems must be chosen or
designed to meet the specific needs of each individual project; anchors are definitely not “one size fits all” so each project needs to be engineered and designed based on the elements
that affect the specific building.

From a structural standpoint, the stone panel is best thought of as a beam. That is, it receives a uniform load along its span, and it carries that load to the anchor points. These
anchor points are usually found along the stone panel’s perimeter. When the panel resists the load, it experiences flexural stress within the panel itself; design engineers
responsible for this aspect of the project must make sure that the flexural stress of the stone panel does not exceed the allowable flexural stress. This allowable stress load can be
calculated by dividing the flexural strength by the appropriate factor of safety for the specific project.

Three factors affect stone panels experiencing flexural stress: load, span, and depth (stone thickness). First, greater, or heavier, loads will result in increased stress within the stone
panel. For example, a high negative wind load that creates suction on a stone panel face during a storm will increase the stress compared to a low-wind situation. The panel’s span
between supports also affects the stress. Increasing the distance between the anchor points (i.e., the span) does two things. First, it increases the bending stresses of the stone panel;
second, it increases the area. This increase in area in turn increases the total load: doubling the span quadruples the stress, giving it a “squared” relationship. Finally, the thickness of
the stone is comparable to the depth of a beam. It also has a squared relationship to stress; doubling the thickness of the stone reduces the stress by a factor of four.

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Anchorage Systems and Performance
There are many types of anchorage systems available, ranging from custom-designed devices for specific projects to standard, commercial options.

Pictured is a combination gravity and lateral-load anchorage using welded stainless steel anchors.

The anchor system connects the stone unit to the building’s framing, and thus is the next critical piece of the load path. Often the anchor consists of multiple components to fasten
the stone panel to the frame. Improperly designed, manufactured, or installed anchor systems are common failure points, often resulting in fractured stone around the anchor prep
cut.

Anchors have three key load transition points: the junction between the stone and the anchor, the anchor itself, and the physical connection between the anchor and the building
frame. Anchors can be attached to the stone panel in a variety of ways, depending on the project and stone type. A “prep cut,” or kerf, is machined into the stone panel. The most
common types are a hole, a “plunge cut” kerf, a kerf of a determined distance, and a continuous kerf.

In order to protect against potential failure, installers should make sure that the anchor tab is properly sized and, if possible, longer than needed to improve the strength of the
connection with the stone panel.

Some situations will call for one type of anchor, while others require another, depending on the load path. For example, the anchorage needs of a load-bearing clip (or shelf) angle,
where gravity is the primary load force, will be very different from a situation where positive or negative wind load (plus gravity) affect the panel.

Anchors can be connected to the building frame with a variety of techniques, depending on the material to which they are being anchored. Expansion anchors, for example, can be
installed into concrete, and other anchors may be welded to hardware embedded in the concrete. If the frame is steel, anchors may be welded or bolted. Lighter-gauge metal frames
may have self-drilling or self-threading fasteners installed as anchors. This connection is the last piece of the load path for which stone installers are usually responsible.

Collaboration Between Project Building Professionals

One of the biggest mistakes that architects may make when considering natural stone cladding is to fail to consult cladding engineers or facade consultants at the start of the project.
A cladding engineer and/or cladding architect can review the architectural details of the project and help ensure that the proposed cladding and anchorage systems are compatible
both with each other as well as with the rest of the project specifications.

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Early communication with a facade consultant can help avoid any problems further along in the project and ensure successful installation.

Structural engineers will almost certainly be involved as engineer of record (EOR) to assess the project for potential seismic and wind loads; consequently, they will be interested in
the cladding anchorage system and how it impacts the structural load. In many cases, the EOR may not be familiar with the cladding system or how it impacts the structural load,
and so early communication with a facade consultant can help avoid any problems further along in the project.

Whenever possible, architects should hire Marble Institute of America (MIA) accredited stone installers to consult on the project (and to perform the installation), and they should be
responsible for designating the anchorage system. Most installers work with many different systems and different stones, and thus can help determine the most appropriate system
for the project. Good practice includes providing performance specifications at the start of the project, making sure that shop drawings and anchorage calculations are always
required; the specs can help the rest of the team be more confident in the anchorage system.

Anchorage Types
The main purpose of anchorage systems is to attach the stone to the frame. To be successful, such systems must resist both lateral and gravity loads. Consequently, the best anchors
generally are the simplest and designed with the fewest components, and thus the fewest potential failure points. Anchors are also carefully designed to prevent galvanic corrosion,
both of which can cause the anchors to fail years after they have been installed.

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Clip or shelf angle anchors work by supporting the stone’s dead load via short, thick L-shaped metal clips.

Clip or shelf angle anchors work by supporting the stone’s dead load via short, thick L-shaped metal clips. The vertical leg of the section is anchored into the building frame, and
the horizontal leg supports the stone cladding.

Shelf angles are usually made of mild steel with corrosion-resistant coatings. While their primary purpose is to support against gravity, they can be modified to address
multidirectional loads by adding a small clip that penetrates the kerf in the stone. If this method is used, the clips are usually stainless steel or other metals with appropriate
separators. With heavier stone, an additional rebate or a kerf cut that is sawn to form a slot may be cut into the bottom edge of the stone to provide full movement function of the
joint.

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Bent stainless plates are ideal for projects where corrosion may weaken the anchorage system.

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A variation on the bent stainless steel plate is a welded plate.

Some projects call for high corrosion resistance, and in such cases, bent stainless plate anchors combined with stainless steel shelf angles can be a good choice. These anchors,
also known as “welded stainless steel Ts,” are usually designed so that the stainless section is a bent plate, and the lateral load is carried via welded tabs located at the end of the plate
or by separate strips of stainless steel welded to the end of the plate. An advantage to using the welded steel option is that a thinner piece of metal can be used for this portion, which
allows for a smaller preparation into the stone, leaving more of the natural stone intact. Additionally, there is an increased length of engagement with stone, which is usually the weak
link of the anchorage system.

As with clip angles, bent stainless plate anchors may also benefit from rebates being cut into the bottom edge of the stone panel and affixed with the stainless steel anchors. This
method allows full movement capability of the joint since the anchor is not occupying any space in the joint.

Aluminum extrusions are most commonly used to help restrain gravity and lateral loads and are available in either short sections or as a continuous section. The different section
lengths provide different challenges and are more appropriate for different purposes. For example, a continuous section length requires that the connections of the aluminum to the
structure be carefully analyzed to minimize deformation between the connection points. If excessive deflection occurs, the anchor will only hold near the connection point and not
along the rest of the span.

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Strap anchors are flat metal bars that are designed to be inserted into a kerf (slot) in the edge of the stone panel.

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Pictured is an example of an anchor failing due to the bolt placement too far from the bend.

Strap anchors are flat metal bars that are designed to be inserted into a kerf (slot) in the edge of the stone panel. The anchor transfers the load from the stone to the wall and must
be strong enough to hold the load without losing its form. The anchor can also bend under negative lateral loads if the hole and the bend are too far; this is one of the most common
misapplications of the strap anchor.

Plug anchors include two components: a threaded rod is screwed into a tapped plug that has been inserted into a round hole in the stone. This anchor type is not often used
because there are less-expensive options available; however, it works very well with softer stone types, such as sandstone, in cubic thickness (greater or equal to 3 inches, or 75
millimeters). With softer stone, plug anchors are known to be significantly stronger than other types of back anchors.

Application and Material In uence on Anchorage Systems

Regardless of the anchor type, it is critical that contact between the minerals in the stone and the metal be controlled to prevent corrosion of the metal, which would compromise its
strength. As noted in the descriptions of the various anchor types, these systems may be both ferrous and nonferrous, and components most often involve stainless steel or
aluminum. The issue of corrosion is directly linked to the application and material influence on the anchorage system, mainly in that different stone types are more prone to moisture
penetration or have mineralogy that affects the metal of the anchor more than other stone types. Consequently, installers need to consider the combination of anchorage systems and
stone types in the context of specific climates and environments. For example, limestone in an arid climate will be less susceptible to corrosion than in a more humid or wet climate.
Architects should be aware of possible corrosion issues and discuss the possibility with the project’s structural engineer and the stone installer before finalizing any decisions.

Some examples of problems that can happen when metal comes in contact with different types of stone are listed below. These examples can be used as a starting point for
considering anchorage options for natural stone.

Calcareous stone types such as limestone and marble are prone to corrosion when in contact with certain untreated metal components. Any metal used must be coated or sheathed
with a compound that does not react with the stone (or other cladding materials). Moreover, the coating must be compatible with the joint sealant. However, not all metal
components are vulnerable to corrosion; for example, stainless steel types 302 and 304 can be used without any protection.

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Aluminum Unitized Anchorage System

Aluminum alloys can be problematic if they come into contact with both moisture and certain stone minerals. For example, when used with calcareous or calcitic stone, aluminum
can potentially corrode, even if it has first been anodized.

Corrosion can also happen if inappropriate components come in contact with siliceous stone, such as granite, and if moisture is present. As such, noncorroding materials must be
used.

As the saying goes, a chain is only as strong as its weakest link, and the same holds true for anchorage systems.

Anchorage System Fill and Finish Work on Natural Stone

Anchorages for natural stone cladding typically require that the joints and surrounding spaces be allowed to accommodate movement.

Sealants can be used to weatherproof joints between the stone panels and any adjacent components. This sealant will be wet when applied, but will cure “soft,” functioning as a
gasket to insulate movement and serving as a buffer between cladding elements so that forces are not transferred between the parts.

The filler material resides in the anchor prep and displaces the void between the penetrating anchor and the interior walls of the anchor prep.

Gypsum-based fillers were popular several decades ago but are no longer considered appropriate for natural stone cladding. Exterior cladding that was installed during the era of
gypsum-based fillers reveals that the material has a low strength and is vulnerable to swelling or erosion if exposed to even a small bit of moisture.

The combination of gypsum-based materials with portland-based products should be avoided. The combination of the two materials will create a hybrid known as “ettringite.”
Ettringite has the unusual property of having a greater volume than the sum of the two parent components, and thus expands.

Cementitious fillers, such as portland cement-based setting grouts, are common and easily available. These fillers tend to cure rapidly (often within 30 minutes) and are
appropriate for many projects. That said, they may be vulnerable to swelling or erosion when exposed to moisture, and thus may be inappropriate in certain environments or for
certain projects.

Resinous fillers, or adhesives, usually refer to epoxy. These fillers are more expensive than other options and typically have slow cure times. There are known problems with the
high level of rigidity of epoxies in their cured state, which has been associated with increased stresses near the anchor prep as a result of limited flexibility. These factors make epoxy
appropriate for certain anchorage systems, but not others. For example, they are safe for securing dowels in cubic stone sections, such as stairs pieces, which are supported by the
structure below, but they are not appropriate for thin stone cladding, where the requirements for a flexible connection come into play.

Elastomeric fillers, such as silicone and polyurethane sealants, are popular choices for filling anchor preps in part because they are flexible in their cured state and allow for
dynamic movement within the anchorage system. This characteristic is beneficial for projects where the stone cladding may require very flexible connections.
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Pictured is an example of bent stainless steel shapes installed in stone cladding.

Shims work as physical spacers. They are typically made of either stainless steel or the more popular high-density, high-impact plastic. Regardless of whether the shim is made of
stainless steel or plastic, it must be able to bear the load without deforming. In some cases, shims are used to provide additional support, while other types of fillers cure, after which
the shims are removed.

The Future of Anchorage Systems

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As the building industry continues to “go green,” anchorage systems will follow the trend, especially as new materials are put into use. One change on the horizon is low- or zero-VOC
chemical anchors as an alternative to traditional adhesives. Eliminating volatile organic compounds in chemical-based anchors and adhesives is particularly important for interior
installations, and the change can positively affect awarded LEED credits. Another modification to chemical adhesives is an “improved UV stability” designation. Any adhesive
material that is exposed to sunlight is also exposed to UV radiation, and over time the adhesive will change color. Newer products will minimize or eliminate this problem.

Two other areas of innovation are in the cure rates of adhesives and improved delivery systems. Many new adhesives now cure much more quickly than traditional options. The trend
is toward strong adhesives that cure quickly and safely. Meanwhile, other companies are exploring ways to improve how the adhesive is mixed and dispensed, with the aim of
reducing waste. For example, an improved trigger mechanism on the adhesive gun makes it easier to squeeze, which results in less wasted material.

Conclusion
In conclusion, one of the most important takeaway messages for architects considering using natural stone exterior cladding is that they must work closely with the structural
engineer for material and anchorage decisions, and they must include accredited specialists in the process from the very start of the project. There are many methods used for
anchoring dimension stone, and the components for each vary. Moreover, the installation of the cladding is only one of the many elements of a complete wall system. Every
component of the wall must be considered when deciding which anchorage system will be best for the project. For example, building professionals must first select a structurally
viable building stone for their respective project before they even think about choosing an anchorage system. If for some reason test data for the stone isn’t current or reliable, they
must plan to test the stone before selecting it. Once this is done, they can determine the panel size and thickness that best complements the physical characteristics of the stone.

Only after these tasks are complete should they choose an anchoring system that is prescriptively designed by the architect or contractor, or the architect can specify a proprietary
panelized system. If the architect specifies a system, they must shoulder the risk and responsibility of the choice. A good team that includes a structural engineer and a stone installer
is critical for the success of the project.

GETTING A FEEL FOR ROCK

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Natural stone cladding can help a building blend into the local environment when native stone is used. Here, New Mexico travertine and limestone are used to match local geography
around the Associated Students of New Mexico State University Center for the Arts.

Natural stone comes in many varieties, and it is important to understand the characteristics and qualities of each type used in construction today.

Granite can be found in hundreds of colors, and it is one of the hardest natural stones. This combination of color and durability makes it an ideal material for everything from
monuments, curbing, and building facing to fireplaces and countertops. /
 Limestone’s uniform texture and grade make it a widely accepted dimension stone, in part because it can be easily cut, carved, and shaped into almost any design. Moreover,
its homogenous nature and natural tendency to look better as it ages makes it a great choice for projects that may eventually be expanded.
As with limestone, marble is a highly versatile stone that can be used for both interior and exterior projects. It can easily be shaped and sculpted, and it holds its beauty for a
very long time. Marble is not as hard as granite, but it is hard enough to be used for flooring, countertops, backsplashes, and shower areas.
Sandstone is a softer, user-friendly stone that has become popular as a wall cladding material and for flooring. As its name suggests, sandstone is made of sand-sized clasts,
and while it can be a variety of colors, it is most commonly available in tones ranging from white and gray to tan and brown.
Slate has a long history of use in construction projects because of its strength and density, which makes it a great choice for exterior cladding and roofing. Slate is frequently
used for interior projects such as countertops, shower enclosures, and flooring.

TESTING ANCHORAGE SYSTEMS

The load path on cladding systems is important to understand for successful anchorage system selection and installation, and three standards relevant to anchorage systems help
ensure a safe and sustainable installation.

Given the critical role anchorages play in natural dimension stone cladding systems, it should be no surprise that the three standards relevant to anchorage systems are both detailed
and thorough:

1. ASTM C1201: Structural Performance of Exterior Dimension Stone Cladding Systems by Uniform Static Air Pressure: ASTM C2101 provides a standard
procedure for determining structural performance under static air pressure difference and is generally used to represent the effects of wind loads on exterior building surface
elements, specifically stone cladding. As noted earlier, wind loads can be difficult to gauge since the impact is affected by many different variables, such as the building surface,
shape, height, surrounding terrain, and other buildings nearby.
2. ASTM C1354: Strength of Individual Stone Anchorages in Dimension Stone: ASTM C1354 is used to inform design decisions concerning the type of anchor used to
support a stone panel. The strength of a limited length anchor may be related to a longer length of support when the flexibility of the support is properly considered by the
designer. This method provides procedures for determining the ultimate strength of an assembly consisting of stone with mechanical anchor. Load is applied in the direction of
the loads anticipated on the building. The test is intended to represent the interaction of the anchor with the stone panel; however, the test does not include the influence of the
backup structure on the strength of the assemblies.
3. ASTM C1242: Standard Guide for Selection, Design, and Installation of Exterior Dimension Stone Anchoring Systems: ASTM C1242 provides an industry
standard for engineering design considerations, documentation, material considerations, anchor type applications, and installation workmanship to assist designers and installers
with achieving a proper and durable stone cladding. The standard outlines the anchor categories and anchoring systems and discusses the design principles that must be
considered in selecting anchors or systems that will resist gravity loads and applied loads.
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GOING GREEN WITH NATURAL STONE
Natural dimension stone is considered a prime building material for many reasons, including the diversity of colors, patterns, and textures, as well as its unmatched durability. In
addition to the aesthetic and durability attributes, natural stone such as granite, marble, limestone, sandstone, and slate all have characteristics that contribute toward LEED
certification or LEED construction. For example, stone is a natural product, and in many cases it can be obtained relatively close to a building site, which can reduce carbon
emissions from shipping a material over long distances. Sustainable quarrying practices can be put in place to help protect the local environment during extraction and to reclaim the
site once extraction is complete.

Other green attributes of natural stone stem from the material’s physical properties. For example, because it is not manufactured, stone poses no risk of chemical off-gassing. This
characteristic makes it desirable for interior projects. Natural stone is useful for exterior projects such as cladding as well, in part because of its high thermal capacitance, which can
help with a building’s energy efficiency requirements for green building certification. Stone’s durability and low maintenance provide green benefits for both interior and exterior
projects. Durability translates to a long material lifespan; unlike some manufactured products, it doesn’t need to be replaced and should last the lifetime of the building. Not only is
stone low maintenance, its aesthetic attributes often improve with age, and again do not require much in the way of treatment.

In addition to the physical properties of the stone itself, new fabrication techniques have made it easier and faster to cut the stone in thinner and more precise slabs. These advances
have developed in tandem with new anchoring systems, which have greatly reduced the installation time and difficulty of stone cladding, and which have also improved the safety,
security, and durability of the cladding once it has been installed on the building exterior.

PULLING STONE
Natural dimension stone is most often quarried rather than mined since it lies close to the surface and thus is moderately easy to extract. Modern quarrying technologies and
practices are much more precise and efficient than they used to be. For example, diamond wires and saws can cut stone to exact dimensions with very little waste. And the practice of
using whatever is produced, whether it is dust or aggregate, for the production of materials such as plaster, cement, or fertilizer adds to the overall sustainable nature of the practice.
Moreover, responsible, sustainable stone companies will ensure that the quarry site is eventually reclaimed for other purposes, such as wildlife habitats, recreation areas, or
parklands.

Once natural stone has been extracted from the quarry, it is cut and finished according to whatever specifications are required. In the case of natural dimensional stone for exterior
cladding, the individual stone slabs will be cut to a designated thickness and finished in any number of ways, whether blasted and shaped with water, polished and buffed, or
sandblasted. Exterior cladding is often prepared using a split-face technique, where the stone is split either by hand or with a machine to reveal its natural texture. This technique
enables a flat back, which can be easily anchored to the building structure and an uneven, “natural” front surface.

Andrew A. Hunt, vice president of Confluence Communications, has 16 years of experience in green building and has produced more than 100 educational and technical
publications. confluencec.com (http://confluencec.com/)

MIA+BSI: The Natural Stone Institute offers a wide array of technical and
training resources, professional development, regulatory advocacy, and
networking events for the natural stone industry.
www.naturalstoneinstitute.org/stoneacademy
(https://www.naturalstoneinstitute.org/stoneacademy)
(https://www.marble-institute.com/)

Originally published in Architectural Record