12.metabolism of Microbes

Metabolism in Microbes
B.Reena Rajkumari
Introduction
• Prokaryotes are metabolically diverse organisms.
• There are many different environments on Earth with various
energy and carbon sources, and variable conditions.
• Prokaryotes have been able to live in every environment by
using whatever energy and carbon sources are available.
• Prokaryotes fill many niches on Earth, including being involved
in nutrient cycles such as nitrogen and carbon cycles,
decomposing dead organisms, and thriving inside living
organisms, including humans.
• The very broad range of environments that prokaryotes
occupy is possible because they have diverse metabolic
processes.
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Why do we need to know?
• Classification and identification
• Ferment products
• Environmental clean up or Bioremediation
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Metabolism
• Metabolism - the sum of the biochemical reactions required for energy generation
AND the use of energy to synthesize cell material from small molecules in the
environment.
Two components:
• Anabolism - biosynthesis
– building complex molecules from simple ones
– requires ENERGY (ATP)
– for the formation of key intermediates and then to end products (cellular
components).
• Catabolism - degradation
– breaking down complex molecules into simple ones
– generates ENERGY (ATP)
– to yield metabolic energy for growth and maintenance.
• 3 Biochemical Mechanisms Utilized

– Aerobic Respiration
– Anaerobic Respiration
– Fermentation B.Reena Rajkumari 4
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Nutrients - Macronutrients
• Cells are essentially a well-organized assemblage of
macromolecules and water
• Nutrients that are required in large amounts are called
macronutrients, whereas those required in smaller or trace
amounts are called micronutrients.
• Macronutrients—carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and sulfur. Carbon is the major element in all
macromolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids,
and many other compounds.
• Carbon accounts for about 50 percent of the composition of
the cell.
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Nutrients - Macronutrients
• Nitrogen represents 12 percent of the total dry weight of a
typical cell and is a component of proteins, nucleic acids, and
other cell constituents
• Hydrogen and oxygen are part of many organic compounds and
of water.
• Phosphorus is required by all organisms for the synthesis of
nucleotides and phospholipids.
• Sulfur is part of the structure of some amino acids such as
cysteine and methionine, and is also present in several vitamins
and coenzymes.
• Other important macronutrients are potassium (K), Magnesium
(Mg), calcium (Ca), and sodium (Na).
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Micronutrients
• Prokaryotes require various metallic elements in small
amounts. These are referred to as micronutrients or trace
elements
• Some prokaryotes require metallic elements—such as boron
(B), chromium (Cr), and manganese (Mn)—primarily as
enzyme cofactors.
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The Ways in Which Prokaryotes Obtain
Energy
• Phototrophs (or phototrophic organisms) obtain their energy
from sunlight.
• Chemotrophs (or chemosynthetic organisms) obtain their
energy from chemical compounds.
• Chemotrophs that can use organic compounds as energy
sources are called chemo-organotrophs.
• Chemotrophacan also use inorganic compounds as energy
sources are called chemolitotrophs.
Metabolic Diversity
• Bacterial metabolism is classified into nutritional groups on
the basis of three major criteria:
1. Source of energy, used for growth
2. Source of carbon, and
3. Sours of electron donors used for growth.
Classification of organisms based on their metabolism
sunlight photo-
Energy
source Preformed
chemo-
molecules
organic
organo-
compound
Electron
donor -troph
inorganic
litho-
compound
organic
hetero-
compound
Carbon
source
inorganic
auto-
compound
1. ENERGY SOURCE
• Phototrophs —can use light energy

• Chemotrophs —must obtain energy from
oxidation-reduction of external chemical
compounds
2. CARBON SOURCE
a. Autotrophs (lithotrophs): —can draw carbon from carbon

dioxide
b. Heterotrophs (organotrophs): —carbon from organic

compounds
c. Mixotrophic – carbon is obtained from both organic

compounds and by fixing carbon dioxide
The Ways in Which Prokaryotes Obtain
Energy
• Organisms that are able to fix inorganic carbon are called
autotrophs. Autotrophic prokaryotes synthesize organic
molecules from carbon dioxide.
• Heterotrophic prokaryotes obtain carbon from organic
compounds Photoautotrophs use energy from sunlight, and
carbon from carbon dioxide and water.
• Chemoheterotrophs obtain energy and carbon from an
organic chemical source.
• Chemolitoautotrophs obtain their energy from inorganic
compounds, and they build their complex molecules from
carbon dioxide
Metabolism of Glucose
1. Here we focus on discussing the metabolism of glucose. For the

metabolism of other organic compounds (eg. Proteins or lipids)
2. Bacteria can produce energy from glucose by fermentation (w/o O2),
anaerobic reaction (w/o O2), or aerobic respiration.
3. Three major metabolic pathways are used by bacteria to
catabolize glucose: Glycolysis (EMP pathway), TCA cycle, & Pentose
phosphate pathway
Glycolysis
(Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas
pathway)
1. The most common pathway for
bacteria in the catabolism of
glucose.
2. Reactions occur under both

aerobic and anaerobic conditions
3. One Glucose =>

2 ATP (2X2-2=2)
2 NADH
2 Pyruvate
Sources of metabolic energy
Substrate-level phosphorylation Respiration: chemical reduction
of an electron acceptor through
a specific series of electron
carriers in the membrane. The
electron acceptor is commonly
O2, but CO2, SO42-, and NO3- are
also employed by some
microorganisms.
Photosynthesis: similar to
respiration except that the
reductant and oxidant are
created by light energy.
Respiration can provide
Fermentation: metabolic process in photosynthetic organisms with
which the final electron acceptor is energy in the absence of light.
an organic compound.
Function of TCA cycle
1. Via the TCA cycle, Pyruvate from glycolysis or other

catabolic pathways can be completely oxidized (w/ O2)
to H2O & CO2
2. Generation of ATP
3. Supplies key intermediates for amino acids, lipids,

purines, and pyrimidines
4. The final pathway for the complete oxidation of amino

acids, fatty acids, and carbohydrates.
Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) cycle
1. Pyruvate => Acetyl-CoA

1x NADH => 3ATP
2. TCA cycle:
3x NADH => 3x 3 ATP
1x FADH2 => 1x 2 ATP
1x GTP => 1x ATP
3. NADH & FADH2 go to

the Electron transport
chain
Electron transport
chain
1. Electrons carried by NADH (FADH2)
 A series of donor-acceptor pairs
 Oxygen: terminal electron
acceptor
 Aerobic respiration
2. Some bacteria use other

compounds
(CO2, NO3-) as terminal acceptor
 Anaerobic respiration
 Produce less ATP
Metabolic strategies
Pathways Final e-
involved acceptor ATP yield
Aerobic Glycolysis, O2 38
respiration TCA, ET
Anaerobic Glycolysis, NO3-, So4-2, variable

respiration TCA, ET CO3-3
Fermentation Glycolysis Organic 2

molecules
Aerobic Respiration
• Molecular Oxygen (O2) serves as the final e- acceptor of the ETC
• O2 is reduced to H2O
• Energy-generating mode used by aerobic chemoheterotrophs
• General term applied to most human pathogens
• Energy source = Oxidation of organic compounds
• Carbon Source = Organic Carbon
• 3 Coupled Pathways Utilized

• Glycolysis
• Kreb’s Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle
• Respiratory Chain or Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
1. Glycolysis (splitting of sugar)
• Carbohydrate (CHO) Catabolism
– Oxidation of Glucose into 2 molecules of Pyruvic acid
– CHO’s are highly reduced structures (thus, H-donors);
excellent fuels
– Degradation of CHO thru series of oxidative reactions
• End Products of Glycolysis:

– 2 Pyruvic acid
– 2 NADH2
– 2 ATP
2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle,TCA)
• Series of chemical reactions that begin and end with citric acid
1. Initial substrate – modified end product of Glycolysis

• 2 Pyruvic Acid is modified to 2Acetyl-CoA, which enters the TCA
cycle
2. Circuit of organic acids – series of oxidations and reductions
• Eukaryotes – Mitochondrial Matrix
• Prokaryotes – Cytoplasm of bacteria & Cell Membrane
• Products:
– 2 ATP
– 6 NADH2
– 2 FADH2
– 4 CO2
3. Electron Transport System
• Occurs within the cell membrane of Bacteria
• Chemiosomotic Model of Mitchell

– 34 ATP
Electron transport system
Overview of Aerobic respiration
Aerobic Glucose Metabolism
x2
Anaerobic respiration
• Utilizes same 3 coupled pathways as Aerobic Respiration
• Used as an alternative to aerobic respiration
Final electron acceptor something other than oxygen:
NO3- : Pseudomonas, Bacillus.
SO4-: Desulfovibrio
CO3-: methanogens
In Facultative organisms and in Obligate anaerobes
•Lower production of ATP because only part of the TCA
• cycle and the electron transport chain operate.
Prokaryotes Alternate electron acceptors
NO3- ----> NO2- or N2O or N2
Pseudomonas, Bacillus nitrate is reduced to nitrite, nitrous
oxide, or nitrogen gas
Desulfovibrio SO42- ----> H2S

(dē’-sŭl-fō-vib-rē-ō) sulfate reduced to hydrogen sulfide
Archaea methanogens & CO32- ----> CH4

other bacteria reduce carbonate to form methane
Others other mechanisms exist.
Fermentation
• Incomplete oxidation of glucose or other carbohydrates in the
absence of oxygen
• Uses organic compounds as terminal electron acceptors
• Effect - a small amount of ATP
• Production of ethyl alcohol by yeasts acting on glucose
• Formation of acid, gas & other products by the action of
various bacteria on pyruvic acid
Fermentation
1. In fermentation, Pyruvate produced from glycolysis is
converted to various end products via bacterial species.
2. The NADH produced during glycolysis is recycled to NAD.
3. Many bacteria are identified on the basis of their
fermentative end products.
4. Fermentation of bacteria produces yogurt, sauerkraut,
flavors to various cheeses and wines.
5. Alcoholic fermentation is uncommon in bacteria.
Saccharomycetes
Clostridium E. coli
Propionebacterium Enterobacter
Streptococcus
Lactobacillus
Fermentation Types
Fermentation End Products
Fermentation may result in numerous end
products
1. Type of organism
2. Original substrate
3. Enzymes that are present and active
• Many pathways of metabolism are bi-directional or
amphibolic
• Metabolites can serve as building blocks or sources of energy
– Pyruvic acid can be converted into amino acids through
amination
– Amino acids can be converted into energy sources through
deamination
– Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate can be converted into
precursors for amino acids, carbohydrates and fats

12.metabolism of Microbes

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Metabolism in Microbes

• 3 Biochemical Mechanisms Utilized

• Phototrophs —can use light energy

a. Autotrophs (lithotrophs): —can draw carbon from carbon

b. Heterotrophs (organotrophs): —carbon from organic

c. Mixotrophic – carbon is obtained from both organic

1. Here we focus on discussing the metabolism of glucose. For the

2. Reactions occur under both

3. One Glucose =>

1. Via the TCA cycle, Pyruvate from glycolysis or other

3. Supplies key intermediates for amino acids, lipids,

4. The final pathway for the complete oxidation of amino

1. Pyruvate => Acetyl-CoA

3. NADH & FADH2 go to

2. Some bacteria use other

Anaerobic Glycolysis, NO3-, So4-2, variable

Fermentation Glycolysis Organic 2

• 3 Coupled Pathways Utilized

• End Products of Glycolysis:

1. Initial substrate – modified end product of Glycolysis

• Occurs within the cell membrane of Bacteria

• Chemiosomotic Model of Mitchell

Desulfovibrio SO42- ----> H2S

Archaea methanogens & CO32- ----> CH4

Others other mechanisms exist.

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