1.

Evidence of directional selection in genomics

a. Selective sweep
i. Def: Reduction in variation among nucleotides around a mutation
undergoing strong, positive natural selection aka “genetic hitchhiking”
ii. Occurs b/c of genetic linkage=> some genes are physical located close
to each other
iii. Areas farther away from the mutation have more genetic variation
due to recombination
iv. Eventually, low genetic variation due to selective sweep decreases
with time b/c of 2 things:
1. New mutations
2. Recombination
v. Examples:
1. Dog BreedingIGF1 allele (GF=growth factor)
2. Tibetan population EPAS1
vi. Chromosomes get closer, more chances for mutation
2. Co-Evolution
Species A Species B (positive effect on both)
a. Frequency Dependent Selection
i. Fitness of individuals varies with the frequency of alleles in the
population
High fitness because body cannot recognize
fitness

Pathogens high in # body starts immune response

Decrease in allele frequency decrease
fitness; fill not go to fixation

Increase in allele frequency increase fitness; will go to fixation

ii. Explains why alleles do not go to fixation.

3. Sexual Reproduction
a. Sex is costly
 i. Low reproductive efficiency compared to asexual reproduction (ex
parthenogenesis)
ii. Wastes time + energy
iii. Males are a total waste
iv. Recombination breaks up good gene combinations
v. Parthenogenesis (one of many asexual repro.)
1. Results in offspring that are genetic clones of the mother
b. Negative implications of asexual reprod.
i. Pathogens can quickly infect an entire population or species because
of similar genetic makeup
ii. # of mites in geckos
c. Benefits of sex
i. Reduce the accumulation of negative/bad mutations + alleles
(Recombination)
ii. Creates genetically diverse offspring (Recombination)
1. “blending” of parental traits
d. Sexual Dimorphism (2-forms)
i. Differences between male and female
ii. Why do males and females differ?
iii. Male-male competition= Intrasexual selection
1. Competition between males for access to femalesestablish
mating rights/territories
2. Sperm Competition (polyandrous community (1 female, but
mates with many partner)
a. Shown in Antecinus
i. Increase sperm competition resulted in increase
fitness of offspring
iv. Intersexual Comptition= Female choice= mate choice
1. Females involved in giving birth; care for the young takes
time and energy
a. “choosy”
2. Females choose for direct + indirect benefits
a. Direct: Female gains territory, more resources from
male
b. Indirect: Benefits the fitness of offspring
e. Good Genes Hypothesis
i. Certain traits are an indicator of higher fitness
ii. Ex. Long calls in frog
1. Represent higher fitness
a. Offspring grow faster, reached reproductive age faster
iii. Sexual Selection doesn’t necessarily follow natural selection, infact,
they may oppose each other
1. Irish Elk dead
a. Huge antlers sexually attractive
i. Species went extinct b/c natural selection was
greater force
 f. Sensory Bias
i. Key Point=Female preference emerges first, then male trait develops
Ex: sword-tail fish
4. Altruism P-T- P+T- P+T+ *cladogram*
a. What is it?
i. Reduction of your own fitness to benefit others
ii. In reality, most animals do not help complete, unrelated strangers
b. Kin-Selection + inclusive fitness
i. Involves fitness of close relatives b/c they have similar genetic make-
up
1. rB-C>0 rB>C
2. relatedness ‘r’
a. in full-siblings 50%
3. ex: tuco-tuco & co-parenting
a. sisters help each other care for young
4. Belding’s Ground Squirrels
i. Female only cry out
ii. b/c females closely related inclusive fitness to
warn other females
5. Haplodiploid (in insects)
a. Males are 1N, females 2N