PHYSIO 2 REVIEWER – GENETIC CONTROL OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS,
CELL FUNCTION AND CELL REPRODUCTION
• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) – controls the formation of RNA
(Ribonucleic Acid) – then RNA travels to control specific
formation of a specific protein
• Gene Expression – entire process from transcription of genetic
code in the nucleus to translation of the RNA code and the
formation of proteins in the cell cytoplasm
• Structural Proteins – form the structures of various intracellular
organelles (in association with lipids and carbohydrates)
• Enzymes – catalyze the different chemical reactions in the cells
• Basic Building Blocks of DNA:
Forms the backbone (two helical strands) of DNA:
o phosphoric acid
o deoxyribose
Connects the two helical strands:
o four nitrogenous bases (2 purines: adenine & guanine; 2
pyrimidines: thymine & cytosine)
• Nucleotides – phosphoric acid + deoxyribose + 1 of the
nitrogenous bases, results to either:
o Deoxyadenylic
o Deoxythymidylic
o Deoxyguanylic
o Deoxycytidylic Acids
• Adenine = Thymine; Guanine = Cytosine
• Genetic Code – ability to control the formation of proteins in the
cell
• Code Words – successive “triplets” of bases; eventually control
the sequence of amino acids in a protein molecule that is to be
synthesized in the cell
• Amino acids: proline, serine and glutamic acid
• Codons – complementary code triplets in RNA; controls the
sequence of amino acids in a protein to be synthesized in the
cytoplasm
• Basic Building Blocks of RNA:
o Phosphoric acid
o Ribose
o Four nitrogenous bases (2 purines: adenine & guanine; 2
pyrimidines: uracil & cytosine)
• RNA polymerase – activates RNA nucleotides; forms
triphosphates (last two phosphates are combined with the
nucleotide by high-energy phosphate bonds)
Properties:
• Promoter – sequence of nucleotides where RNA polymerase
attaches; essential step for initiating formation of RNA molecule
• After attachment, polymerase unwinds two turns of DNA helix
and separation of the strands
• At each stage of unwinding, it adds a new activated RNA
molecule to the end of new forming RNA chain
o Hydrogen bond form between the end base of DNA and
RNA nucleotide in the nucleoplasm
o RNA polymerase breaks two of the triphosphates from
each RNA nucleotides one at a time, liberating huge
amounts of energy
o Chain-terminating sequence – newly formed RNA chain
to break away from the DNA strand
o RNA is forced away from the DNA and is released into
the nucleoplasm
• Complementary codes:
DNA Base RNA Base
Guanine Cytosine
Cytosine Guanine
Adenine Uracil
Thymine Adenine
• Types of RNA:
o Precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) – forms mature
RNA messenger; types of segments: introns (removed by
splicing); exons (retained in final mRNA)
o Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) – directs the splicing of pre-
mRNA to form mRNA
o Messenger RNA (mRNA) – carries the genetic code for
controlling the type of protein formed
• Codons for amino acids: CCG (proline), UCU (serine),
GAA (glutamic acid)
• CI codon: AUG
• CT codon: UAA UAG UGA
o Transfer RNA (tRNA) – transports activated amino acids
to the ribosomes to be used in assembling protein
molecule
• the “anticodons” – specific code of tRNA that allows it
to recognize a specific codon
• acts as a carrier
• cloverleaf appearance
o Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – forms ribosomes
• 60% of ribosomes
• processed in the nucleolus
o MicroRNA (miRNA) – single-stranded; regulates gene
transcription and translation
• noncoding RNA = transcribed from DNA but not
translated into proteins
•pri-miRNA = primary transcripts of the gene 
microprocessor complex  pre-miRNA  cytoplasm 
dicer enzyme  RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC)
 miRNA
• siRNA = small interfering RNA/silencing RNA/short
interfering RNA – double-stranded; interferes with the
expression of specific genes (synthetic miRNA)
• Process of translation: mRNA  ribosome  CI codon 
protein formation  CT codon
• Polyribosomes – clusters of RNA that attaches to single mRNA at
the same time
• Chemical steps in protein synthesis:
(1) activated amino acid (ATP +AA)  adenosine
monophosphate (AMP) complex  (2) + tRNA  amino acid-
tRNA complex (releasing AMP)  (3) + mRNA = anticodon of
tRNA attaches to codon of mRNA = proper sequence to form
protein molecule
• Peptide bonds – formed under influence of peptidyl transferase
Genetic Regulation:
• Regulation of gene expression
• Promoter (basal promoter: TATA box) – controls transcription of
DNA to RNA
• Upstream/downstream promoter (binding sites), enhancers,
insulators (barrier)
Enzyme Regulation:
• Enzyme inhibition – negative feedback control; controls
intracellular concentrations
• Enzyme activation
(Note: for purines and pyrimidines – inhibits their own enzymes and
activates the other enzymes)
Cell Reproduction:
Interphase
 DNA Replication:
- Both entire strands are replicated/duplicated
- DNA polymerase – principal enzyme for DNA
replication
- DNA ligase – causes bonding of successive DNA
nucleotides to one another
  DNA Proofreading – repair process - transfer amino acids to ribosome (***site)
 DNA Mutation – mistakes - contains anti-codon (middle of tRNA)
 46 chromosomes; 23 pairs - clover leaf-shaped
 Histone – large amount of proteins in chromosomes 3. Ribosomal
 Centromere - physical & chemical structure on which protein molecules
 Chromatids – duplicated but still attached are assembled
Cell Mitosis - cell division into two new daughter cells DNA REPLICATION
 Mitotic Apparatus – centrioles, centrosome, aster, - process of duplicating (semi-conservative process)
spindles, microtubules - phosphate: sugar backbone
 Prophase – formation of spindles; condensation of - parallel; opposite in direction
chromosomes  leading strand: 3’ to 5’
 Prometaphase – pulling of paired chromatids - one motion of replication
 Metaphase – equatorial plate  lagging strand: 5’ to 3’
 Anaphase – pulling of chromatids in the centromere = 46 - Okazaki’s fragments
daughter chromosomes - DNA ligase
 Telophase – formation of two new daughter cells; cleavage - cell function & reproduction
furrow Enzymes:
Cell Differentiation: 1. Helicase – separates the bonding (splits DNA)
 Changes in physical and functional properties of cells as 2. Topoisomerase – straightens/unwinds DNA
they proliferate in the embryo to form the different bodily 3. DNA Polymerase – adds bases
structures and organs i. Removes primers; replaces RNA c DNA
ii. Extends primers; makes the bulk of the new DNA
GENETICS 4. Primase – synthesizes RNA primes complementary to the DNA
strand
Genes (DNA) can be seen in: nucleus 5. DNA Ligase – bonding/recoiling
↓ Transcription – transferring of DNA codes to RNA codes PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
RNA Formation can be seen in: nucleus & cytoplasm - most energy-consuming process of the cell
↓ Translation – protein (building blocks: amino acids) - 4 high energy bonds
Protein Formation = runs life - function (cell)
 cell enzymes – catalyzes chemical reaction: energy  cell structure
synthesis (lipids, glycogen, ATP)  cell enzyme
 cell structure - formed at cytoplasm
DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID): central theme to life  nucleus: immature protein
- nucleus  cytoplasm: mature protein
- building blocks: nucleotides (10 pairs) GENETIC REGULATION
- 2 strands - degree of activation of genes
- double helix ENZYME REGULATION
 polynucleic strand - controls the level/number of formed enzymes in the cell
 loose hydrogen bond  Enzyme inhibition – negative feedback
- chromosomes: 46  Enzyme activation – cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
- backbone - liberates glucose → energy consumption → cell function
 phosphoric acid - helps in intracellular ATP concentration
 deoxyribose – nitrogenous bases CELL REPRODUCTION
o purines: A, G 1. Interphase – DNA/chromosome replication
o pyrimidines: T, C 2. Mitosis
GENETIC CODE a. Prophase – nuclear membrane dissolves
- protein formation (cell) b. Prometaphase – rupture/fragmentation of nuclear
- projected bases envelope
- DNA is split apart c. Metaphase – equatorial plate = centrioles
- sequencing d. Early Anaphase
RNA (RIBONUCLEIC ACID) e. Late Anaphase – cleavage, split (46 → 46, 46)
- cytoplasm f. Telophase – 2 daughter cells; cleavage furrow
- protein formation g. Cytokinesis – cytoplasm division
- single polynucleic strand
- nucleus & cytoplasm Necrosis – cell rupture
- nitrogenous bases: Apoptosis – programmed-cell death
o purines: A, G Cancer cells
Cell differentiation – bodily structure, function (specific)
o pyrimidines: U, C
Types:
***Collagen – most abundant protein in the body
1. Messenger RNA: starts protein synthesis
- contains codon (complementary code trplet)
 chain-initiating (start codon): AUG
 chain-terminating (stop codon): UAA, UAG, UGA
2. Transfer RNA