Created by Neal Amarnani for the Students of Year 10

Chemistry Study Guide

A Guide, guiding you from Unit 1 to the 10th Unit, in this year.

The Units:

Unit 1: What is matter?

Unit 2;How do we use matter?
Unit 3:How do we map matter?
Unit 3.2:How do we map matter?
Unit 4:How do we bond matter?
Unit 5: What are the impacts of the Chemical Industry? ** Unit hasent been covered yet, Sent after
it's covered.

Unit 7: What’s inside the nucleus isotopes

Unit 10:How can our energy resources be accessed fairly?
* KEY INFORMATION: Unit 5 will not be in this guide, I will send it out on the last week of revision,
because we haven’t done it in class

Contents:
- Your personal own Calendar, shown what your learning
- All can do statements
- Answers and revision (from can do), broken down amongst the days, you will be studying
- Plenary

❖ The easiest study guide, ensuring you learned everything with Chem
❖ Happy Studying.

➔ Please read all of your instructions before you start revising, there can be some helpful tips.
Calendar (between May and June 2018)

Your own personal calendar, that shows you how much you study every day, when you start taking your

own breaks. This will allow you to organize your work and understand and learn information properly.

1. You study for four weeks straight where you learn all the information you need to know for the
exam.
2. You will be studying for 25 days, and will be taking a break on the , the eleventh and the
eighteenth and the twenty- fifth
3. For the most part of it, you will be studying six days a week. But in the last week, you study all
seven days and learn only 3 days on the last day
4. You should be only studying for this subject from 50-100 minutes per day. . Sometimes it is
elaborate or not, so you might not exactly be studying that time, but 20 minutes is the extent to
where you can go to, to study each can do statements.
Day One: Five Can Do’s
Define matter:

Matter can be classified according to physical and chemical properties. Matter is

anything that occupies space and has mass. The three states of matter are solid,
liquid, and gas.

Solve questions using the density formula

Define the law of conservation of mass

The law of conservation of mass states that mass in an isolated system is neither
created nor destroyed by chemical reactions or physical transformations. According to
the law of conservation of mass, the mass of the products in a chemical reaction must
equal the mass of the reactants.
Identify the difference between atoms, elements, compounds & mixtures in
terms of physical & chemical properties

An atomis the smallest unit of matter that has the properties of an element.
An elementis a substance whose atoms all have the same number of protons:
another way of saying this is that all of a particular element's atoms have the same
atomic number. Elements are chemically the simplest substances and hence cannot be
broken down using chemical reactions.

A compoundis a substance formed when two or more chemical elements are

chemically bonded together.

A mixtureis a material made up of two or more different substances which are mixed
but are not chemically bonded. A mixture refers to the physical combination of two or
more substances in which the identities are retained and are mixed in the form of
solutions, suspensions and colloids.

Illustrate the difference between pure & impure substances

Difference Pure Substances Impure Substances

Melting point A pure substance melts at Do not have a fixed

a fixed temp. Eg. melting point. It melts at a
naphthalene melts at 80 range of temperature.
degrees celsius Impurity lower down the
m.p. The greater the % of
impurity the lower the
m.p. Eg impure
naphthalene melts at 76
to 78 degrees
Boiling point A pure substance has a An impure substance
fixed boiling temp. Eg. boils at as range of temp
pure ethanol boils at 78 eg petrol at 35 degrees to
degrees celsius 75 degrees
Chromatography Pure substance will form Impure substance will
one spot form several sports
Day two: Five Can Do’s
Describe states of matter with examples

Solid → Ice Cube

Liquid → Water

Gas → Water Vapor

Describe the properties and the associated particle arrangement in each of the
three states of matter

Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement of Close together Close Together Far Apart

particles Regular Pattern Random Arrangement Random Arrangement
Movement of Vibrate on spot Move around each Move quickly in all
particles other directions
Diagram

Identify a link between STP and gas volume

STP in chemistry is the abbreviation for Standard Temperature and Pressure. STP
most commonly is used when performing
calculations on gases, such as gas
density. The standard temperature is 273
K (0° Celsius or 32° Fahrenheit) and the
standard pressure is 1 atm pressure

Identify changes of state from a graph

Explain the interconversion of states of matter in terms of the kinetic theory

Matter can change from one form to other form i.e from solids to
liquids to gases. The phenomenon of the change of matter from
one state to another and back to original state is known as
interconversion of the states of matter. Matter can be changed
from one state to another by changing temperature or pressure.
Day three: Five Can Do’s
Define and explain what is meant by kinetic theory

The kinetic theory of gases (also known as kinetic-molecular theory) explains the
behavior of a hypothetical ideal gas. According to this theory, gases are made up of
tiny particles in random, straight line motion. They move rapidly and continuously and
make collisions with each other and the walls

Describe the kinetic theory in terms of the movement of particles whose average
energyis proportional to temperature

The kinetic theory model can be used to explain the properties of solids, liquids and
gases by considering the molecules they are made from and their motion. For gases,
the kinetic theory model explains that gas pressure is caused by the collisions between
the particles and their container.

Describe particle movement as translational, vibrations & rotations

The Motion of Particles

Vibrational Motion:Back-and-forth
motion of particles

Rotational Motion:spinning motion of

particles

Translational Motion:straight-line
motion from place to place

Investigate Brownian motion:

the erratic random movement of microscopic particles in a fluid, as a result of

continuous bombardment from molecules of the surrounding medium.
Define the term diffusion

Diffusion is the process of a substance spreading out to evenly fill its container or
environment. In a solution, a concentrated solute diffuses to spread evenly in its
solvent. concentration to low concentration.
Day four : Five Can Do’s
Deduce the factors that affect the movement of particles

- Effect of Concentration: the greater the concentration difference across the

membrane, the faster the rate of diffusion
- Effect of Temperature: the higher the temp, the faster the rate of diffusion
due to increased energy of solute molecules
- Effect of Pore Size: only solutes small enough to pass through the pores of a
membrane are able to diffuse

Describe the dependence of rate of diffusion on molecular mass

These two factors affect the kinetic energy of a particle (the energy a particle
possesses when it moves). The rate of diffusion of a substance is inversely proportional
to its molecular mass at constant temperature. This means that the rate of diffusion
increases as the molecular mass decreases.

Apply knowledge of scientific notation to convert numbers expressed in decimal

format to normal numbers.

Some questions you could try:

Measure the volume of different liquids, taking into account meniscus & parallax
error.

Chapter 2:

Describe the physical arrangement of matter as ‘amorphous’; ‘crystalline’ or

‘polycrystalline’
Day five: Five Can Do’s
Describe impure substances as either homogeneous or heterogeneous

Homogeneous is a term in physical chemistry and material science that refers to

substances and mixtures which are in a single phase. This is in contrast to a
substance that is heterogeneous.

Heterogeneous: A mixture is a combination of two or more pure substances in which the

original substances retain their chemical properties. In some mixtures, the initial
substances cannot be detected after they have been mixed.

Identify pure & impure substances from their melting & boiling points

Difference Pure Substances Impure Substances

Melting point A pure substance melts at Do not have a fixed

a fixed temp. Eg.
naphthalene melts at 80
degrees celsius
Boiling point A pure substance has a
fixed boiling temp. Eg.
pure ethanol boils at 78
degrees celsius
melting point. It melts at a
range of temperature.
Impurity lower down the
m.p. The greater the % of
impurity the lower the
m.p. Eg impure
naphthalene melts at 76
to 78 degrees
An impure substance
boils at as range of temp
eg petrol at 35 degrees to
75 degrees

Define the terms: solute; solvent; phase; suspension; colloid; gel;

emulsion; saturated solution; unsaturated solution

Solute:asolution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In

such a mixture, a solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, known as a
solvent.

Solvent:is a substance that dissolves a solute , resulting in a solution

Phase:a phase is a physically distinctive form of matter, such as a solid, liquid, gas or
plasma.

Suspension:A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which solute-like particles

settle out of a solvent-like phase

Colloid:colloid is a mixture in which one substance of microscopically dispersed

insoluble particles is suspended throughout another substance

Gel:gels are a dispersion of molecules of a liquid within a solid in which liquid

particles are dispersed in the solid medium

Emulsion:An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally

immiscible

Saturated Solution:a solution in which no more solute can be dissolved in the

solvent.

Unsaturated Solution:A solution (with less solute than the saturated solution) that
completely dissolves, leaving no remaining substances

Describe substances as either miscible or immiscible

The term is most often applied to liquids, but applies also to solids and gases. Water
and ethanol, for example, are miscible because they mix in all proportions. By contrast,
substances are said to be immiscible if there are certain proportions in which the
mixture does not form a solution.

Explain how an emulsifier works

Emulsifier, in foods, any of numerous chemical additives that encourage the

suspension of one liquid in another, as in the mixture of oil and water in margarine,
shortening, ice cream, and salad dressing. Closely related to emulsifiers are
stabilizers, substances that maintain the emulsified state.
Day Six: Five Can Do’s
Define the terms: filtrate; residue; distillate; volatile;

Filtrate → Filtration is any of various mechanical, physical or biological operations that

separate solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by adding a medium through which only
the fluid can pass. The fluid that passes through is called the filtrate

Distillate → A distillate is the vapor in a distillation that will be collected and

condensed into a liquid.

Volatile → volatility is quantified by the tendency of a substance to vaporize.

Volatility is directly related to a substance's vapor pressure

List & describe the methods of separation (decantation; evaporation;

vaporization; filtration; using a separation funnel; distillation; chromatography)

Investigate the separation of substa

nces through: o Decantation o Evaporation o Filtration o The use of a

separation funnel o Distillation o Chromatography o Recrystallization
Calculate the retardation factor for different substances
Design an experiment to investigate the separation of a number of substances

Quiz:

1. Which is the best way to get salt from salty water?

2. Pure water can be separated from inky water by simple

distillation because:

3. What is the correct order for obtaining salt from a mixture of

sand and salt?

4. Which method is usually used to separate coloured substances

from each other?

5. How could you separate iron filings from a mixture of iron and
sulfur?

Answers:

1. Evaporation
2. Water evaporates leaving the ink particles behind
3. dissolving in water - filtration - evaporation.
 4. Chromatography
5. Using a magnet

Day Seven: Five Can Do’s

Define the terms: diffusion; osmosis; semi-permeable; dialysate

-Osmosis is the process where water molecules move from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration through a semipermeable
membrane

-Semi permeable membranes are those membranes through which only certain
substances can pass through.

-Dialysate is the liquid passing through the membrane during dialysis

Explain how dialysis works

The dialysis machine mixes and monitors the dialysate. Dialysate is the fluid that helps
remove the unwanted waste products from your blood. It also helps get your
electrolytes and minerals to their proper levels in your body. The machine also
monitors the flow of your blood while it is outside of your body.

Identify & label laboratory diagrams of apparatus setups used to separate

substances
Chapter 3.1

State the position of protons, neutrons & electrons in the atom

Define the terms mass number (A) and atomic number (Z)
Day Eight: Five Can Do’s
State the relative masses & relative charges of the subatomic particles

Draw the electronic configuration for atoms up to Z = 20

Determine valency of electrons using electronic structure

Evaluate the models for atomic theory

State evidence for the existence of atomic energy levels

Day Nine: Five Can Do’s
Define the term ‘isotope’

An isotope is a form of a chemical element whose atomic nucleus contains a

specific number of neutron s, in addition to the number of proton s that uniquely
defines the element. The nuclei of most atom s contain neutrons as well as
protons.

Chapter 3.2

Distinguish between the terms ‘group’ and ‘period’

Identify the relationship between the electronic arrangement of elements & their
position in the periodic table up to Z=20
Identify the relationship between the number of electrons in the highest
occupied energy level for an element & its position in the periodic table

The members of the same group have the same amount of valence electrons. The
members across (horizontally) the table. They have equal numbers of energy
levels. Apply the relationship between the number of electrons in the highest
occupied energy level for an element and its position in the periodic table.

Describe the history of the periodic table (Lavoisier, Döbereiner, Newlands,

Mendeleev, Moseley, the modern periodic table)

Lavoisier:

Lavoisier is most noted for his discovery of the role oxygen plays in combustion. He
recognized and named oxygen (1778) and hydrogen (1783) and opposed the
phlogiston theory. Lavoisier helped construct the metric system, wrote the first
extensive list of elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature.

Dobereiner:

Dobereiner's Periodic Table. A German scientist called Johann Dobereiner put

forward his law of triads in 1817. Each of Dobereiner's triads was a group of three
elements. The appearance and reactions of the elements in a triad were similar to
each other.

Newlands:

An English scientist called John Newlands put forward his law of octaves in 1864. He
arranged all the elements known at the time into a table in order of relative atomic
mass. When he did this, he found that each element was similar to the element eight
places further on.
Mendeleev:

Dmitri Mendeleev was a Russian chemist who lived from 1834 to 1907. He is
considered to be the most important contributor to the development of the periodic
table. His version of the periodic table organized elements into rows according to their
atomic mass and into columns based on chemical and physical properties.

Moseley:

Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley (23 November 1887 – 10 August 1915) was an English
physicist, whose contribution to the science of physics was the justification from
physical laws of the previous empirical and chemical concept of the atomic number.
This stemmed from his development of Moseley's law in X-ray spectra

.
Day Ten: Five Can Do’s
Describe the properties of metals & non-metals and compare to metalloids

Suggest how metallic bonding explains the properties of metals

The characteristics of metallic bonds explain a number of the unique properties of

metals:

Metals are good conductors of electricity because the electrons in the electron sea are
free to flow and carry electric current.

Metals are ductile and malleable because local bonds can be easily broken and
reformed.

Outline how metals can be extracted in relation to the reactivity series Groups in
the Periodic table
Outline the properties of the following groups: Groups 1 & 2: electrical
conductivity & malleability Group 7: State at room temperature; reactivity with
metals Group 8: Inert

Group 1- Alkali metals

Conduct electricity well because they only need to lose one electron to attain stability.

They are also highly malleable, as are most metals, due to their arrangement in solid form.
They are very soft metals.

Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals

Again, due to them only having 2 electrons to lose to attain stability, they are highly
conductive, but less so than alkali metals.

They are also extremely malleable due to their arrangement in solid form, but are less soft.

Group 7: Halogens

At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine and
astatine are solids.
As one goes down the group, halogens get less reactive with metals, eg. fluorine being the
most reactive and astatine being the least reactive, which is known as the halogen series of
reactivity.

Group 8: Noble Gases

Group 8 gases have all attained stability and do not need to react, which means that they
are inert. A few group 8 gases like xenon and radon can react with specific elements but
only under certain conditions.

Outline the periodic trends for groups 1, 2, 7 & 8: o Atomic size o Boiling &
melting points o Reactivity

Atomic sizealways gets bigger down the group (all groups)

Boiling and melting points: in group 1 this decreases as you go down the group, in group 2
this decreases as well. in group 7 they increase, and in group 8 they increase as well.

Reactivity: in group 1 reactivity increases as you go down the group, as is the same for
group 2 and group 8. group 7 decreases as you go down the group.
Day Eleven: Five Can Do’s
Summarize the chemical properties of the REE group

The properties of the elements in the Rare Earth Elements group is as follows:
● Silver, silvery-white, or gray metals.
● High Luster.
● Tarnish in air.
● Have a high electrical conductivity

Explain uses of different elements in real life / industry Ions

Helium: balloons
Bismuth: as medicine for stomach inflammation
Carbon: coal, teeth whitening strips, ink
Fluoride: toothpaste
Lithium: batteries
Chlorine: active agent in bleach, pool cleaner
Silicone: shock absorbers
Neon: signage outside restaurants and public spaces
Deduce the ions formed when groups 1, 2, 3 lose electrons

GROUP THE IONS

Group 1 +1

Group 2 +2

Group 3 +3

Deduce the ions formed when groups 5, 6, 7 gain electrons

GROUP THE IONS

Group 5 -3

Group 6 -2

Group 7 -1
 State that transition elements can form more than one ion, including examples

Transition metals can form more than one ion, some examples include iron,
copper,silver and gold
Day Twelve: Five Can Do’s
Chapter 4:
Identify the charges on atoms in a compound

State that the transition metals can form more than one ion, including examples
Transition metals can form more than one ion, some examples include iron,
copper,silver and gold

State the formula and charge on common

polyatomic ions when Balancing equations

Describe the law of conservation of mass

The law of conservation of mass states that mass in an isolated system is neither
created nor destroyed by chemical reactions or physical transformations. According to
the law of conservation of mass, the mass of the products in a chemical reaction must
equal the mass of the reactants.
State the rules to be followed when balancing chemical equations
Day Thirteen: Five Can Do’s
Balance chemical equations

ANSWERS:

Describe how ions are formed as a result of electron transfer

Ions are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons in order to fulfill the octet rule and have full
outer valence electron shells. When they lose electrons, they become positively charged and
are called cations. When they gain electrons, they are negatively charged and are named
anions.
Describe the process of ionic bonding using scientific terminology
Ionic bonding is the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms.. In ionic bonds, the
metal loses electrons to become a positively charged cation, whereas the nonmetal accepts
those electrons to become a negatively charged anion.

Illustrate an ionic bond

Name & write the correct chemical formula of ionic compounds

Some examples include:

Know it's your turn:

What is the formula of sodium bicarbonate? Bicarbonate has the formula HCO3?

What is the formula for calcium iodide?

What is the formula of potassium permanganate? Permanganate has the formula MnO4−

Answers: NaHCO-3 , CaI2, KMno4

Day Fourteen: Five Can Do’s
Describe how a covalent bond is formed using scientific terminology
Covalent bonding occurs when pairs of electrons are shared by atoms. Atoms will covalently
bond with other atoms in order to gain more stability, which is gained by forming a full electron
shell. By sharing their outermost (valence) electrons, atoms can fill up their outer electron shell
and gain stability.

Identify differences between single, double & triple bonds

Illustrate a covalent bond

Describe & compare Carbon allotropes (diamond, graphite, graphene & C60
fullerene)

Diamond:

A diamond is a transparent crystal of tetrahedrally bonded carbon atoms in a

covalent network lattice (sp3) that crystallizes into the diamond lattice which is a
variation of the face-centered cubic structure.

Graphite:
Graphite is a mineral composed exclusively of the element carbon. Graphite has the
same chemical composition as Diamond, which is also pure carbon, but the molecular
structure of Graphite and Diamond is entirely different.

Graphene:

Graphene is the only form of carbon (or solid material) in which every atom is
available for chemical reaction from two sides Atoms at the edges of a graphene
sheet have special chemical reactivity. Graphene has the highest ratio of edge
atoms of any allotrope. Defects within a sheet increase its chemical reactivity.

C60 Fullerene:

Fullerene chemistry is a field of organic chemistry devoted to the chemical properties

of fullerenes. Research in this field is driven by the need to functionalize fullerenes
and tune their properties. For example, fullerene is notoriously insoluble and adding a
suitable group can enhance solubility
Describe & compare simple & giant covalent structures (silicon dioxide and silica)

Giant covalent structurescontain a lot of non-metal atoms, each joined to adjacent

atoms by covalent bonds. The atoms are usually arranged into giant regular lattices
- extremely strong structures because of the many bonds involved. The graphic
shows the molecular structure of diamond and graphite: two allotropes of carbon, and
of silica (silicon dioxide).

❖ Very high melting points - Substances with giant covalent structures have
very high melting points, because a lot of strong covalent bonds must be
broken. Graphite, for example, has a melting point of more than 3,600ºC.
❖ Variable conductivity - Diamond does not conduct electricity. Graphite contains
free electrons, so it does conduct electricity. Silicon is semi-conductive - that is,
midway between non-conductive and conductive.

From left to right - graphite, diamond,

silica

Simple molecules

A molecule of carbon dioxide

These contain only a few atoms held together by strong covalent bonds. An example is
carbon dioxide (CO2), the molecules of which contain one atomof carbon

bonded with two atoms of oxygen.

Properties of simple molecular substances

● Low melting and boiling points - This is because the weak intermolecular
forces break down easily.
● Non-conductive - Substances with a simple molecular structure do not conduct
electricity. This is because they do not have any free electrons or an overall
electric charge.
Day Fifteen: Five Can Do’s
Describe the metallic bond using scientific terminology
Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that arises from the electrostatic attractive
force between conduction electrons and positively charged metal ions.

Illustrate a metallic bond

Create links between the bonding which occurs in metals and the properties of
metals

Metals form giant structures in which electrons in the outer shells of the metal atoms
are free to move. The metallic bond is the force of attraction between these free
electrons and metal ions. Metallic bonds are strong, so metals can maintain a regular
structure and usually have high melting and boiling points.

Compare and explain the properties of substances resulting from different types
of bonding

Ionic Bonding: Sodium Chloride, Calcium Carbonate)

- Held tighter by strong electrostatic forces in 3D Non-volatile,

- high mp, high bp Solid at Rm temp.
- Hard and brittle b/c of lattice structure If it is moved slightly + and – ions
would be lined up and repel each other.
Covalent Bonding:

- Most covalent compounds have relatively low melting points and boiling
points
- Covalent compounds usually have lower enthalpies of fusion and
vaporization than ionic compounds.
- Covalent compounds tend to be more flammable than ionic compounds.

Metallic Bonding:

- Metallic bonding accounts for many physical properties of metals, such as

strength, ductility, thermal and electrical resistivity and conductivity, opacity,
and luster.

Draw both Lewis structure and dot-and-cross diagrams to represent bonding

Lewis structure:showing the

amount of electrons in the most
outer shell only.

Dot-and-cross diagrams.Dot-and-cross diagrams are used to

represent covalent bonds. The shared electron from one atom
is shown as a dot, while the shared electron from the other
atom is shown as a cross. ... Covalent bonding between two
oxygen atoms to form a molecule of oxygen gas, O2.
Day Sixteen: Five Can Do’s
Differentiate between intermolecular and intramolecular forces of attraction &
include examples

Chapter 7

Define the term ‘isotope’

Each of two or more forms of the same element that contain equal numbers of protons
but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, and hence differ in relative atomic
mass but not in chemical properties; in particular, a radioactive form of an element.

Outline examples & uses of isotopes

Calculate the relative atomic mass of elements using percentage abundance of
its isotopes

Write isotopes using the

correct notation
Day Seventeen: Five Can Do’s
Compare stable & unstable nuclei

In summary it is the balance of protons and neutrons in a nucleus which determines

whether a nucleus will be stable or unstable. Too many neutrons or protons upset this
balance disrupting the binding energy from the strong nuclear forces making
the nucleus unstable.

Define the terms ‘decay series’, ‘parent isotope’, ‘daughter isotope’ ‘half-life’ and
‘transuranium element’.

Decay Series: a succession of elements initiated in the radioactive decay of a

parent, as thorium or uranium, each of which decays into the next until a stable
element, usually lead, is produced. Expand. Also called decay series.

Parent Isotope & Daughter Isotope:Each combination of an element with a

different number of neutrons is called an isotope.The radioactive isotope is called the
parent, and the isotope formed by the decay is called the daughter. A radioactive
isotope decays at a constant rate proportional to the number of radioactive atoms
remaining.

Half Life : Indiscussions of radioactivity, the half-life of an isotope refers to the time it
takes for one-half of the sample to decay. If we start with 100 g of a radioactive
substance whose half-life is 15 days, after 15 days 50 g of the substance will remain.

Transuranium Element:The transuranium elements (also known as transuranic

elements) are the chemical elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (the
atomic number of uranium). All of these elements are unstable and decay
radioactively into other elements
*Compare alpha, beta & gamma decay

Alpha decay: Alpha decay is a common mode of radioactive decay in which a

nucleus emits an alphaparticle (a helium-4 nucleus). Beta decay: Beta decay is a
common mode of radioactive decay in which a nucleus emits beta particles. The
daughter nucleus will have a higher atomic number than the original nucleus.

More in depth thinking (leaner & thinker)

Outline the use of a Geiger counter

Geiger counters are used to detect radioactive emissions, most commonly beta
particles and gamma rays. The counter consists of a tube filled with an inert gas that
becomes conductive of electricity when it is impacted by a high-energy particle.

Outline the term ‘fusion reaction’ and evaluate the statement ‘we are all stardust

Fusion Reaction: Fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei and
fusion is the combining of nuclei to form a bigger and heavier nucleus. The
consequence of fission or fusion is the absorption or release of energy.

We're made of star stuff," Sagan famously stated in one episode. His statement sums
up the fact that the carbon, nitrogen and oxygen atoms in our bodies, as well as atoms
of all other heavy elements, were created in previous generations of stars over 4.5
billion years ago
.