RESPONSE OF CONCRETE PAVEMENTS UNDER

MOVING VEHICULAR LOADS AND

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

by

Mostafa Yousefi Darestani

A dissertation submitted for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Centre of Built Environment and Engineering Research

Queensland University of Technology

2007

i
To my parents and to my wife, Nazli, and
my sweet girl, Parastoo

ii
KEYWORDS
Dynamic Analysis, Dynamic amplification, Finite element analysis, Finite element
model, Static analysis, Axle group loads, Critical axle group configuration, Critical
position of axle groups, Tyre pavement interaction, Stress distribution, Fatigue
failure, Concrete pavement distresses, Corner cracking, Longitudinal cracking,
Transverse cracking, Top-down cracking, Bottom-up cracking, Boundary conditions,
Debonding layer, Temperature effects, Loss of moisture contents, Shrinkage effects,
Curling induced stress, Warping stress, Pavement curvature, Field test, Laboratory
text, Experimental study, Truck load, JPCP, JRCP, CRCP, SAST, SADT, TAST,
TADT, TRDT, QADT.

iii
ABSTRACT
The need for modern transportation systems together with the high demand for
sustainable pavements under applied loads have led to a great deal of research on
concrete pavements worldwide. Development of finite element techniques enabled
researchers to analyse the concrete pavement under a combination of axle group
loadings and environmental effects. Consequently, mechanistic approaches for
designing of concrete pavements were developed based on results of finite element
analyses. However, unpredictable failure modes of concrete pavements associated
with expensive maintenance and rehabilitation costs have led to the use of empirical-
mechanistic approach in concrete pavement design.

Despite progressive knowledge of concrete pavement behaviour under applied loads,

concrete pavements still suffer from deterioration due to crack initiation and
propagation, indicating the need for further research. Cracks can be related to fatigue
of the concrete and/or erosion of materials in sub-layers. Although longitudinal, mid-
edge and corner cracks are the most common damage modes in concrete pavements,
Austroads method for concrete pavement design was developed based on traditional
mid-edge bottom-up transverse cracking introduced by Packard and Tayabji (1985).

Research presented in this thesis aims to address the most common fatigue related
distresses in concrete pavements. It uses comprehensive finite element models and
analyses to determine the structural behaviour of concrete pavements under vehicular
loads and environmental effects. Results of this research are supported by laboratory
tests and an experimental field test.

Results of this research indicate that the induced tensile stresses within the concrete
pavement are significantly affected by vehicle speed, differential temperature
gradient and loss of moisture content. Subsequently, the interaction between the
above mentioned factors and concrete damage modes are discussed. Typical dynamic
amplifications of different axle groups are presented. A new fatigue test setup is also
developed to take into consideration effects of pavement curvature on fatigue life of
the concrete. Ultimately, results of the research presented in this thesis are employed
to develop a new guide for designing concrete pavements with zero maintenance of
fatigue damage.
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 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

International Refereed Journal Papers:

“Structural Response of Concrete Pavements under Moving Truck Loads”, Journal of
Transportation Engineering, ASCE (Accepted but not published yet).

International Refereed Conference Papers:

“Dynamic Response of concrete pavements under moving Vehicular loads”, IABSE
SYMPOSIUM on Response to Tomorrow’s Challenges in Structural Engineering,
Budapest, Hungary, 2006

“A Review of 2004 Austroads Rigid Pavement Design”, 22nd ARRB Conference –

Research into Practice, Canberra, Australia, 2006

“Experimental Study on Structural Response of Rigid Pavements under Moving Truck

Load”, 22nd ARRB Conference – Research into Practice, Canberra, Australia, 2006

Submitted Papers to International Refereed Journals:

“Influence of Vehicular Positions and Thermal Effects on Structural Behaviour of
Concrete Pavement”, Journal of Mechanics and Materials and Structures, USA (This
paper was review and needs some revision)

“Sensitivity Analysis of the 2004 Austroads Design Guide”, Concrete Institute of

Australia

Preparation of Journal Papers:

“A New Method for Laboratory Fatigue Test of the Concrete”

“A New Slab Thickness Design Guide for Zero Maintenance of Fatigue Damage”

“Structural dynamic analysis of unbonded JPCP Subjected to Moving Axle Group

Loads and Environmental Effects”

“Structural dynamic analysis of unbonded JPCP Subjected to Moving Axle Group

Loads and Environmental Effects”

v
 Executive Research Summary

Sustainability of concrete pavements depends on the rate of pavement deteriorations.

Cracks, as the main reason behind deteriorations of concrete pavements, are initiated
at the top or the bottom surface layer of the concrete slab and then, propagated into
the depth of concrete slab due to fatigue of the concrete.

Corner, longitudinal and transverse cracks are the most common fatigue failure
modes of concrete pavements. Location and density of cracks can be predicted based
on distribution of induced tensile stresses within the concrete slab. The tensile
stresses in concrete pavements are induced by a combination of vehicular loads and
environmental effects.

Temperature fluctuation within the depth of concrete slab and loss of moisture content
are the most important environmental effects considered in concrete pavement
analysis. However, analysis of concrete pavements under vehicular loads and
environmental effects depends on a vast number of parameters and interrelationships
among them. To address the interrelationships among parameters and structural
behaviour of concrete pavements, two types of concrete pavements, namely JPCP and
JRCP, were studied.

In the first phase, a sensitivity analysis of the Austroads slab thickness design guide
(2004) was performed to clarify the interrelationships between design parameters and
calculated slab thickness. Results of the current study indicate that the Austroads
method (2004) has several shortcomings and needs to be improved. The significant
shortcomings can be summarised as follows:

- In contrast with what is commonly accepted as the fundamental concrete

characteristics, calculations performed using the 2004 Guide seem to suggest
that an increase in concrete compressive strength decreases the possibility of
fatigue damage such that erosion damage becomes critical.

- Increasing the subgrade CBR above 5 per cent has no effect on slab thickness
for design traffic in excess of 1×107 HVAGs.

vi
 - The minimum recommended slab thickness is greater than the calculated
thickness provided that the pavement is dowelled and restrained by shoulder or
adjacent traffic lanes.

- Vehicular loads are considered as static loads although they are dynamic in
nature.

- To account for environmental factors, the Guide provides a variety of

minimum concrete slab thickness for different types of concrete pavements and
diverse range of design traffic. However, as shown in this thesis, behaviour of
concrete pavements under vehicular loads depends on the magnitude of
differential temperature and/or loss of moisture contents. Hence, consideration
of environmental effects as a constant value, i.e. a minimum slab thickness,
may result in other failure types in the concrete slabs that are not considered in
the method.

- Flexural fatigue damage was assumed to only occur at the bottom surface layer
of the concrete slab.

To address the above mentioned shortcomings, parametrical studies of the concrete

pavements were involved in the second phase. Since parametrical dynamic studies of
the concrete pavements are highly time consuming, these studies were performed using
static analyses. Diverse finite element programs for analysis of concrete pavements
were developed in the past. However, most of these programs were developed to study
behaviour of JPCP under vehicular loads and environmental effects. Moreover, other
finite element programs for analysis of JRCP or CRCP were not accessible.
Consequently, the EverFE, a 3D finite element program for analysis of JPCP whose
accuracy was previously examined by several researchers, was selected to be used in
parametrical studies.

Static analyses of diverse plain concrete pavements with different configuration were
performed to understand how debonding layer, axle group configurations, differential
temperature and position of axle groups upon the pavement affect the induced tensile
stress within the concrete slab.

vii
Although the main aim for placing a debonding layer between concrete slab and
subbase is to eliminate the early age cracking in the concrete slab, provision of this
layer plays a significant role in structural behaviour of concrete pavement during the
pavement life. Results of the current study show that the benefits offered by
consideration of the unbonded boundary condition between concrete slab and subbase
cease at a certain value of differential temperature. Hence, particular care needs to be
given to those pavement projects constructed in hot or cold weather, where high
differential temperature gradients may be produced in concrete depth.

Since axle group configuration varies among heavy vehicle manufacturer and across
countries, it is essential to determine the critical dimensions of a given axle group. If
the critical axle group configuration is not considered in the analysis, the results of the
FEA may be inadequate and lead to early cracking of the pavement in the real
condition. As a result, the critical dimensions of axle groups were determined.
Subsequently, some practical values for determining the critical axle group
configuration were provided.

Critical positions of different axle groups in uncurled and curled jointed concrete
pavement with different configurations were also studied. Results of the current study
indicate that AASHTO recommendation (2003) and results of Packard and Tayabji
(1985) are valid for an uncurled pavement with a fully unbonded boundary condition
between concrete slab and subbase. Results of the current study also show that
pavement performance under combinations of vehicular loads and differential
temperatures is significantly affected by the boundary condition between concrete slab
and subbase.

The reasons behind longitudinal, transverse and corner cracking were addressed.
Depending on differential temperature between the top and the bottom surface layers
of the concrete slab, corner, centre and mid-edge loadings can result in different types
of fatigue failure in concrete slab. For instance, corner loading may enhance corner
cracking, transverse cracking at the edge or mid-edge of the pavement and longitudinal
cracking, depending on the differential temperature considered in the analysis. In terms
of maximum induced tensile stress, results of the current study show that corner
loading is critical in the presence of bonded boundary condition between concrete slab
viii
and subbase. In an unbonded pavement, corner loading is also critical when a
separation due to environmental forces occurs between the unbonded concrete slab and
subbase.

Parametrical static analyses of the JPCP were also performed to define effects of
concrete slab thickness and modulus of subgrade reaction on concrete pavement
behaviour. Results show that an inverse relationship exists between induced tensile
stress and the thickness of the concrete slab. In the other words, an increase in the
thickness of concrete the slab decreases the magnitude of induced tensile stress.
However, this result is not valid when a combination of vehicular loads and high
differential temperature is considered. Consequently, a maximum slab thickness in the
presence of high differential temperature between the top and the bottom surface layer
of the concrete slab was defined. A certain dowel arrangement at the corner of the
concrete slab can also eliminate the aforementioned problem. Hence, the use of longer
dowel with greater size and shorter distance between dowels was recommended.
Depending on the boundary condition between the concrete slab and the subbase,
corner or mid-edge loading and daytime or nighttime differential temperature, an
increase in modulus of subgrade reaction may increase or decrease the magnitude of
tensile stress.

Since performance of concrete pavements is strongly affected by concrete properties,

it is important to determine the interrelationship between concrete properties. Some
typical equations for prediction of concrete properties were developed in the past. For
practical reasons, the concrete properties are estimated based on its compressive
strength. To determine the most accurate equations in prediction of concrete
properties, a series of laboratory test were performed.

The significant properties of concrete used in concrete pavement technology are

compressive strength, flexural strength, modulus of elasticity, shear strength of
aggregate interlock and cement paste and fatigue life of concrete. Results of the
laboratory tests indicate that the concrete modulus of elasticity can be accurately
estimated by using equations developed in the past. Furthermore, the equations
provided for estimation of concrete flexural strength can be used when a specific
curing method of concrete is considered during pavement construction. In other words,
ix
the provided equations are not able to accurately estimate the flexural strength of air
cured concrete. As a result, these equations are not sufficient to be used in concrete
pavement unless an appropriate curing method is provided. Consequently, a typical
equation for prediction of flexural strength of air cured concrete was provided in the
current research based on the laboratory tests performed.

The load transfer efficiency across joints and cracks depends on the shear transfer
capability of aggregate interlock and cement paste. The shear transfer capability of
aggregate interlock and cement paste was also determined using notch prism beam.
This property defines the capability of the concrete for transferring the shear force
across the initiated cracks and helps to understand the behaviour of concrete at the
initiated cracks.

Prediction of concrete fatigue life is the key factor in estimation of fatigue related
damage of the concrete slab. Diverse fatigue prediction models of concrete were
developed in the past based on laboratory tests of concrete prism beams. The
traditional laboratory fatigue test is based on a three points loading configuration using
one directional cyclic loads. Since the concrete pavement is curled upward during
nighttime and downward during daytime, it was questioned if the use of traditional
fatigue setup may produce insufficient fatigue prediction model of the concrete.
Consequently, a new fatigue setup was developed to take into consideration the
pavement curvature during daytime and nighttime differential temperatures. Results of
the fatigue laboratory tests performed in the current study show that the equations
developed in the past for estimation of concrete fatigue life are not sufficient.

Dynamic analyses of bonded and unbonded JPCP and JRCP under moving axle groups
were performed in the next stage. Results of the current study show that dynamic
analysis is required to accurately predict the failure mode of concrete pavements.
Critical speeds of each axle group based on types of concrete pavements were
determined. For the first time, dynamic amplifications of each axle group were
presented in the current research. The critical locations for severe fatigue cracking in
both JPCP and JRCP were addressed. Results also indicated that fatigue cracking is
affected by axle group types and speed. It was determined in dynamic analysis that the

x
damage location may be close to transverse joints, at midpoint or in some cases at
quarter point of slab.

In addition to dynamic amplification of each axle group, the most significant finding of
dynamic studies performed in the current study was determination of stress repetitions
in concrete pavement due to a given axle group. In the static analysis, the number of
stress repetition for a given axle group is equal to the number of axles in the axle
group. In other words, the number of stress repetitions in a point within the concrete
pavement for single axles, tandem axles, triple axle and quad axle groups are one, two,
three and four respectively. In the presence of bonded boundary condition between
concrete slabs and subbase, the aforementioned stress repetitions are still correct in
dynamic analysis. However, provision of debonding layer between concrete slabs and
subbase produce greater number of stress predictions in the dynamic analysis.

This stress repetition phenomenon strongly depends on axle speed, type of axle group
and location where the stress is monitored. For SAST, SADT, TAST and TADT
higher speed, i.e. 110 km/h, produces greater stress repetitions than lower speeds. On
the other hand, in the heavy weight axle groups such as TRDT and QADT lower
speed, i.e. 30 km/h, produces greater stress repetitions than higher speeds. The average
number of stress repetitions for SAST, SADT, TAST, TADT, TRDT and QADT are 1,
1, 4, 6, 8 and 9 in JPCP and 5, 8, 9, 8, 12, and 9 in JRCP respectively.

Furthermore, effects of temperature fluctuation on the dynamic response of the

pavement were addressed. Results showed that differential temperature gradients may
increase or decrease the stress repetition for each axle group. However, greater tensile
stresses were observed in concrete pavements in the presence of differential
temperature.

Since results of the experimental field tests on dynamic response of concrete

pavements carried out in the past were not compatible with the findings of this
research, a fully instrumented concrete pavement test section including JPCP and
JRCP was constructed and tested under quasi-static and dynamic truck loadings.
Information on the test section, instrumentation layout, material properties and truck
characteristics were described. Pavement performance under environmental conditions
xi
was studied during the first 28 days after casting. Truck loading was subsequently
applied at different predetermined locations of the pavement including at free
longitudinal edge, at the confined longitudinal edge and at the centre area of the traffic
lane. Time history responses were recorded for truck speeds between 5 km/h to 55
km/h.

Investigation of the recorded time history responses of the test section also indicates
the importance of dynamic analysis in concrete pavement design. The recorded time
histories validate the results of dynamic analysis performed in the current research.
Results also indicate that dowel position can strongly influence the pavement
responses. Furthermore, the slab deflection in JRCP decreases when reinforcement is
located close to the bottom surface layer of the concrete slab.

Results of the current study were used to develop a new empirical-mechanistic guide
for designing of concrete pavements. Consequently, typical equations for stress
prediction in concrete pavements for different loading conditions, differential
temperatures, slab thickness, modulus of subgrade reaction, and provision of shoulders
were developed. The accuracy of equations was then determined by comparing the
predicted stress with results of finite element analyses.

Using Miner’s rule, equations for calculating the fatigue damage of concrete slab were
developed. Transverse, corner and longitudinal cracks were contributed in the fatigue
damage model. Thickness of the concrete slab was considered to be adequate if none
of the above failure types were observed in the pavement. Ultimately, the design
procedure was exemplified.

xii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Keywords iii
Abstract iv
List of Publications v
Executive Research Summary vi
Table of contents xiii
List of figures xviii
List of tables xxvii
List of Abbreviations xxix
Symbols xxxii
Statement of original authorship xxxvii
Acknowledgments xxxviii
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1. Background 1
1.2. Research problems 2
1.3. Research hypothesis 3
1.4. Thesis scope 3
1.5. Research objectives 3
1.6. Thesis layout 4
Chapter 2: Literature review – Concrete Properties
2.1. Background 9
2.2. concrete strength 9
2.3. Modulus of elasticity 11
2.4. Coefficient of thermal expansion 11
2.5. Shrinkage 12
2.6. Fatigue 13
2.7. Summary 17
Chapter 3: Literature review – Concrete Pavements
3.1. Background 19
3.2. Concrete pavement cross section
3.2.1. Subgrade 20
3.2.2. Subbase 25
3.2.3. Debonding layer 26
3.2.4. Concrete slab 28
3.2.4.1. Jointed plain concrete pavement 28
3.2.4.2. Jointed reinforced concrete pavement 28
3.2.4.3. Continuously reinforced concrete pavement 29
3.2.5. Surface roughness 29
xiii
 3.2.6. Shoulder 30
3.2.7. Joints 30
3.2.7.1. Isolation joint 31
3.2.7.2. Contraction joint 31
3.2.7.3. Construction joint 32
3.2.7.4. Expansion joint 32
3.2.8. Load transfer devices 32
3.2.8.1. Aggregate interlock 32
3.2.8.2. Dowel 33
3.2.8.3. Tie bars and keyed joints 34
3.2.9. Load transfer efficiency 34
3.2.10. Differential deflection 35
3.3. Loadings 35
3.3.1. Traffic loads 36
3.3.2. Temperature 45
3.3.3. Shrinkage - loss of moisture content 49
3.4. Concrete pavement analysis
3.4.1. Analytical solution 50
3.4.2. Numerical solution 52
3.4.2.1. Discrete element method 52
3.4.2.2. Finite element method 52
3.4.3. Static analysis 58
3.4.4. Transient dynamic study 58
3.4.4.1. Transient dynamic analysis 60
3.4.4.2. Experimental tests of concrete pavements 64
3.5. Concrete pavement distresses 66
3.5.1. Fatigue damage of concrete slab 66
3.5.2. Erosion of subbase and subgrade materials 72
3.5.3. Spalling 73
3.6. Concrete pavement design guides 73
3.6.1. Austroads 2004
3.6.1.1. Introduction 74
3.6.1.2. Method description 77
3.6.2. AASHTO 2003
3.6.2.1. Introduction 81
3.6.2.2. Methodology 82
3.6.2.3. JPCP design features 85
3.6.2.4. Distress prediction 86
3.6.2.5. Surface roughness 86
3.6.2.6. Thickness of concrete slab 86

xiv
 3.7. Summary 86
Chapter 4: Summary of the literature review and research plan
4.1. Summary of the literature review 88
4.2. research methodology and plan 93
Chapter 5: Sensitivity analysis of concrete pavement design using
Austroads guide 2004
5.1. Introduction 96
5.2. Aims of this study 96
5.3. Development and verification of ANRPD-2004 program 98
5.4. Results and discussion
5.4.1. Effect of pavement types on thickness of concrete slab 100
5.4.2. Effect of concrete strength on damage mode 100
5.4.3. Effect of project design reliability on slab thickness 104
5.4.4. Effect of subbase layer on slab thickness 105
5.4.5. Effect of subgrade CBR on slab thickness 105
5.4.6. Minimum recommended base thickness 109
5.4.7. Sensitivity of the fatigue and erosion analysis to a change in 109
slab thickness
5.4.8. Damage process 111
5.5. Summary 112
Chapter 6: Static analysis of jointed plain concrete pavement
6.1. Introduction 114
6.2. Finite element model 115
6.3. Effects of debonding layer on concrete pavement responses 116
6.3.1. Methodology 117
6.3.2. Results and discussion 118
6.4. Revisiting axle group configurations
6.4.1. Methodology 121
6.4.2. Width to length ratio of the tyre-pavement contact area 122
6.4.3. Tyre inflation pressure 125
6.4.4. Distance between the centres of dual tyres 126
6.4.5. Axle width 127
6.4.6. Axle spacing in a given axle group 127
6.4.7. Load shift between axles in a given axle group 130
6.4.8. Result validation 131
6.4.9. Variation in axle group loads 132
6.5. Critical location of axle groups upon pavements 134
6.5.1. Methodology 136
6.5.2. Axle group loadings 137
6.5.3. Thermal induced stress 138
6.5.4. Combination of vehicular and thermal induced stresses 145
6.5.5. Effects of slab thickness on induced tensile stress 152

xv
 6.5.6. Effects of modulus of subgrade reaction on induced tensile 158
stress
6.6. Summary 156
Chapter 7: Laboratory tests of concrete
7.1. Introduction 159
7.2. Compressive test 159
7.3. Flexural test 162
7.4. Modulus of elasticity 166
7.5. Notch beam test 167
7.6. Fatigue test 170
7.6.1. Testing procedure 174
7.7. Summary 178
Chapter 8: Dynamic analysis of bonded concrete pavements under
moving axle group loads
8.1. Introduction 180
8.2. Methodology 181
8.3. Finite element model description 182
8.4. Model Calibration 185
8.5. Effects of moving single axles on induced tensile stress 187
8.6. Effects of moving tandem axles on induced tensile stress 191
8.7. Effects of moving triple and quad axles on induced tensile stress 194
8.8. Effects of axle speeds on alb deflection 194
8.9. Critical speed of axle groups and location of severe damage 203
8.10. Effect of reinforcement 205
8.11. Summary 209
Chapter 9: Experimental field test of concrete pavement under moving
truck loads
9.1. Introduction 210
9.2. Project description 211
9.3. Instrumentations 218
9.4. Material properties 222
9.5. Visual monitoring of test section 222
9.6. Truck characteristics, movement and speed 224
9.7. Pavement roughness 225
9.8. Results and discussion 226
9.8.1. Concrete slab deflection 227
9.8.2. Induced tensile stress 230
9.8.3. Vertical acceleration in concrete slabs 232
9.9. Temperature fluctuation 233
9.10. Summary 234

xvi
Chapter 10: Dynamic analysis of unbonded concrete pavements under
moving axle group loads
10.1. Introduction 236
10.2. Development of finite element model 236
10.3. Model calibration 238
10.4. Results and discussion 241
10.4.1. Effects of moving single axles on induced tensile stress 241
10.4.2. Effects of moving tandem axles on induced tensile stress 247
10.4.3. Effects of moving triple and quad axles on induced tensile 249
stress
10.5. Critical speed of axle groups and number of stress repetition 249
10.6. Combination of moving axle groups and differential temperature 256
10.7. Summary 262
Chapter 11 Development of slab thickness design guide for zero
maintenance fatigue damage
11.1. Introduction 264
11.2. Cross section of the concrete pavement 265
11.3. Concrete characteristics 265
11.4. Subbase 266
11.5. Prediction of the maximum induced tensile stress 266
11.6. Environmental effects 271
11.7. Variation of slab thickness 273
11.8. Variation of modulus of subgrade reaction 273
11.9. Combination of vehicular loads and environmental effects 274
11.10. Validation of stress prediction in jointed plain concrete 275
pavement
11.11. Fatigue analysis 276
11.12. An example of the method 282
11.13. Summary 284
Chapter 12: Conclusion and Recommendation for further study
12.1. Contribution from this research 285
12.2. Conclusion 286
12.3. Recommendation for future study 291
References 292

xvii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Number Description Page

Figure 2-1 Fatigue relationship adopted in Austroads design model 14

(Austroads, 2004)

Figure 2-2 Variation of fatigue life with concrete compressive strength 15

Figure 2-3 Variation of fatigue life with concrete compressive strength for 16
gravel aggregate and crushed rock

Figure 2-4 Effect of different types of fibres on concrete fatigue flexural 17

strength

Figure 3-1 Cross section of a typical concrete pavement in Australia 19

Figure 3-2 DL subgrade idealization 21

Figure 3-3 Spring model idealization 21

Figure 3-4 Limitation of the spring model 21

Figure 3-5 Winkler modified idealization 22

Figure 3-6 Elastic solid (ES) idealization 22

Figure 3-7 TP model idealization 23

Figure 3-8 Kerr model idealization 24

Figure 3-9 Typical experimentally determined frictional stress versus 27

concrete slab slippage for different materials in subbase

Figure 3-10 Typical expansion joint 31

Figure 3-11 Typical isolation joint 31

Figure 3-12 Typical keyed and tied longitudinal joints 34

Figure 3-13 Typical components for calculation of LTE in a transverse 35

crack

Figure 3-14 Effect of lowering distance between outer edge of tyre imprint 37
and pavement edge on JPCP transverse cracking

Figure 3-15 Illustration of Packard and Tayabji’s (1985) assumption 38

xviii
Figure 3-16 Critical axle position on the pavement 38

Figure 3-17 Configurations of traffic lanes considered in the AASHTO 39

Figure 3-18 Configurations of concrete slabs in the longitudinal direction 40

considered by AASHTO

Figure 3-19 Effect of number of slabs in the transverse direction on 40

prediction of the maximum bottom bending surface stress

Figure 3-20 Effect of number of slabs in the longitudinal direction on 41

prediction of maximum induced tensile stresses at the bottom
surface layer of the concrete slab, single slab vs. three slabs

Figure 3-21 Axle group types considered in Austroads 2004 42

Figure 3-22 Transverse section of a typical SADT 43

Figure 3-23 Length and width of tyre–pavement contact area 45

Figure 3-24 Effects of daytime and nighttime temperature gradient on 47

concrete pavements in the absence of factors restraining the
concrete slab movement

Figure 3-25 Effects of daytime and nighttime temperature gradient on 48

concrete pavements in the presence of factors restraining the
concrete slab movement

Figure 3-26 Pavement modelling in EverFE finite element program 54

Figure 3-27 8-noded finite element setup in Totsky model 57

Figure 3-28 Schematic interface element behaviour and interface 58

constitutive relationship

Figure 3-29 Comparison between damage rate: moving constant load 61

versus time-history load

Figure 3-30 Comparison between fatigue cracking along slab length: 62

moving constant load versus time-history load

Figure 3-31 The critical location of the applied load for top-down transverse 69
cracking

Figure 3-32 The critical location of applied load for joint faulting 70

Figure 3-33 Critical load location for CRCP punchout crack 71

Figure 3-34 Erosion mechanism 72

xix
Figure 3-35 Meyerhof’s yield line theory 74

Figure 3-36 Estimation of effective subgrade CBR 77

Figure 3-37 Illustration of possible concrete pavement layered system 84

(AASHTO, 2003)

Figure 5-1 Algorithm flowchart of program used in ANRPD-2004 99

Figure 5-2 Variation of base thickness with design traffic (HVAGs) for 101
different pavement types

Figure 5-3 Variation of base thickness with Design traffic (HVAGs) for 102
dowelled JRCP with concrete compressive strength of 36 MPa

Figure 5-4 Variation of base thickness with Design traffic (HVAGs) for 103
dowelled JRCP with concrete compressive strength of 80 MPa

Figure 5-5 Variation of base thickness with design traffic (HVAGs) for 105
different project design reliabilities

Figure 5-6 Variation of base thickness with design traffic (HVAGs) for 106
different subbase types in a JRCP

Figure 5-7 Variation of base thickness with design traffic (HVAGs) for 107
different subgrade CBR in a JRCP

Figure 5-8 Typical rigid pavement thickness design curve for a specific 112
effective CBR and concrete flexural strength

Figure 6-1 JPCP configurations considered in this Chapter 116

Figure 6-2 Thermal induced tensile stress in concrete slab for different 118
debonding materials

Figure 6-3 Comparison between thermal induced tensile stresses in 120

different fully unbonded pavement configurations

Figure 6-4 Comparison between thermal induced tensile stresses in 121

different fully bonded pavement configurations

Figure 6-5 Load positions on the concrete pavement 122

Figure 6-6 Effect of tyre-pavement contact area on pavement response 124

Figure 6-7 Effect of tyre inflation pressure on pavement response 125

Figure 6-8 Effect of distance between the centres of dual tyres on 127
pavement response

xx
Figure 6-9 Effect of axle width on pavement response 128

Figure 6-10 Effect of axle spacing on pavement response 129

Figure 6-11 Effect of load shift between axles on pavement response for 131
TAST

Figure 6-12 Comparison in induced tensile stresses for bonded and 133
unbonded concrete pavements based on results of the current
study and dimensions used by Packard and Tayabji (1985)

Figure 6-13 Comparison in deflection of concrete slab for bonded and 133
unbonded concrete pavements based on results of the current
study and dimensions used by Packard and Tayabji (1985)

Figure 6-14 Position of applied loads for different axle groups on the centre 137
concrete slab

Figure 6-15 Vehicular induced stress in different pavement configurations 139

for unbonded boundary condition

Figure 6-16 Vehicular induced stress in different pavement configurations 140

for bonded boundary condition

Figure 6-17 Curling induced stress influence lines in bonded concrete slab 142
with full pavement configuration

Figure 6-18 Curling induced stress influence lines in unbonded concrete 143
slab with full pavement configuration

Figure 6-19 Vehicular and thermal induced tensile stresses in bonded 146
concrete slab with full pavement configuration

Figure 6-20 Vehicular and thermal induced tensile stresses in unbonded 147
concrete slab with full pavement configuration

Figure 6-21 Combination of vehicular and thermal induced tensile stresses 149
in a full pavement configuration subjected to SADT

Figure 6-22 Information on location of fatigue cracking 150

Figure 6-23 Position of the critical location in thick unreinforced concrete 154
pavement

Figure 7-1 Concrete compressive test setup using external electrical strain 160
gauge

Figure 7-2 Concrete compressive test ring 160

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Figure 7-3 Typical failure mode of the cylindrical concrete specimens 161

Figure 7-4 Stress-strain curve of the concrete specimens tested on 23 /12 162
/2005

Figure 7-5 Instrumentation on the notch beam 168

Figure 7-6 The test setup for notch beams 169

Figure 7-7 Typical result of the notch beam test 169

Figure 7-8 The newly developed fatigue test setup 172

Figure 7-9 Comparison between the newly developed and the traditional 172
fatigue test setups

Figure 7-10 Specimen curvature during the test 174

Figure 7-11 Concrete fatigue testing 175

Figure 8-1 Finite element model of the JPCP 182

Figure 8-2 Reinforcement simulation for JRCP in the finite element model 187

Figure 8-3 Simulation of saw cut in the finite element model 184

Figure 8-4 Truck configuration used for validation of the finite element 186
analysis

Figure 8-5 Calibration of the finite element analysis 187

Figure 8-6 Influence line of induced tensile stress in concrete pavements 188
due to SAST

Figure 8-7 Influence line of induced tensile stress in concrete pavements 189
due to SADT

Figure 8-8 Comparison of transverse stress at confined edge and MG 190

stress in JPCP

Figure 8-9 Influence line of induced tensile stress in concrete pavements 192
due to TAST

Figure 8-10 Influence line of induced tensile stress in concrete pavements 193
due to TADT

Figure 8-11 Influence line of induced tensile stress in concrete pavements 195
due to TRDT

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Figure 8-12 Influence line of induced tensile stress in concrete pavements 196
due to QADT

Figure 8-13 Influence line of slab deflection in concrete pavements due to 197
SAST

Figure 8-14 Influence line of slab deflection in concrete pavements due to 198
SADT

Figure 8-15 Influence line of slab deflection in concrete pavements due to 199
TAST

Figure 8-16 Influence line of slab deflection in concrete pavements due to 200
TADT

Figure 8-17 Influence line of slab deflection in concrete pavements due to 201
TRDT

Figure 8-18 Influence line of slab deflection in concrete pavements due to 202
QADT

Figure 8-19 Critical axle group speed based on the first principle stress 204

Figure 8-20 Comparison between slab deflection due to SAST in JPCP and 205
JRCP

Figure 8-21 Comparison between maximum induced tensile stresses due to 206
SAST in JPCP and JRCP

Figure 8-22 Comparison between maximum induced tensile stresses due to 206
SADT in JPCP and JRCP

Figure 8-23 Comparison between maximum induced tensile stresses due to 207
TAST in JPCP and JRCP

Figure 8-24 Comparison between maximum induced tensile stresses due to 207
TADT in JPCP and JRCP

Figure 8-25 Comparison between maximum induced tensile stresses due to 208
TRDT in JPCP and JRCP

Figure 8-26 Comparison between maximum induced tensile stresses due to 208
QADT in JPCP and JRCP

Figure 9-1 Layout of the test section 212

Figure 9-2 Mesh reinforcement used in JRCPs 213

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Figure 9-3 Expended polystyrene blocks used to form voids at transverse 213
and longitudinal intersection

Figure 9-4 Assemblage of linear displacement transducer on the mounting 214

pole

Figure 9-5 Rectangular dowel bars installed at transverse joints 214

Figure 9-6 Cylindrical tie bars used at longitudinal joints 215

Figure 9-7 The use of single layer polyethylene sheet to create partially 216
bonded boundary condition in half length of the test section

Figure 9-8 The use of power trowel to enhance the surface smoothness 217

Figure 9-9 Preparing the transverse joints using saw cut 218

Figure 9-10 Embedded electrical strain gauges installed at a distance of 25 219

mm away from the subbase surface using rebar chair

Figure 9-11 Thermocouples installed at different depth of the concrete slabs 219

Figure 9-12 Locations of strain gauges 220

Figure 9-13 Locations of linear displacement sensors and vertical 221

accelerometers

Figure 9-14 eDaQ dynamic data acquisition system 221

Figure 9-15 Locations of cracks in the test section 222

Figure 9-16 Initiation of Crazing cracks at the top surface layer of the 223
concrete slabs

Figure 9-17 Initiation of a transverse crack in shoulder close to transverse 223

joints

Figure 9-18 Semi-trailer truck used in this study 224

Figure 9-19 Tyre configuration 225

Figure 9-20 Longitudinal coloured lines to help driver for maintaining the 226
truck movement at a certain distance of longitudinal edges

Figure 9-21 Time history deflection responses for different speeds at DL7 228

Figure 9-22 Time history deflection responses for different speeds at DR13 228

Figure 9-23 Time history deflection responses in JRCP for different 229
reinforcement locations

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Figure 9-24 Time history deflection responses at transverse joint 230

Figure 9-25 Comparison between dowel positions based on critical speed 230

Figure 9-26 Time history stress responses in JRCP at TCL12 for different 231
truck speeds

Figure 9-27 Time history stress responses in JRCP at TCL8 for different 232
truck speeds

Figure 9-28 Typical temperature fluctuation in depth of the concrete slab 234

Figure 10-1 Finite element model of the unbonded JPCP 237

Figure 10-2 Stress time history at BCR3 recorded in the field test 239

Figure 10-3 Stress time history at BCR3 derived from FEA results 240

Figure 10-4 Comparison of stress time histories at TCR12 between field 240
test and FEA

Figure 10-5 Influence line of induced tensile stress for a point at mid-edge 242
of concrete pavements due to SAST

Figure 10-6 Influence line of induced tensile stress for a point at mid-edge 243
of the concrete pavements due to SADT

Figure 10-7 Pavement curvature in JRCP under the QADT with speed of 244
110 km/h

Figure 10-8 curvature in JRCP under TRDT with a speed of 30 km/h 245

Figure 10-9 Influence line of induced tensile stress for a point at the corner 246
of the concrete pavements due to SAST

Figure 10-10 Influence line of induced tensile stress for a point at the corner 248
of the concrete pavements due to SADT

Figure 10-11 Influence line of induced tensile stress for a point at mid-edge 250
of the concrete pavements due to TAST

Figure 10-12 Influence line of induced tensile stress for a point at the corner 251
of the concrete pavements due to TAST

Figure 10-13 Influence line of induced tensile stress for a point at mid-edge 252
of the concrete pavements due to TADT

Figure 10-14 Influence line of induced tensile stress for a point at the corner 253
of the concrete pavements due to TADT

xxv
Figure 10-15 Influence line of induced tensile stress for a point at mid-edge 254
of the concrete pavements due to TRDT

Figure 10-16 Influence line of induced tensile stress for a point at the corner 255
of the concrete pavements due to TRDT

Figure 10-17 Influence line of induced tensile stress for a point at mid-edge 257
of the concrete pavements due to QADT

Figure 10-18 Influence line of induced tensile stress for a point at the corner 258
of the concrete pavements due to QADT

Figure 10-19 Pavement curvature due to a daytime differential temperature 260

of 8.5 ºC

Figure 10-20 Pavement curvature due to a nighttime differential temperature 260

of 8.5 ºC

Figure 10-21 Combination of SAST and daytime differential temperature of 261

8.5 ºC

Figure 10-22 Combination of SAST and nighttime differential temperature 261

of 8.5 ºC

Figure 10-23 Stress repetition due to a combination of SAST and daytime 262
differential temperature of 8.5 ºC

xxvi
 LIST OF TABLES

Number Description Page

Table 2-1 Concrete coefficient of thermal expansion in a concrete 13

with cement to aggregate ratio of 1:6 for different
aggregate types and curing methods

Table 3-1 Traffic load regime at different loop in AASHTO test 65

Table 3-2 Distance between joints (m) for different types of concrete 75
pavement
Table 3-3 Selection of subbase type 76

Table 3-4 Presumptive traffic load distribution for urban roads 79

Table 3-5 Presumptive traffic load distribution for rural roads 80
Table 5-1 Design traffic (×106 HVAGs) below which fatigue 103
analysis is the key factor
Table 5-2 Concrete compressive strength (MPa) greater than those 104
provided in the table has no effect of the calculated base
thickness in the fatigue analysis
Table 5-3 Effects of subgrade CBR, concrete compressive strength, 108
and provision of dowels and shoulders on critical damage
process in a JRCP
Table 5-4 When to calculate the base thickness instead of adopting 110
the minimum recommended base thickness
Table 5-5 Effect of base thickness on fatigue damage in a JRCP 111
with shoulder
Table 6-1 Information on tyre-pavement contact area in SAST and 124
SADT
Table 6-2 Effect of variations in axle group loads on induced tensile 134
stress
Table 6-3 Critical location of fatigue cracking in full pavement 151
model due to different differential temperatures and
SADT
Table 6-4 Effect of concrete slab thickness on maximum induced 153
stress (MPa) due to different differential temperatures and
SADT
Table 6-5 Effect of modulus of subgrade reaction on maximum 156
induced stress (MPa) due to different differential
temperatures and SADT
Table 7-1 Results of concrete compressive tests 163
Table 7-2 Results of flexural tests for samples at 14 days age 164
Table 7-3 Results of flexural tests for samples at 28 days age 165

xxvii
Table 7-4 Comparison between results of flexural laboratory tests 166
with results from equations provided in the past for
estimation of flexural strength
Table 7-5 Results of notch beam tests 170

Table 7-6 The average flexural strength of the specimens used in the 174
fatigue test
Table 7-7 Results of Fatigue tests 176

Table 7-8 Comparison between results of the current study and the 177
equations developed for estimation of concrete fatigue life
Table 8-1 Information on axle configurations used in the current 185
study
Table 8-2 Type of required analysis in JPCP for each axle group 203
Table 10-1 Comparison is slab deflection between FEA and the field 238
test
Table 10-2 Summary of the dynamic results for different axle groups 259
and different types of unbonded concrete pavement
Table 11-1 Load safety factor for concrete pavement design 268

Table 11-2 Accuracy of the stress prediction equations provided in 270

the thesis
Table 11-3 Variations of coefficient C2 in Equation 10-7 270

Table 11-4 Variations of coefficient C3 in Equation 10-7 271

Table 11-5 Comparison between results of the finite element analyses 272
and those from stress prediction equations
Table 11-6 Variations of coefficient C4 in Equation 9-5 273

Table 11-7 Variations of coefficient α in Equation 10-10 for 274

unbonded pavements
Table 11-8 Variations of coefficient β in Equation 10-11 for 274
unbonded pavements
Table 11-9 Comparison between stress prediction models developed 277
in the current research with FEA and the stress prediction
model used in the Austroads method (2004)
Table 11-10 Comparison between stress prediction model developed in 278
the current research with corresponding results from FEA
Table 11-11 Adjustment factors for allowable load repetitions 280

Table 11-12 Results of the fatigue analysis for each axle group based 282
on different loading conditions

xxviii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AASHO American Association of State Highway Official

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Official
AC Asphalt Cement
ACLRD Allowable Centre Load Repetition during Daytime
ACLRN Allowable Centre Load Repetition during Nighttime
ACI American Concrete Institute
ACoLRD Allowable Corner Load Repetition during Daytime
ACoLRN Allowable Corner Load Repetition during Nighttime
ALR Allowable Load Repetition
AMELRD Allowable Mid-Edge Load Repetition during Daytime
AMELRN Allowable Mid-Edge Load Repetition during Nighttime
AS Asphalt Stabilised Subbase
ASTM American Standard for Testing Materials
CBR California Baring Ratio
CCAA Cement and Concrete Association of Australia
Co Corner
CRCP Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
CS Cement Stabilized
CTE Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
DA Dynamic Amplification
DBR Dowel Bar Retrofit
DD Deferential Deflection
DL Dense Liquid
EL Edge or Longitudinal
ES Elastic Solid
ESG Electrical Strain Gauge
ESAL Equivalent Single Axle Loading
FEM Finite Element Method
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
FRP Fibre Reinforced Polymer
xxix
GFRP Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer
GR Granular subbase
HVAG Heavy Vehicle Axle Group
HVS Heavy Vehicle Simulator
IRI International Roughness Index
JPCP Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement
JRCP Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement
LC Lime treated clay
LDT Linear Displacement Transducer
LMC Lean-Mix Concrete
LS Load Shift between axles in a given axle group
LSF Load safety factor
LTE Load Transfer Efficiency
ME Mid-Edge
MG Maximum Global
MRST Minimum Recommended Base Thickness
NC Natural Clay
NSW New South Wales
PCA Portland Cement Association
PCC Portland Cement Concrete
PDR Project Design Reliability
QA Quad Axle
QADT Quad Axle Dual Tyre
QUT Queensland University of Technology
RTA Road and Traffic Authority
SA Single Axle
SADT Single Axle Dual Tyre
SAST Single Axle Single Tyre
SFCP Steel Fibre Concrete Pavement
TA Tandem Axle
TR Triple Axle
TADT Tandem Axle Dual Tyre

xxx
TAOT Tandem Axle Octa Tyre
TAST Tandem Axle Single Tyre
TRDT Triple Axle Dual Tyre

xxxi
 SYMBOLS

a Fatigue or erosion coefficients

A Area of finite element
Ai Area association by node i

At Tyre-Pavement Contact area

b Fatigue or erosion coefficients

c Fatigue or erosion coefficients
C Elastic solid factor
Cd Structural damping
CIF Coefficient of internal friction
Cl Constant factor for consideration of slab length
Cb Constant factor for consideration of slab width
Cr Constant factor for consideration of reinforcement
C1 Coefficient factor for boundary condition between concrete slab and
subbase
C2 Coefficient factor for contributing different loading positions
C3 Coefficient factor for consideration of shoulder
C4 Coefficient for thermal stress prediction
CLS Coefficient factor for considering load shift between axles in a given
axle group
CTS Factor providing effect of slab thickness
Ck Coefficient for contribution of subgrade strength
d Fatigue or erosion coefficients
DD Differential deflection
DE Deflection Energy
DE j Deformation energy imposed on pumping zone i

e Fatigue or erosion coefficients

Ec Concrete modulus of elasticity

Ef Effective subgrade strength

xxxii
Es Soil modulus of elasticity
ESB Modulus of elasticity of subbase
ESL Modulus of elasticity of concrete slab
f Fatigue or erosion coefficients
fr Concrete flexural strength

f c' Concrete compressive strength

F(t) Load vector at time t
FDF Failure function in Drucker-Prager model
F1 Load adjustment for fatigue process

F2 Adjustment factor for slab edge effect

F3 Erosion factor

F4 Load adjustment for erosion

g Fatigue or erosion coefficients
G Coefficient describing the interaction between adjacent springs
h Fatigue or erosion coefficients
i Fatigue or erosion coefficients
I1 First invariant of the stress tensor
j Fatigue or erosion coefficients
J2 Second invariant of the stress tensor
k Modules of subgrade reaction
kg Stiffness of aggregate
kp Stiffness of cement past
k1 Material factor
k2 Load repetition factor
k3 Calibration factor for soil characteristics

k4 Calibration factor for concrete strength

K Stiffness of the equivalent spring
KDLI Stiffness of the interlayer springs in Totsky model
KDLS Stiffness of the subgrade in Totsky model
KDLU Stiffness of the upper (DL) springs in KV subgrade model idealization
xxxiii
Ki Subgrade modulus of reaction associated by node i
KPL Stiffness of the shear layer in KV subgrade model idealization
KPL1 Stiffness of the upper plate in Totsky model
KPL2 Stiffness of the lower plate in Totsky model
KS Stiffness of structure
KTP Stiffness of the TP subgrade model idealization
L Length of the pavement slab
Lt Length of tyre-pavement contact area

LSF Load safety factor

M Structural mass
Ne Allowable load repetition in erosion analysis
Nf Allowable load repetition in fatigue analysis

Nj Number of transverse joints per 30.5 m of the pavement length

P Axle group load

PE Equivalent load
Pf Ultimate axle group load
Pt Tyre inflation pressure

q Subgrade reaction pressure

Se Equivalent stress

Sr Stress ratio
t Time
T Base thickness
Tp Tyre pressure
TS Thickness of concrete slab
V Volume of material pumped from beneath of the slab
w Surface deflection
Wi Width association by node i

Wl Wheel Load
Wt Tyre-pavement contact width
X Nodal deflection
xxxiv
X& Nodal speed
X&& Nodal acceleration
α Width to length ratio of tyre-pavement contact area
αc Coefficient of expansion of concrete

α DP Drucker-Prager constant
αg Coefficient of expansion of aggregate

αp Coefficient of expansion of cement paste

αR Rayleigh damping constant

αt Constant factor for determination of debonding layer

β DP Drucker-Prager constant
βR Rayleigh damping constant

βK Constant factor
δ Deflection
δE Deflection of the slab edge
δL Deflection of the loaded slab
δU Deflection of the unloaded slab

∆i Deflection of node i

µ Friction coefficient
ξi Ratio of actual damping to critical damping

σ Stress
σt Tensile stress

σT Thermal induced stress

σV Vehicular induced tensile stress

σ V ,i Vehicular induced tensile stress due to axle i

∇2 The Laplace operation

∆T Absolute differential temperature between the top and the bottom
surface layer of the concrete slab
ωc Concrete Density

xxxv
ωi Natural circular frequency

ϖ Load frequency
νs Subgrade Poisson’s ratio

ν SB Poisson’s ratio of subbase

ν SL Poisson’s ratio of concrete slab

ϕ Angle of internal friction

τ Shear stress
λ Ratio of load frequency to structural natural frequency

xxxvi
 STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best
of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or
written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signature ____________________________________

Date ____________________________________

xxxvii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author would like to thank Prof. David P. Thambiratnam and Dr. Andreas
Nataatmadja for their great support during this research. I am particularly grateful to
Dr. Daksh Baweja from Rinker Australia and Prof. John Bell from faculty of Built
Environmental and Engineering, Queensland University of Technology who allocated
the financial support for this research. Acknowledgement is also due to Rinker
Australia, industry partner of this research, for supplying concrete during laboratory
tests and allocating budget for the field test carried out during this research. I would
like to thank Mr. Arthur Powell and Mr. Trevor Laimer, Technicians of the QUT, for
providing technical advice during laboratory tests and also experimental field test. My
great thank to Mr. Glenn Carson from Rinker Australia who organized all services
contributed by the industry partner of this research. I also thank Mr. Mark Barry from
QUT who facilitated the finite element analyses by allocating more ANSYS licences to
this research. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. Adriana Bodnarova for her comments
on a draft of the text.

xxxviii