Accepted Manuscript

Stability Analysis of Anisotropic Granular Base Layers in Flexible Pavements

Mojtaba Asadi, Reza S. Ashtiani

PII: S2214-3912(17)30147-2
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2018.01.001
Reference: TRGEO 158

To appear in: Transportation Geotechnics

Received Date: 14 August 2017

Revised Date: 2 November 2017
Accepted Date: 5 January 2018

Please cite this article as: M. Asadi, R.S. Ashtiani, Stability Analysis of Anisotropic Granular Base Layers in Flexible
Pavements, Transportation Geotechnics (2018), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2018.01.001

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Stability Analysis of Anisotropic Granular Base Layers in Flexible Pavements

Mojtaba Asadi1, Reza S. Ashtiani2

1. Graduate Research Assistant, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W. University Ave, El Paso, TX

79902, Tel: (915) 206-7296, Email: masadi@miners.utep.edu

2. Assistant Professor, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W. University Ave, El Paso, TX 79902, Tel:

(915) 747 5404, Fax: (915) 747-5404, Email: reza@utep.edu

ABSTRACT

The structural integrity of the unbound granular layers is of paramount importance for the design

and analysis of multi-layer structures. The passage of slow moving vehicles in overload corridors

can potentially compromise the stability of pavement foundations, and incur unforeseen costs to

the travelling public. The likelihood of the destabilizing effect of overload traffic is more

pronounced upon moisture intrusion due to infiltration or evapotranspiration. Additionally, due

to the temperature and loading rate dependency of viscoelastic bituminous surface layers, the

stresses transferred to the supporting granular layers will be more taxing in hot summer months.

Therefore, it deems necessary to establish a mechanistic framework to characterize the

synergistic influence of the moisture ingress and the parameters of the stress path to ensure the

longevity of the granular layers. This research strives to bridge this gap by the development of an

anisotropic protocol for the stability control of the granular layers. To achieve this objective, the

anisotropic elasticity principles were employed to characterize the proximity of the applied

stresses to the strength envelope of the particulate soils. The stability analysis presented in this

research underscored the systematic error associated with isotropic characterization of granular

1
layers. The numerical simulations showed that isotropic characterization of the base layer can

potentially overestimate the structural capacity of unbound granular layers. This can manifest

itself in premature failure of the pavement foundations. The findings of this research can be

utilized by the pavement design industry and practitioners to mitigate costs associated with

reconstruction and repair of pavements.

Keywords: Unbound Aggregate Base; Structural Stability; Anisotropy; Pavement Foundation

1. Introduction

The AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design, also known as the Mechanistic-Empirical

Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG), considers rutting, fatigue cracking, thermal cracking,

longitudinal cracking, and pavement roughness as the major distress mechanisms that control the

design of flexible pavements (AASHTO, 2008). The design methodologies currently employed

by the state agencies and pavement engineers tend to overlook the stability control of granular

layers in multi-layer structures. Characteristic load limit analysis of geomaterials should consider

the most taxing permutation (load magnitude, tire pressure, axle and tire configurations,

acceleration and deceleration mechanisms, etc.) to warrant a stable platform for the asphalt layer

during the service life of the pavement. Unlike the rutting performance models in the traditional

design guides, which tend to predict the rut depth as a function of the number of load

applications, the stability control protocol aims to check for the stability of the platform at the

most critical loading scenario and environmental condition. In other words, the stability control

provides valuable information on the structural integrity of geomaterials when subjected to a

single passage of the most critical loading condition during the service life of the pavement.

2
 Current design methodologies address the rutting effect in pavement structures using two

different approaches, namely rut depth approaches and threshold methods. The first category

tends to determine the cumulative rutting in pavement layers as a function of the number of load

applications. The MEPDG, VESYS (Zhou and Scullion, 2002) and Ohio State (Majidzadeh et

al., 1980) models share the rut-depth rationale for the estimation of cumulative plastic

deformation in multi-layer structures. Conversely, the threshold limit approach considers an

upper bound limit for a predetermined response, such as vertical compressive strain, to ensure

the stability of the base layer. The rutting models proposed by South African Council for

Scientific and Industrial Research, (CSIR) shares this rational for the design of granular layers

(Theyse, 2002). Theyse used the concept of stress ratio, defined as the ratio of applied and

allowable deviatoric stresses, to characterize the performance of granular layers subjected to

repeated traffic loads. He concluded that an inverse relationship exists between the stress ratio

and the number of load applications required to reach a predetermined strain threshold.

There are a few studies on the stability analysis of geomaterials in pavement structures.

Hopkins et al. (2005) performed stability analysis of pavement structures through the theories of

bearing capacity and evaluated the safety factor of several pavement sections including those of

AASHTO road tests. Based on the classification methodology proposed by Chester McDowel in

1950s, TxDOT employs the Modified Texas Triaxial criteria to assess the influence of the

heaviest wheel load on the proposed pavement structure (Liu and Scullion, 2011). The authors of

the two aforementioned studies employed isotropic solutions to calculate the pavement responses

due to the most taxing loading conditions. Ashtiani (2009) developed an anisotropic stability

control protocol based on the modified Drucker-Prager postulate in the ICAR-508a project. The

authors incorporated the protocol in a standalone finite element program, and performed

3
sensitivity analysis on the parameters of the model to show the contribution of the stress path

parameters and the orientations of principal planes on the stability of granular layers.

The random geometry of the aggregate particles, and the dynamic nature of the moving

traffic loads are the primary sources of the anisotropic behavior of aggregate layers. Upon the

application of the compaction energy, aggregate particles tend to lay flat and align with the

horizontal plane. This will result in preferred orientation of the particle contacts, which

consequently results in different interlocking effect in orthogonal directions. Due to the absence

of binding agents, such as asphalt, cement, etc., the primary mechanism of the load distribution

in unbound granular layers is attributed to the interlocking and frictional forces between the

particles. Therefore, there is an inherent component of anisotropy associated with the random

shape of the particulate soils which is greatly influenced by aggregate mineralogy, crushing

techniques in the quarry, and the compaction method. This component of anisotropy is present

even at isotropic stress states. In addition to the geometry-related component of anisotropy, the

dynamic nature of the moving wheel loads adds another level of complexity to the proper

characterization of the unbound layers in multi-layer structures. The moving nature of the traffic

loads results in shear stress reversal and the rotation of the principal stress plane upon the

passage of the vehicle.

A theoretical framework to evaluate the stability of anisotropic aggregate base layers

using the theory of elasticity has been previously proposed by the authors (Asadi and Ashtiani,

2017). In the aforementioned study, a performance measure called the Instability Ratio (IR), was

established to evaluate the structural integrity of granular layers. The proposed approach shares

several commonalities with the South African CSIR strength ratio approach, but with two major

distinctions; the South African method uses the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, while the new

4
approach uses an anisotropic criterion to identify the onset of failure. Secondly, the new

approach employs anisotropic solutions to calculate the pavement responses, in contrast to

isotropic elastic solutions based on Boussinesq formulations, adopted by the South African CSIR

method. The current study aims to capitalize on the previous approach and to propose a

theoretical anisotropic framework for the stability analysis of pavement foundations. Initially a

brief discussion on the practical aspects of anisotropic characterization is presented in this paper.

The conceptual discussion of the anisotropic behavior of pavement foundations was followed by

the presentation of the theoretical framework for the calculation of the anisotropic responses in

particulate soils. The detailed rationale behind the anisotropic stability framework and its

relevance to the design of pavements were also discussed using several numerical simulations.

Additionally, a series of parametric analyses were performed to demonstrate the significance of

the anisotropic characterizations to identify taxing scenarios that can potentially result in base

layer failure.

2. Cross-anisotropic behavior of the Unbound Aggregate Base (UAB)

Anisotropy is defined as the directional dependency of material properties. Naturally

deposited soil as well as compacted aggregates exhibit anisotropic behavior. The primary

mechanism for the distribution of loads in aggregate systems is attributed to the aggregate

interlocking effect and inter-particle frictional forces. The interactions between the particles are

predominantly influenced by the aggregate geometry and a contact surfaces. The random

distribution of the contact surfaces manifests itself in variation of the stiffness properties in

different directions. The inter-particle frictional forces are primarily impacted by the aggregate

dimensions (aspect ratio), broken edges, and surface roughness of the particulate soils. This

5
component of the anisotropy is often referred to as inherent anisotropy. In addition to the shape-

induced anisotropy, the dynamic nature of the approaching and departing traffic loads also adds

another component of anisotropy in pavement structures.

Fig. 1 shows the influence of the aggregate type, size and the stress states on the level of

anisotropy (Ev/Eh) of aggregate systems. For perfectly isotropic materials, the vertical and

horizontal modulus values are equal (Ev=Eh). The plot clearly underscores the influence of

particle size on the level of anisotropy of aggregate systems. The aggregate sources consisted of

larger particles such as gravels, exhibited higher level of anisotropy compared to sandy

materials. Additionally, the level of anisotropy has shown to be sensitive to the ratio of the

applied vertical and horizontal stresses. The results from the figure 1 indicate that the deviation

from the isotropic stress state (h=v) significantly impacted the modular ratios, and

consequently the level of anisotropy of the unbound granular systems. Previous research

conducted by the authors showed that the distribution of the stresses in unbound layers is greatly

impacted by the level of anisotropy of the systems. For instance, aggregate systems consisted of

high fines content at elevated saturation levels exhibit highly anisotropic behavior. Such systems

are prone to develop excessive plastic deformations during service life. Therefore, it deems

necessary to take the anisotropy of aggregate layers into consideration for the analysis and design

of pavement foundations (Ashtiani, 2009). In a similar study, Tutumluer (2003) reported that in

some aggregate systems the horizontal modulus can drop to 15% of the vertical modulus upon

moisture intrusion, therefore it would be unsafe to disregard the anisotropic behavior in granular

layers.

6
 FIGURE 1 Inherent and stress-induced anisotropy in geomaterials (after Jiang et al.,

1997).

3. Stability Analysis

Traditional pavement analysis and design methodologies often overlook the significance

of stability control of the granular layers subjected to heavy loads. The taxing loading conditions

exerted by even single passage of a super heavy vehicle can cause shear failure in the base layer,

and compromise the structural integrity of pavement layers. The unforeseen costs and delays

associated with the repair and reconstruction can be a burden for the state agencies and the users

of the transportation facilities. McDowell pioneered the heaviest wheel load analysis for Texas

Department of Transportation in mid 1950s (McDowell, 1955) He devised an unbound aggregate

classification based on the triaxial test data, to quantify the performance of the materials for use

7
in pavement foundations. Subsequently, several other researchers provided evidence on the shear

failure and the significance of the stability analysis of granular layers (Hopkins et al., 2005).

Theyse (2002) adopted the shear strength ratio concept for the characterization of the

stability of granular layers. The failure of granular layers is triggered when the critical

combination of the shear and normal stresses equates the shear strength of the soil. The strength

ratio can be considered as a measure of the performance of granular layers. Theoretically, the

probability of the failure has an inverse relationship with the strength ratio. Aggregate systems

with high shear resistance capacity subjected to less taxing stress paths have small shear strength

ratio. Conversely, high fines content systems at high saturation levels exhibit high softening

behavior, and therefore are more prone to develop shear rutting in service. For this reason,

several researchers developed a cut off value to establish an upper bound limit for the strength

ratio. Thompson established the deviatoric stress versus unconfined compressive strength to

characterize the performance of the granular soils. He suggested to contain the ratio below 0.4 to

ensure the stability of the granular layers (Thompson et al., 1977). In a similar study but on

different soils, Van Niekerk suggested that the use of well-graded aggregates with controlled

compaction would contain the strength ratio below 0.6 in base layers (Van Niekerk, 2002).

A similar concept is adopted in this study to characterize the stability of the unbound

granular layers. The Instability Ratio (IR) is defined as:

 1a   3a
IR  (1)
1 f   3 f

where, a and 3a are applied major and minor principal stresses, respectively; f and f are

the major and minor principal stresses at failure, respectively. The departure from the traditional

8
strength ratio concept in this study is twofold. In the proposed approach, both the induced

stresses, and the corresponding strength of the materials are considered to be anisotropic.

Fig. 2 schematically illustrates the rotation of the principal stresses at a given depth (z)

due to external loads. The distributed load exerted by the wheel is approximated by a

concentrated load in this figure. As shown in the figure, the angle of the major principle stress

with the horizontal plane () deviates from 90º as a function of normalized radial offset ( ). Due

to the dissipation of the stresses with depth and radial offset from the point of the application of

the load, the value of the deviatoric stress ( 1a−3a) also decays as  increases. On the other

hand, if the material is assumed to be isotropic, ( 1f−3f) is a function of the confining pressure

only, irrespective of the rotation angle.

For an anisotropic material, the deviatoric stress ( 1f −3f) induced by the traffic loads

varies within the granular layer. The magnitude of the deviatoric stress is a function of the load

magnitude, geospatial location, and other pertinent anisotropic material properties. This implies

that both the responses and the strength of the material are location-dependent quantities in the

base layer. In other words, the numerator, deviatoric stress, and the denominator, anisotropic

strength presented in Equation 1 vary independently in the base layer. The anisotropic stiffness

properties in orthogonal directions, and the nonlinear dissipation of the stresses with depth and

radial offset result in non-uniform patterns of IR distribution in the base layer. Therefore, the

location of the maximum IR value, which denotes the critical scenario, will be dependent on the

material properties and the location. Consequently, it would not be prudent to limit the stability

analysis only under the centerline of the load, as the shear stresses reach its maximum values

away from the centerline of applied tire load.

9
 Fig 2. Schematic representation of the rotation of the principal plane.

The following sections provide detailed descriptions regarding the calculations of the

components of the IR relationship; stresses and the strength of the material based on the

principles of anisotropic elasticity.

4. Calculation of the Stresses in Anisotropic Particulate Medium

Characterization of an elastic cross-anisotropic granular layer requires five material

properties namely the elastic modulus in the vertical direction Ev; the elastic modulus in the

horizontal direction Eh; the elastic shear modulus Ghv; the Poisson’s ratio for the effect of

horizontal strain on the orthogonal horizontal strain hh; and the Poisson’s ratio for effect of

vertical strain on horizontal strain, vh. The modular ratio, n, is defined as n = Eh/Ev.

Anyaegbunam (2014) proposed a series of analytical closed form solutions for the calculation of

the stresses and strains in cross-anisotropic half spaces. He recognized three different modes,

based on the material properties, and extracted the formulae for each case. Equations 2-29

10
provide the relationships for the calculation of the cross-anisotropic responses, including vertical

stress (z), horizontal stress (x), and shear stress (xz), based on Anyaegbunam formulations.

Pz3 sin(3 2 )
z  (2)
2R43 sin( 1 )

P  g 9 z g8 N 
x   2   (3)
R4  4
R R 5 

Pz3 sin(3 2 )
 xz  (4)
2R43 sin( 1 )

where:

1/ 4
 A
3    (5)
C 


R4  (r 2  12 z 2 ) 2  24 z 4 
1/ 4
(6)

1  2 
 1  tan 1  22  (7)
2  1 

1   2z2 
 2  tan 1  2 2 2 2  (8)
2  r  1 z 

g8  3 1 cos( 2   3  1 )  2 sin( 2   3  1 ) (9)

g 9  3 cos(3 2 )  4 sin(3 2 ) (10)

nEv
N (11)
2(1   hh )

11
 
R5  R42  z 232  2R4 z3 cos( 2  1 ) 
1/ 2
(12)

In the equation 5-12:

nEv
A (1  n vh2 ) (13)


Ev
C (1   hh
2
) (14)


( AC  F 2  2 FGhv )
 
2
1 (15)
2CGhv

( AC  F 2 )[( F  2Ghv ) 2  AC ]
 
2
2 (16)
2CGhv

 R sin( 2 )  z3 sin( 1 ) 

 3  tan 1  4  (17)
 R4 cos( 2 )  z3 cos( 1 ) 

1  g33  g4 4 (18)

2  g3  4  g 4 3 (19)

3  g33  g4 4 (20)

4  g3 4  g43 (21)

On the other hand, the parameters of equations 13-21 are given in the following:

  (1   hh )(1  hh  2n vh2 ) (22)

n vh Ev
F (1   hh ) (23)


12
 1 AC  Ghv ) 2  ( F  Ghv ) 2
g3  A (24)
2 ( AC  F 2 ) Ghv

1 A
g4  5)
2 Ghv ( AC  F )( F  2Ghv  AC )

( AC  F 2 )( F  2Ghv )
3  (26)
2C ( F  Ghv )

F ( AC  F 2 )[( F  2Ghv ) 2  AC ]
4  (27)
2C ( F  Ghv )

F ( F  2Ghv )  AC
3  (28)
A( F  Ghv )

( AC  F 2 )[( F  2Ghv ) 2  AC ]
4  (29)
A( F  Ghv )

It is worth noting that equation 2-4 hold true only when Ghv > (1/2) (AC1/2 – F).

Consequently, the principal stresses can be calculated based on the stress transformation

equation once the anisotropic responses, horizontal, vertical, and shear stresses were calculated

using equations 2-4 The rearrangement of the stress transformation equation can provide the

deviatoric stress as provided in equation 30.

 x 
2

1   3  2  z    xz
2
(30)
 2 

13
The equations above were further used in this study to calculate the anisotropic stresses induced

by external loading on aggregate layers.

5. Determination of the Anisotropic Strength of Particulate Medium

The strength of granular materials is greatly impacted by synergistic influence of several

mechanical characteristics and physical features such mineralogy, particle size distribution,

aggregate geometry, level of confinement, stress path, degree of saturation, compaction

characteristics, etc. In this study, the analytical approach proposed by Tien and Kuo (2001) was

adopted for the determination of the strength of cross-anisotropic geomaterials. Figure 3

illustrates the staking analogy of isotropic planes to constitute a cross-anisotropic medium. The

global coordinate system is xyz, and the coordinate system corresponding to the orientation of

principle stresses at any radial offset is represented by x′ y′ z′.

x
P

y
z

x'

Plane of Isotropy

y'
z'

Fig 3. Schematic representation of a cross anisotropic material.

14
 The generalized Hooke’s law for a cross-anisotropic material with respect to the global

coordinate systems (xyz) can be written as:

 1  hh  vh 
 E 0 0 0 
Eh Ev
 h 
 1  vh
 xx   hh 0 0 0   xx 
   Eh Eh Ev   
 yy    vh  vh 1   yy 
 zz   E 0 0 0   
  v    zz 
Ev Ev
 yz   0 0 0
1
0 0
  yz  (31)
     
 xz     xz 
Ghv
 xy   0
1   
0 0 0 0
 Ghv   xy 
 2(1  hh ) 
 0 0 0 0 0 
 Eh 

where, ii and ii are normal strains and stresses, respectively; while, ij and ij represent the shear

strains and shear stresses, respectively. The compliance matrix in equation 31 can be rearranged

for the x′ y′ z′ coordinate system as:

 x x    k11 k12 k13 0 0 k16   xx 

    
 y y   k12 k22 k23 0 0 k26   y y  
 z z    k k k 0 0 k36   z z  
    13 23 33  
 y z    0 0 0 k44 k45 0   y z   (32)
  0 0 k45 k55 0   x z  
 x z   
0

 x y   k16 k26 k36 0 0 k66   x y  
 

Further discussions on the values of coefficients k11, k12, … , k66 can be found in the literature

(e.g. Amadei, 1983). Particularly,

15
 1 cos 4  sin 4   1 2 vh 
k33     cos 2  sin 2    
E z Eh Ev  Ghv Ev  (33)

It may be hypothesized that the failure takes place when the axial strain reaches a critical value,

f. This implies:

 1f  = Ez′f and  1fv = Evf (34)

Therefore,

( 1 f   3 )  1
  (35)
( 1 f   3 ) v k33Ev

where  is a dimensionless factor and function of radial offset as well as elastic material

properties:

n
 (36)
cos   n sin   2k cos 2  sin 2 
4 4

While the k parameter in Equation 36 is:

Ev
k  vh (37)
2Ghv

As previously indicated, n is the modular ratio often referred to as the level of anisotropy n =

Eh/Ev. Equation 35 can be used to estimate the deviatoric stress of the cross-anisotropic material

at failure when the rotation angle of the major principle stress is .

6. Parametric Study

A series of sensitivity analyses were performed on a representative pavement section to

study the influence of the level of anisotropy on the stability of pavement structures. A three-

16
layer flexible pavement section, consisted of 4-inch asphalt layer as well as 15-inch unbound

granular base layer, constructed over a relatively soft subgrade with modulus value of 5000 psi

was considered for the sensitivity analysis. The modulus value of the asphalt layer and the base

layer were assumed to be 1000 ksi and 50 ksi, respectively. The Poisson ratios of the UAB were

assumed as vh = 0.35, hh = 0.15. The anisotropy ratio of the base layer was incrementally varied

from n = 0.15 to fully isotropic condition of n = 1, and the corresponding pavement responses

were calculated using the framework provided in previous sections.

The traditional Odemark’s relationship was used to estimate the equivalent thickness of

asphalt layer. Using the Odemark’s relationship presented in equation 38, the asphalt layer

thickness was replaced by equivalent base layer to accommodate the assumptions outlined by

Ullidtz (1987). In this method, the actual depth (or thickness) of the surface layer is replaced by

the following equivalent depth (Deq,AC) to compensate for the contrast in the resilient moduli of

the tow consecutive layers.

E AC
Deq , AC  3 D AC (38)
EB

where, DAC is the actual depth of the AC layer; EAC and EB are resilient moduli of the AC layer

and base layer, respectively. For instance, using the Odemark’s equation, a pavement section

consisted of 4” asphalt layer and the modular ratio of 20, can be approximated by a single 12

inch base layer. Tables 1-6 present the values of IR at the top of the base layer for different

anisotropy ratios, and two levels of strength, low-strength with S1v = 50 psi and high-strength

with S1v = 100 psi.

Tables 1-6 underscore the role of the load level and radial offset on the stability of the

granular layers in pavement foundations. The onset of failure is denoted by IR=1, when the

17
applied deviatoric stresses by the traffic load equals the anisotropic deviatoric strength of the

geomaterials in the base layer. As expected, aggregate systems subjected to heavier wheel loads

had higher IR values which correspond to higher probability of base failure. Additionally, the IR

values are significantly lower when the reference point is considered sufficiently away from the

point of load application, i.e. =2. However, the interesting observation from the numerical

simulation is associated with the critical location with the highest probability of failure (IRmax).

As is evident in Tables 1-6, the maximum value of the IR does not necessarily occur directly

beneath the load centerline, i.e.  = 0 when the material is considered anisotropic. However, for

the isotropic simulations, reported in Tables 3 and 6, where the modular ratios n=Ex/Ey=1, the

critical location is calculated to be directly beneath the load centerline. This noteworthy

observation underscores the systematic error associated with the isotropic characterization of

granular layers in the analysis and design of pavement layers. The results clearly show the

importance of the inclusion of analysis points in addition to the load centerline for the evaluation

of the stability of granular layers.

TABLE 1 IR Values at the Depth of 12-in for n = 0.15 and S1v = 50 psi

P load  (normalized offset)

(kips) 2 1 0.75 0.5 0.25 0.1 0
1 0.01 0.07 0.14 0.20 0.15 0.11 0.11
3 0.02 0.22 0.41 0.59 0.46 0.34 0.32
5 0.04 0.37 0.68 0.98 0.77 0.57 0.53
7 0.05 0.51 0.95 1.37 1.08 0.80 0.74
9 0.07 0.66 1.22 1.76 1.38 1.03 0.95
11 0.08 0.81 1.49 2.15 1.69 1.26 1.16
13 0.09 0.95 1.77 2.54 2.00 1.48 1.37
15 0.11 1.10 2.04 2.93 2.30 1.71 1.58
17 0.12 1.25 2.31 3.32 2.61 1.94 1.79

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TABLE 2 IR Values at the Depth of 12-in for n = 0.4 and S1v = 50 psi.

P load  (normalized offset)

(kips) 2 1 0.75 0.5 0.25 0.1 0
1 0.01 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.07
3 0.02 0.14 0.21 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.21
5 0.03 0.23 0.35 0.43 0.40 0.36 0.36
7 0.04 0.32 0.49 0.60 0.55 0.51 0.50
9 0.06 0.41 0.63 0.77 0.71 0.66 0.64
11 0.07 0.50 0.77 0.94 0.87 0.80 0.79
13 0.08 0.59 0.91 1.12 1.03 0.95 0.93
15 0.10 0.68 1.05 1.29 1.19 1.09 1.07
17 0.11 0.77 1.19 1.46 1.34 1.24 1.22

TABLE 3 IR Values at the Depth of 12-in for n = 1 and S1v = 50 psi.

P load  (normalized offset)

(kips) 2 1 0.75 0.5 0.25 0.1 0
1 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.07
3 0.01 0.07 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.20 0.20
5 0.02 0.11 0.17 0.24 0.31 0.33 0.34
7 0.03 0.16 0.23 0.33 0.43 0.46 0.47
9 0.04 0.20 0.30 0.43 0.55 0.60 0.60
11 0.05 0.25 0.37 0.52 0.67 0.73 0.74
13 0.06 0.29 0.44 0.62 0.80 0.86 0.87
15 0.07 0.34 0.50 0.71 0.92 0.99 1.01
17 0.08 0.38 0.57 0.81 1.04 1.12 1.14

TABLE 4 IR Values at the Depth of 12-in for n = 0.15 and S1v = 100 psi.

P load  (normalized offset)

(kips) 2 1 0.75 0.5 0.25 0.1 0
1 0.00 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.05
3 0.01 0.11 0.20 0.29 0.23 0.17 0.16
5 0.02 0.18 0.34 0.49 0.38 0.29 0.26
7 0.03 0.26 0.48 0.68 0.54 0.40 0.37
9 0.03 0.33 0.61 0.88 0.69 0.51 0.47
11 0.04 0.40 0.75 1.07 0.84 0.63 0.58
13 0.05 0.48 0.88 1.27 1.00 0.74 0.68
15 0.05 0.55 1.02 1.46 1.15 0.86 0.79
17 0.06 0.62 1.16 1.66 1.31 0.97 0.90

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 TABLE 5 IR Values at the Depth of 12-in for n = 0.4 and S1v = 100 psi.

P load  (normalized offset)

(kips) 2 1 0.75 0.5 0.25 0.1 0
1 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
3 0.01 0.07 0.10 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.11
5 0.02 0.11 0.17 0.21 0.20 0.18 0.18
7 0.02 0.16 0.24 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.25
9 0.03 0.20 0.31 0.39 0.36 0.33 0.32
11 0.04 0.25 0.38 0.47 0.44 0.40 0.39
13 0.04 0.30 0.45 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.46
15 0.05 0.34 0.52 0.64 0.59 0.55 0.54
17 0.05 0.39 0.59 0.73 0.67 0.62 0.61

TABLE 6 IR Values at the Depth of 12-in for n = 1 and S1v = 100 psi.

P load  (normalized offset)

(kips) 2 1 0.75 0.5 0.25 0.1 0
1 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03
3 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.10 0.10
5 0.01 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.15 0.17 0.17
7 0.02 0.08 0.12 0.17 0.21 0.23 0.24
9 0.02 0.10 0.15 0.21 0.28 0.30 0.30
11 0.03 0.12 0.18 0.26 0.34 0.36 0.37
13 0.03 0.15 0.22 0.31 0.40 0.43 0.44
15 0.04 0.17 0.25 0.36 0.46 0.50 0.50
17 0.04 0.19 0.28 0.40 0.52 0.56 0.57

Fig. 4 illustrates the variations of IRmax at the depth of 12 inches for different anisotropy

ratios and S1v. This figure clearly underscores the importance of anisotropic characterization of

the granular layers in pavement structures. As evidenced in Figure 4, the incremental increase in

the load levels resulted in more critical conditions, corresponding to the higher IR values.

Additionally, the progression towards the instability is more pronounced for more anisotropic

systems as manifested by higher gradient of ascend in the trend lines. In other words, the

probability of failure for less anisotropic aggregate systems is significantly lower compared to

20
the more anisotropic counterparts. Therefore, the traditional isotropic assumptions for the

characterization of the unbound granular layers can potentially overestimate the orthogonal load

distribution capacity of base layers.

FIGURE 4 Maximum instability ratio, IRmax, values versus applied load’s magnitude for

low-strength (dashed lines) and high-strength (solid lines) bases with different degrees of

anisotropy.

7. Conclusions

This study presents an analytical framework for the stability analysis of unbound

aggregate base layers in flexible pavements. An anisotropic performance criterion, IR, was

established to characterize the likelihood of the unbound granular layers to undergo unstable

conditions. The components of the performance criterion, IR, were calculated based on the

anisotropic-elastic characterization of geomaterials. Subsequently, a series of parametric

analyses were performed on a representative pavement section at different levels of anisotropy to

evaluate the physical and mechanical sense of the developed stability framework in this study.

21
Additionally, traditional isotropic characterization of the granular materials was added to the

numerical simulation matrix for pairwise comparisons with the anisotropic counterparts.

The numerical simulations clearly underscored the significance of characterization of the

base layer as an anisotropic medium. Based on 54 simulation cases performed in this study, it

was shown that the maximum value of IR, which corresponds to the most critical condition, did

not occur directly along the centerline of the applied load, when the material was characterized

as anisotropic. The similar pattern was observed for all anisotropic permutations in the

simulation matrix. However, when material was considered as fully isotropic (n=1), the critical

location for the IRmax, was approximated directly along the centerline of the simulated wheel

load. The results highlight the importance of geospatial consideration of analysis points for the

determination of the stability of granular layers. In other words, it deems necessary to include

analysis points, other than the ones directly along the load centerline, for proper evaluation of the

stability of granular base layers. Another noteworthy observation from the numerical simulations

is associated with the importance of the level of anisotropy on the stability of the base layers.

Based on the parametric analysis results, permutations with higher level of anisotropy exhibited

sharper slopes towards unstable conditions. Considering the fact that the orthogonal stiffness

properties of base layers in service is greatly influenced by the moisture state, intrusion of

moisture in the unbound layers results in increase in the level of anisotropy of the system, which

consequently jeopardizes the stability of pavement foundations. This underscores the

significance of protecting the base layer from moisture intrusion as to ensure stability of unbound

granular layers.

22
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