MTH 244 Class 2 Notes

1.2- Continued

It can be very difficult to find an explicit formula for a sequence given by a recursive formula.

Example: Consider the sequence of numbers: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, …

Note: This sequence is known as the Fibonacci sequence.

(a) Provide a recursive formula for this sequence.

We notice the following pattern. To get the “next” term we add the previous
two terms. Thus a recursive formula is:

F1  1 and F2  1 and Fn  Fn 1  Fn  2 for n  3

(b) Find an explicit formula for this sequence.

Based upon what we have covered thus far, this question is quite difficult.
Using more advanced techniques in discrete math, (namely the concept of a
generating function) one can obtain an explicit formula for the Fibonacci
sequence which is:

1   1  5   1  5  
n n

Fn     
5   2   2  
 

Note: The derivation of the explicit formula for the Fibonacci sequence is currently my favorite
math problem of all time.

Note: In section 1.2 of the textbook, there are examples where one must verify that a closed
formula satisfies a recursive formula. I have decided to skip over this, since we will learn how
to rigorously prove that a proposed explicit formula describes the same sequence as a recursive
formula when we get to the section on induction.

We end section 1.2 with a brief review of sigma notation.

a k  1
 ak
Notation: For a sequence of numbers k with , we use the notation k 1 to denote
the sum of the first n terms of the sequence. Another way of expressing this is:
n

a k  a1  a2    an
k 1 .
Example: Write the following sum in sigma notation: 3  6  9  12  15  18  21 .

We first recognize that we are adding up the first seven terms of the sequence
7

 3k
given by the closed formula: an  3n . So, a possible answer is: k 1 .

Graded Example:
6

k 3

(a) Evaluate k 4
6

k 3
 43  53  63  64  125  216  405
Solution: We have k  4 .
(b) Write the following sum in sigma notation: 2  5  10  17  26
5

 k 2
 1
Solution: One possibility is: k 1 .
500

9
(c) Evaluate k 1
Solution: For this problem we are adding up 500 nines. So, the answer is: 9  500  4500 .

1.3- Propositional Logic

For this first half of MTH 244, we will be concentrating on how to write mathematical proofs.
Before writing mathematical proofs, it is important to understand some basic elements of
propositional logic.

Definition: We call a sentence a proposition if it is unambiguously true or false.

Question to the Class: What are some examples and non-examples of propositions?

Answer: One famous non-example is the liar paradox: “This statement is false.”

Definition: A propositional variable is simply a variable name that stands for a proposition.
A formal proposition is a proposition written using propositional logic notation
according the following rules:

1. Any propositional variable alone is a formal proposition.

2. Give formal propositions p and q, the compound statement p  q is a formal
proposition. Moreover, p  q stands for “Both p and q are true.”
3. Given formal propositions p and q, the compound statement p  q is a formal
proposition. Moreover, p  q stands for “Either p or q is true.” In
mathematics when we say p or q is true we allow for the possibility that both
are true.
 4. Given a formal proposition p, the compound statement p is a formal
proposition. Moreover, p stands for “It is not the case that p is true.”

p   p  q
Example: Show that is a formal proposition.

Since p and q are propositional variables, we know by rule 2 that p  q is a

formal proposition. Then, by rule 4 we know that since p  q is a formal
 p  q
proposition, is a formal proposition. By rule 1 we know that p is a
 p  q
formal proposition. Finally, since p is a formal proposition and is a
p   p  q
formal proposition, we know by rule 3 that is a formal proposition.

Note: The above example shows us that using many of the symbols from the definition along
with different propositional variables, can result in a formal proposition.

Fact: Much like there are order of operations rules in arithmetic, there are order of precedence
rules in propositional logic. Specifically, “  ” has the highest precedence, followed by
“  ”, and then “  ”. For example, the correct way to interpret p  q  p would be
  p    q    p . One can always use parentheses to avoid the need to apply this fact.

Graded Example: Let p be the propositional variable which stands for the proposition
“George hates math”. Let j be the propositional variable which stands for
the proposition “George is 15 years old”. Let r be the proposition “George
is a college student”. Write each of the following sentences as a formal
proposition.

(a) George is a college student who hates math.

Solution: p  r

(b) George is 15 years old, and he does not hate math.

j   p 
Solution:

(c) Exactly one of the following is true: George hates math; George is a college student.

Solution: In this case we know George hates math or he is a college student, but he is not a
college student who hates math. This leads to the solution:
 p  r    p  r  .
Note: Other solutions to the above graded example are possible. In fact, we will soon talk
about how to tell when two formal propositions are logically equivalent.
Recommended Homework: 1.2- 17, 19, 21, 23 (only do the parts in blue)
1.3- 5, 7 (only do the parts in blue)