Sujal Baweja R120219012

500077020 Btech LLB 4 th Semester

Assignment 1
Course: B. Tech. (CSE + Cyber Law) Semester: IV

Subject: Data Communication and Computer Networks Code: CSEG 2009

1. What is Attenuation?

Ans - Attenuation is the loss of signal strength in networking cables or

connections. This typically is measured in decibels (dB) or voltage and can
occur due to a variety of factors. It may cause signals to become distorted
or indiscernible. Attenuation is an important factor limiting the
transmission of a digital signal across large distances. There are different
types of attenuations which include deliberate, automatic, and
environmental. This kind of attenuation can happen wherever a volume
control can be used to reduce the level of sound over consumer
electronics.

2. What are the different ways to convert Analog-to-analog

conversion? Explain amplitude modulation (AM), frequency
modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM).

Ans - Analog signals are modified to represent analog data. This

conversion is also known as Analog Modulation. Analog modulation is
required when bandpass is used.

Analog to analog conversion can be done in three ways:

1) Amplitude Modulation
Sujal Baweja R120219012
500077020 Btech LLB 4 th Semester

In this modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified to

reflect the analog data.

Amplitude modulation is implemented by means of a multiplier. The amplitude of

modulating signal (analog data) is multiplied by the amplitude of carrier frequency,
which then reflects analog data. The frequency and phase of carrier signal remain
unchanged.

Frequency Modulation
In this modulation technique, the frequency of the carrier signal is modified to reflect
the change in the voltage levels of the modulating signal (analog data).
Sujal Baweja R120219012
500077020 Btech LLB 4 th Semester

The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal are not altered.

Phase Modulation
In the modulation technique, the phase of carrier signal is modulated in order to
reflect the change in voltage (amplitude) of analog data signal.
Sujal Baweja R120219012
500077020 Btech LLB 4 th Semester

Phase modulation is practically similar to Frequency Modulation, but in Phase

modulation frequency of the carrier signal is not increased. Frequency of carrier is
signal is changed (made dense and sparse) to reflect voltage change in the
amplitude of modulating signal.
Sujal Baweja R120219012
500077020 Btech LLB 4 th Semester

3. Explain the various types of multiplexing

Analog Multiplexing -:
The signals used in analog multiplexing techniques are analog in nature. The
analog signals are multiplexed according to their frequency (FDM) or wavelength
(WDM).

Frequency Division Multiplexing -:

In analog multiplexing, the most used technique is Frequency Division Multiplexing

(FDM). This technique uses various frequencies to combine streams of data, for
sending them on a communication medium, as a single signal.
Example − A traditional television transmitter, which sends a number of channels
through a single cable uses FDM.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing -:

Wavelength Division multiplexing (WDM) is an analog technique, in which many

data streams of different wavelengths are transmitted in the light spectrum. If the
wavelength increases, the frequency of the signal decreases. A prism, which can
turn different wavelengths into a single line, can be used at the output of MUX and
input of DEMUX.
Example − Optical fiber communications use WDM technique, to merge different
wavelengths into a single light for communication.
Sujal Baweja R120219012
500077020 Btech LLB 4 th Semester

Digital Multiplexing -:
The term digital represents the discrete bits of information. Hence, the available
data is in the form of frames or packets, which are discrete.

Time Division Multiplexing -:

In Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), the time frame is divided into slots. This
technique is used to transmit a signal over a single communication channel, by
allotting one slot for each message.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) can be classified into Synchronous TDM and
Asynchronous TDM.

Synchronous TDM -:

In Synchronous TDM, the input is connected to a frame. If there are ‘n’ number of
connections, then the frame is divided into ‘n’ time slots. One slot is allocated for
each input line.
In this technique, the sampling rate is common for all signals and hence the same
clock input is given. The MUX allocates the same slot to each device at all times.

Asynchronous TDM -:

In Asynchronous TDM, the sampling rate is different for each of the signals and a
common clock is not required. If the allotted device for a time slot transmits nothing
and sits idle, then that slot can be allotted to another device, unlike synchronous
This type of TDM is used in Asynchronous transfer mode networks.

De-Multiplexer -:
De-multiplexers are used to connect a single source to multiple destinations. This
process is the reverse process of multiplexing. As mentioned previously, it is used
mostly at the receivers. DEMUX has many applications. It is used in receivers in the
communication systems. It is used in arithmetic and logical unit in computers to
supply power and to pass on communication, etc.
De-multiplexers are used as serial to parallel converters. The serial data is given as
input to DEMUX at regular interval and a counter is attached to it to control the
output of the de-multiplexer.
Both the multiplexers and de-multiplexers play an important role in communication
systems, both at the transmitter and the receiver sections.
Sujal Baweja R120219012
500077020 Btech LLB 4 th Semester

4. What is an error? Explain the types of errors.

There are many reasons such as noise, cross-talk etc., which may help data to get
corrupted during transmission. The upper layers work on some generalized view of
network architecture and are not aware of actual hardware data processing.Hence,
the upper layers expect error-free transmission between the systems. Most of the
applications would not function expectedly if they receive erroneous data.
Applications such as voice and video may not be that affected and with some errors
they may still function well.
Data-link layer uses some error control mechanism to ensure that frames (data bit
streams) are transmitted with certain level of accuracy. But to understand how
errors is controlled, it is essential to know what types of errors may occur.

There may be three types of errors:

 Single bit error

In a frame, there is only one bit, anywhere though, which is corrupt.

 Multiple bits error

Frame is received with more than one bits in corrupted state.

 Burst error

Frame contains more than1 consecutive bits corrupted.

Sujal Baweja R120219012
500077020 Btech LLB 4 th Semester

5. What is HTTP and what port does it use?

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application-level protocol for

distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems. This is the foundation
for data communication for the World Wide Web (i.e. internet) since 1990. HTTP is
a generic and stateless protocol which can be used for other purposes as well using
extensions of its request methods, error codes, and headers.
Basically, HTTP is a TCP/IP based communication protocol, that is used to deliver
data (HTML files, image files, query results, etc.) on the World Wide Web. The
default port is TCP 80, but other ports can be used as well. It provides a
standardized way for computers to communicate with each other. HTTP
specification specifies how clients' request data will be constructed and sent to the
server, and how the servers respond to these requests.
By default, HTTP uses port 80

6. Explain the protocols in Data link layer.

There are various data link protocols that are required for Wide Area Network
(WAN) and modem connections. Logical Link Control (LLC) is a data link protocol
of Local Area Network (LAN). Some of data link protocols are given below :

1. Synchronous Data Link Protocol

SDLC is basically a communication protocol of computer. It usually
supports multipoint links even error recovery or error correction also. It is
usually used to carry SNA (Systems Network Architecture) traffic and is
present precursor to HDLC. It is also designed and developed by IBM in
1975. It is also used to connect all of the remote devices to mainframe
computers at central locations may be in point-to-point (one-to-one) or
point-to-multipoint (one-to-many) connections. It is also used to make sure
that the data units should arrive correctly and with right flow from one
network point to next network point.

2. High – Level Data Link Protocol

HDLC is basically a protocol that is now assumed to be an umbrella under
which many Wide Area protocols sit. It is also adopted as a part of X.25
network. It was originally created and developed by ISO in 1979. This
protocol is generally based on SDLC. It also provides best-effort unreliable
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500077020 Btech LLB 4 th Semester

service and also reliable service. HDLC is a bit-oriented protocol that is

applicable for point-to-point and multipoint communications both.

3. Serial Line Interface Protocol

SLIP is generally an older protocol that is just used to add a framing byte at
end of IP packet. It is basically a data link control facility that is required
for transferring IP packets usually among Internet Service Providers (ISP)
and a home user over a dial-up link. It is an encapsulation of the TCP/IP
especially designed to work with over serial ports and several router
connections simply for communication. It is some limitations like it does
not provide mechanisms such as error correction or error detection.

4. Point to Point Protocol

PPP is a protocol that is basically used to provide same functionality as
SLIP. It is most robust protocol that is used to transport other types of
packets also along with IP Packets. It can also be required for dial-up and
leased router-router lines. It basically provides framing method to describe
frames. It is a character-oriented protocol that is also used for error
detection. It is also used to provides two protocols i.e. NCP and LCP. LCP
is used for bringing lines up, negotiation of options, bringing them down
whereas NCP is used for negotiating network-layer protocols. It is required
for same serial interfaces like that of HDLC.

5. Link Control Protocol (LCP)

It was originally developed and created by IEEE 802.2. It is also used to
provide HDLC style services on LAN (Local Area Network). LCP is
basically a PPP protocol that is used for establishing, configuring, testing,
maintenance, and ending or terminating links for transmission of data
frames.

6. Link Access Procedure (LAP)

LAP protocols are basically a data link layer protocols that are required for
framing and transferring data across point-to-point links. It also includes
some reliability service features. There are basically three types of LAP i.e.
LAPB (Link Access Procedure Balanced), LAPD (Link Access Procedure
D-Channel), and LAPF (Link Access Procedure Frame-Mode Bearer
Services). It is actually originated from IBM SDLC, which is being
submitted by IBM to the ISP simply for standardization.

7. Network Control Protocol (NCP)

NCP was also an older protocol that was implemented by ARPANET. It
basically allows users to have access to use computers and some of the
devices at remote locations and also to transfer files among two or more
computers. It is generally a set of protocols that is forming a part of PPP.
Sujal Baweja R120219012
500077020 Btech LLB 4 th Semester

NCP is always available for each and every higher-layer protocol that is
supported by PPP. NCP was replaced by TCP/IP in the 1980s.

7. Define the following:

a. Firewall

Firewall is a network security device that monitors and filters incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on an organization's previously established security policies. At
its most basic, a firewall is essentially the barrier that sits between a private internal
network and the public Internet.

b. VPN

A virtual private network, or VPN, is an encrypted connection over the Internet from a
device to a network. The encrypted connection helps ensure that sensitive data is
safely transmitted. It prevents unauthorized people from eavesdropping on the traffic
and allows the user to conduct work remotely.  VPN technology is widely used in
corporate environments.

c. Proxy Server

A proxy server is a computer system or router that functions as a relay between client
and server. It helps prevent an attacker from invading a private network and is one of
several tools used to build a firewall. The word proxy means "to act on behalf of
another," and a proxy server acts on behalf of the user.

d. Piggybacking

In security, piggybacking, similar to tailgating, refers to when a person tags along with

another person who is authorized to gain entry into a restricted area, or pass a certain
checkpoint. It can be either electronic or physical.
Sujal Baweja R120219012
500077020 Btech LLB 4 th Semester

e. Web Server

A web server is software and hardware that uses HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

and other protocols to respond to client requests made over the World Wide Web. The
main job of a web server is to display website content through storing, processing and
delivering webpages to users.

f. Transmission Impairment and performance

It means that signals that are transmitted at the beginning of the medium are not the
same as the signals that are received at the end of the medium that is what is sent is
not what is received. ... These impairments tend to deteriorate the quality of analog
and digital signals.

8. Differentiate between the following:

a. Hub vs Switch vs Router

In network equipment and devices, data is usually transmitted in the form of a frame. When a
frame is received, it is amplified and then transmitted to the port of the destination PC (Personal
Computer). The big difference between hub and switch is in the method in which frames are
being delivered.

In a hub, a frame is passed along or "broadcast" to every one of its ports. It doesn't matter that
the frame is only destined for one port. The hub has no way of distinguishing which port a frame
should be sent to. Additionally, a 10/100Mbps hub must share its bandwidth with each and every
one of its ports. In comparison, a switch keeps a record of the MAC (Media Access Control)
addresses of all the devices connected to it. With this information, a network switch can identify
which system is sitting on which port. So when a frame is received, it knows exactly which port to
send it to, without significantly increasing network response times. In addition, unlike a hub, a
10/100Mbps switch will allocate a full 10/100Mbps to each of its ports. So regardless of the
number of PCs transmitting, users will always have access to the maximum amount of
bandwidth.
Sujal Baweja R120219012
500077020 Btech LLB 4 th Semester

Unlike an Ethernet hub or switch that is concerned with transmitting frames, a router is to route
packets to other networks until that packet ultimately reaches its destination. One of the key

template Hub Switch Router

Layer Physical layer Data link layer Network layer

To connect a network of
Allow connections to
personal computers
multiple devices, Direct data in a
Function together, they can be
manage ports, manage network
joined through a central
VLAN security settings
hub

Data

Transmission electrical signal or bits frame & packet packet

form

multi-port, usually
Port 4/12 ports 2/4/5/8 ports
between 4 and 48

At Initial Level
First broadcast, then
Transmission Frame flooding, unicast, Broadcast then
unicast and/or multicast
type multicast or broadcast Uni-cast and
depends on the need
multicast

Device type Non-intelligent device Intelligent device Intelligent device

Used in(LAN,
LAN LAN LAN, MAN, WAN
MAN, WAN)

Transmission
Half duplex Half/Full duplex Full duplex
mode

1-

100Mbps(wireless);
Speed 10Mbps 10/100Mbps, 1Gbps
100Mbps-

1Gbps(wired)

Address used

for data MAC address MAC address IP address

transmission
features of a packet is that it not only contains data but the destination address of where it's
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500077020 Btech LLB 4 th Semester

going. What's more, router is the only one of these three devices that will allow you to share a
single IP (Internet Protocol) address among multiple network clients.

b. Analog vs Digital

Analog signals represent one continuous variable as the result of another continuous time-based
variable. They are capable of outputting continuous information with a theoretically infinite
number of possible values.

We have seen analog signals in use in nearly every type of signal processing and consumer
electronics application imaginable. In most cases, they have been replaced by digital versions,
though analog processes are still common in the audio recording domain alongside digital
recording equipment.

c. TCP vs UDP

TCP UDP

1) It is a connection-oriented protocol. 1) It is a connectionless protocol.

2) TCP reads data as streams of bytes, 2) UDP messages contain packets that
and the message is transmitted to were sent one by one. It also checks for
segment boundaries. integrity at the arrival time.

3) TCP messages make their way 3) It is not connection-based, so one

across the internet from one computer
to another.
4) TCP is reliable as it guarantees
delivery of data to the destination
router.
program can send lots of packets to
another.
4) The delivery of data to the
destination can't be guaranteed in UDP.
Sujal Baweja R120219012
500077020 Btech LLB 4 th Semester

d. Error Detection vs Correction (with examples)

Error detection is the detection of errors caused by Noise or other impairments

during transmission from the transmitter to the receiver. Error correction is
the detection of errors and reconstruction of the original error free data or signal.

9. Explain TCP/IP Model and OSI Model in detail.

 OSI model is a generic model that is based upon functionalities of each layer.
TCP/IP model is a protocol-oriented standard.
 OSI model distinguishes the three concepts, namely, services, interfaces, and
protocols. TCP/IP does not have a clear distinction between these three.
 OSI model gives guidelines on how communication needs to be done, while
TCP/IP protocols layout standards on which the Internet was developed. So,
TCP/IP is a more practical model.
 In OSI, the model was developed first and then the protocols in each layer
were developed. In the TCP/IP suite, the protocols were developed first and
then the model was developed.
 The OSI has seven layers while the TCP/IP has four layers.

10. Compare and contrast the different Switching Techniques.

1. Circuit Switching is connection oriented that means a path is

established between source and destination before the
transmission occurs. On the other hand, Packet Switching is
Connectionless that means a dynamic route is decided for each
packet while transmission.
2. Circuit Switching was originally designed for voice
communication whereas, Packet Switching was originally
designed for data communication.
3. Circuit Switching is inflexible as once a path is established for
transmission, it doesn’t change while the duration of the
session. On the other hand, Packet Switching is flexible as each
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500077020 Btech LLB 4 th Semester

packet may travel through a different route to reach its

destination.
4. In packet switching, as each packet travels a different path
hence, the packet are received out of order at the receiver side
and later arranged in order. On the other hand, in circuit
switching the entire message is received as it is as sent from a
sender to receiver.
5. Space Division Switching or Time-Division Switching can be
used to implement Circuit Switching whereas, Packet Switching
can be implemented using two approaches Datagram Approach
and Virtual Circuit Approach.
6. Circuit Switching is always implemented at physical layer
whereas, Packet Switching is implemented on the network layer.

For Data transmission, Packet Switching is the more efficient

than Circuit Switching whereas, when it comes to voice
transmission Circuit switching is more efficient than packet
switching.