COMPUTER

NETWORK
Presented by:
Sahithi Sannayila
CONTENTS:

Introduction to Computer Newtwork

Introduction to OSI model

Functionality of each layer in OSI model

INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTER NETWORK
 Network components:
 Host
 Node
 Communication line

 Network terminology:
 Protocol
 Gateway
CNTD ..

 Network Types: 
Networks may be divided into different types and
categories according to four different criteria
 Geographic spread of nodes and hosts
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Access restrictions
 private networks
 public networks
 Communication model employed by the nodes
 point-to-point model
 Broadcast model
 Switching model employed by the nodes
 Circuit switching
 Packet switching
THE OSI MODEL
 The International Standards Organization
(ISO) has developed a reference model for
systems communications called the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) in 1977
 The OSI model proposes a seven-layer
architecture for networks. Each layer is
characterized by a set of standard
protocols which specify its behaviour.
WHY SO MANY LAYERS?

 To reduce complexity networks are organised as stack of layers, one below the other

 Each layer performs a specific task and provides service to adjacent layers.

 Each of the seven layers of the OSI model hides the implementation details of the lower layers
from the upper layers.
THE INTERACTION BETWEEN LAYERS OF OSI
MODEL
DATA ENCAPSULATION AND DECAPSULATION
 SERVICE PRIMITIVES
 A service primitive is an abstract representation of the interaction between a service provider
and a service user.
 primitives may be of one of the following four types
 Request Primitive
 IndicationPrimitive
 Response Primitive
 Confirm Primitive

 A primitive name consists of the first letter of the layer to which it belongs, followed by its
command name, followed by its type.
  For example, a request type primitive at the network layer for initiating a connection is named
‘N-CONNECT request’.
PROTOCOL NOTATIONS
 There are two popular notations which are extensively used in standards and the literature
  sequence diagrams
 state transition diagrams
PHYSICAL LAYER
FUNCTIONS OF PHYSICAL
LAYER
 Convert bits to signals
 Bit synchronization
 Manage physical connection
 Bit rate control
 Transmission mode
 Multiplexing
 Switching
NETWORK EQUIPMENT TYPES
 Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)
 Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE)
 Data Switching Equipment (DSE)
CNTD..

 Connection Types  Modulation

 Simplex  Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 Half-duplex  Frequency  Modulation (FM)
 Full duplex  Phase Modulation (PM)
DIGITIZATION
 Digitization is essentially the opposite of modulation, in digitization an analog signal is
converted into digital format through a process of sampling.
 This process of representing a continuous value with a discrete value is called quantization.
SYNCHRONIZATION
 When two devices are about to
communicate, the transmitter should
somehow notify the receiver as to when
to expect to receive data. This is
achieved by Synchronization
 There are two basic methods of
synchronization
 Synchronous transmission
 Asynchronous transmission
IMPORTANT CRITERIA TO SELECT TRANSMISSION
MEDIA
 Bandwidth
 Bandwidth is the maximum frequency range that can be practically supported by a medium

 Cost
Two types of cost are relevant
 Cost of installing the medium and equipment
 Cost of running and maintaining the medium and its equipment

 Reliability
 Some media, by their physical nature, transmit data more reliably than others. Low reliability translates
into a higher number of errors
 Coverage
 The physical characteristics of a medium dictate how long a signal can travel in it before it is distorted
beyond recognition
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Medium Bandwidth Data Rates Cost Reliability Coverage

Copper Cable 1 MHz 1-10 mbps Medium/km Low-Medium Kilometers

Coaxial Cable 10s of MHz 10-100 mbps High/km Medium-High 10s of Kilometers

Optical Fiber 100s of MHz 100s of mbps High/km Very High 10s of Kilometers

Radio 100s of MHz 100s of mbps Very High Very High 1000s of Kilometers

Infra-red 1 MHz 1-10 mbps Low Low-Medium Kilometer

CNTD..
MULTIPLEXING
 Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
CONCENTRATION
 If the bandwidth of each of the channels could be dynamically adjusted according to its traffic,
then some cost savings could be achieved by using a lower capacity line.
 This is made possible by a variation of TDM called concentration
  For example, a 9600 bps line could be used to serve 10 times 2400 bps channels, assuming that no
more than 4 channels are used at any one time
DATA LINK LAYER
FUNCTIONS OF DATA LINK
LAYER
 Framing
 divides the data from N/W layer into frames.

 Physical Addressing
  Add a header to the frame to define the physical address of the source and the destination machines.

 Flow Control
 It is the traffic regulatory mechanism implemented by Data Link layer that prevents the fast sender
from drowning the slow receiver.
 Error Control
 It provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.

 Feedback
 after transmitting the frames, the system waits for the feedback.
LINK PROTOCOLS
The Data Link protocals are sub divided into following categories
 Synchronous Protocols
 character-oriented
 bit-oriented protocol

 Asynchronous Protocols
 Master-Slave Protocols
 Communication between the master and its slaves is governed by a general technique called polling

 Peer-to-Peer Protocols
 carrier-sense
LINK PROTOCOL FUNCTIONS
 Acknowledgments
 Acknowledgment (ACK)
 Negative acknowledgment (NAK) 

 Timers
 Timers provide a mechanism for placing a time limit on certain operations to be completed.
 Two important timers (called T1 and T2) are used by most protocols.

 Error Checking
 Parity checking
 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

 Retransmission
 Selective Reject
 Go-Back-N

 Flow Control 
CYCLIC REDUNDANCY
CHECK (CRC)
 This method is mostly used with bit-oriented protocols and also called as polynomial code.
 The bit sequence 101001 represents the polynomial
       1x 5 + 0x 4 + 1x 3 + 0x 2 + 0x 1 + 1x 0 = x 5 + x 3 + x 0
 CRC works as follows. 
 A  message (bit sequence) m represented by the polynomial m(x)
 generator polynomial g(x) of order k
 m is appended with exactly k zero bits.
 The result is equivalent to the polynomial p(x) = x km(x). p(x) is divided by g(x) and the remainder is added to
p(x) to produce the final polynomial q(x)
 q(x) = p(x) + (p(x) remg(x))
 For example:
  m = 100101110101
 g = 10111 (k = 4)
 p = 1001011101010000
 By dividing p by g, using modulo 2 arithmetic we get reminder r = 1110
 Add r to p to produce  q = 1001011101010000 + 1110 = 1001011101011110
SLIDING
WINDOW
PROTOC
OL
DATA LINK LAYER
STANDARDS
 Data link layer standards established by major computer manufacturers (e.g., BSC by IBM and
DDCMP by DEC) and others published by ISO, CCITT, and IEEE.

 The two popular standards one character-oriented and one bit-oriented are
 Binary Synchronous Control (BSC)
 The High-level Data Link Control (HDLC)
BINARY SYNCHRONOUS
CONTROL (BSC)
 BSC also known as BISYNC is a widely-used synchronous, character-oriented protocol
devised by IBM in the 1960s for half-duplex communication
 Information is exchanged in character blocks. Below figure shows a sample block
HIGH-LEVEL DATA LINK
CONTROL (HDLC)
 HDLC is a bit-oriented protocol and is specified by ISO 3309, ISO 4335, and ISO 7809
standards, and supports half- as well as full-duplex
  Most vendors now tend to support this protocol (or one of its derivatives) in their networking
products.
 HDLC offers a master-slave arrangement and offers three modes of operation
 Normal Response Mode (NRM)
 Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)
 Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)

 Control field depends on type of frames

 Information frames
 Supervisory frames
 Unnumbered frames
THE HDLC FRAME
STRUCTURE
HDLC SUBSETS
 There are a number of HDLC-related protocols, often referred to as HDLC
subsets.
  These include
 Link Access Procedure (LAP) 
 Link Access Protocol Balanced (LAP-B) 
 Link Access Protocol, D channel (LAP-D)
 Logical Link Control (LLC)
NETWORK LAYER
FUNCTIONS OF NETWORK
LAYER
 Routing 
 find a path from one host to another host.

 Congestion control mechanisms

  to prevent hosts from flooding the network.

 Quality of Service (QoS)

 transmission rates, error rates, and other characteristics can be measured, improved, and to some
extent guaranteed in advance.
 Internetworking 
 provides translation between subnet using different protocols.
NETWORK SERVICES
 The network layer provides a set of services to the transport layer.
NETWOR
K
SERVICE
S
SEQUEN
CE
DIAGRA
M
SWITCHING METHODS
• Circuit Switching​
• Packet Switching
• There are two types in packet switching

Virtual circuit method Datagram method

Packet structure
Packet structure
Field Description Field Description
Packet Format Determines the internal format of the packet.
Header Length Length of the packet header in bits or octets.
Packet Type Identifies the type of the packet. Source Address Network address of the source end.
Virtual Circuit ID Identifies the virtual circuit for routing the
packet. Destination Network address of the destination end.
Facilities Parameters such as packet size, window size, Address
etc. Lifetime Packet lifetime indicator (to avoid packets living
Service Parameters for the network service to which forever).
Parameters this packet belongs (see Section 4.1). Options Various options such as priority, security, etc.

User Data Actual network user data.

User Data Actual network user data.
 Routing
 Flooding
 Static routing
 Dynamic routing

 Congestion Control
 A network has a certain carrying capacity, when this limit is approached, considerable delays are
experienced in packet delivery, and the network is said to be congested.
 The best way to deal with congestion is to avoid it, the measures we have to take are
 Reducing the load on a node by disposing packets
 Reducing the traffic destined for a heavily-utilized link
 Imposing a limit on the total number of packets in the network

 Error Handling
INTERNETWORKING
 The problem of interconnecting a set of
independent networks is called
internetworking
 Each of the participating independent
networks is referred to as a subnetwork or
subnet.
 The role of the Interworking Units (IWU)
is to carry out protocol conversion
between the subnets
NETWORK SUBLAYER
 To better address the internetworking problem, the network layer is further subdivided into
three sublayers
Layer Name Main Function
3.3 Subnet Independence Convergence Deals with internetworking services (i.e., routing and data transfer between
Layer the subnets).
3.2 Subnet Dependence Convergence Deals with service mapping between the subnets (i.e., protocol conversion,
Layer address mapping).
3.1 Subnet Access Layer Deals with the services of a single subnet (i.e., subnet operation, access,
addressing, routing, etc.).

Depending on the packet switching mode employed by the subnets, three situations are possible
• All subnets use virtual circuits
• All subnets use datagrams
• Some subnets use virtual circuits, some datagrams
INCOMPATIBILITIES NEED TO BE OVERCOME BY THE IWUS
AND GATEWAYS

 Different types of service and network user interfaces 

  Different message formats
  Different addressing schemes 
 Different packet switching modes
 Different routing methods 
 Different error handling methods 
 Different security measures
NETWORK LAYER
STANDARDS Field Description
 There are many other standards pertaining Version Version of the IP.
to the network layer to support virtual Header Length Length of the header fields in octets.
circuit and datagram models and other Services Denotes the type of IP services required.
models. Total Length Total length of the IPDU.
 Most influential standards are X.25, X.75, Data Unit ID Denotes the first segment of a segmented PDU.
Flags For segmentation and error reporting.
IP and ISO 8473
Segment Offset Denotes the relative position of IPDU within PDU.
 Internet Protocol (IP) Lifetime IPDU lifetime.
 IP is a connectionless datagram protocol Checksum Checksum for the IPDU header.
developed by the US Department of Defence Addresses Source and destination NSAP addresses.
Advanced Research Projects Agency Options For source routing, route recording, QOS, etc.
(DARPA)
 IP datagrams are referred to as Internet
Protocol Data Units, or IPDUs Data Actual user data.
TRANSPORT LAYER
FUNCTIONS OF TRANSPORT
LAYER
 Segmentation and Reassembly:
 Divide the message received from Session layer into Segments and number them to make a sequence
for reassembly at the receiving side.
 Multiplexing
 Splitting and Recombining
 Service point addressing
 Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process on destination machine.

 Error Control
 Make sure that the entire message arrives without errors else retransmit.

 Flow Control
 Transport layer makes sure that the sender and the receiver both maintain same bit rate.
 TRANSPORT SERVICES
 The transport services are defined in terms of transport
primitives

Primitive Types Parameters Purpose

T-CONNECT request (addresses, Used for initiating a transport
indicate option, QOS, connection (connections are
response user data) always initiated by service users).
confirm
T-DISCONNECT request (reason, user Used for disconnected a
indicate data) connection (may be initiated by
service users or the service
provider).
T-DATA request (user data) Used for normal data transfer.
indicate
T-EXPEDITED- request (user data) Used for high priority data
DATA indicate transfer.
NETWORK TYPES 
 Depending on their QOS networks are divided into three broad categories

Network Characteristics Example

Type A Exhibits acceptable data and signaled error rates. Hence Circuit-switched packet network
messages arrive correctly and in order. The operating over a
transport layer need not do much in this case. reliable medium

Type B Exhibits acceptable data error rates, but unacceptable signaled X.25 network
error rates. The transport
layer is responsible for recovery from such errors.

Type C Exhibits unacceptable data and signaled error rates. The transport Datagram network
layer is responsible for recovery from
all such errors.
TRANSPORT PROTOCOL
 Transport layer messages are exchanged by the network layer using Transport Protocol Data
Units (TPDUs)
Field Description
Header Length Length of the TPDU header in octets.

H TPDU Type Identifies the type of the TPDU.

E Credit
A Destination Reference
D
E Source Reference
R Class/Options/Reason
Variable Part
Used for flow control.
Reference to the destination user process.
Reference to the source user process.
Class of protocol, various options, or disconnect reason.
Zero or more less-frequently used parameters, each of the general
format <Type,Length, Value>.

Data Actual transport service user data.

CLASSES OF
Class Class name Supported Features Suitable
no network

PROTOCOL
MUX   DER SER FC  ACK R/S EXP
     

MUX = Multiplexing of multiple 0  Simple class no no no no no no no A

transport connections onto a single
network connection
DER = Data Error Recovery  1 Basic error recovery no no yes no yes no yes B
class
SER = Signaled Error Recovery
FC = Flow Control 2 Multiplexing class yes no no yes yes no yes A
ACK = Acknowledgments
SPL = Resequencing of TPDUs /
Splitting and Recombining connections 3 Error recovery  yes no yes yes yes no yes B
multiplexing class
EXP = Expedited data transfer

4 Error detection yes yes yes yes yes yes yes C

and recovery class
TRANSPORT LAYER
STANDARDS
 Transport services are defined by the ISO 8072 and CCITT X.214 standards. ISO 8073 and
CCITT X.224 define the transport protocol
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 TCP was designed to cope with Type C networks. Consequently, the CCITT Class 4 protocol has
borrowed many of its concepts.
 TCP sits directly on top of IP and is well suited to internetworking. The combination is commonly
referred to as TCP/IP
 GENERAL STRUCTURE OF A TCP BLOCK.
Field Description

Version Datagram protocol version.

Header Length Datagram header length.
Service Type Type of service expected of the network layer.
Total Length Total length of the block.
Segment Owner The sequence number of the owner datagram.
Segment Flags Segmentation-related flags.
Segment Offset Offset to where segment begins in owner datagram.
Lifetime Block lifetime in seconds.
Datagram Checksum Simple checksum for the datagram header.
Header
Addresses Source and destination network+host addresses.
Options Various options for errors, routing, security, etc.
Ports Source and destination ports.
Sequence Number Sequences every octet of data.
Acknowledgment Used for piggyback acknowledgment of data.
Header Length Length of the TCP header.
Flags Flags for SYN, ACK, segmentation, reset, etc.
Window Window size in octets.
TCP Checksum Simple checksum for the TCP header.
Expedited Offset to where expedited data is located.
Options Various TCP-related options, e.g., buffer sizes.
Header

User Data Actual transport service user data.

SESSION LAYER
FUNCTIONS OF SESSION
LAYER
 Establishment, maintaining and ending a session
 Sends SYN packet - establish request
 Receives ACK & SYN- established
 To end - Sender sends ACK

 Dialog Control
 The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog.

 Synchronization
 Allows a process to add checkpoints to a stream of data.
 SESSION SERVICES
Primitive Types Parameters Purpose
S-CONNECT request indicate (addresses, QOS, result, Used for initiating a session connection (connections are always
response confirm requirements, serial no., initiated by service users).
token, user data)
S-RELEASE request indicate (result, user data) Used for orderly release of a connection.
response confirm

S-U-ABORT request (user data) Used for service user-initiated abort.

indicate
S-P-ABORT indicate (reason) Used for service provider-initiated abort.
S-U-EXCEPTION- REPORT request indicate (reason, user data) Used for exception reporting by a service user.

S-P-EXCEPTION- indicate (indication) Used for exception reporting by a

REPORT service provider.
S-DATA request indicate (user data) Used for normal data transfer.

S-EXPEDITED-DATA request (user data) Used for high priority data transfer.
indicate
S-TYPED-DATA request indicate (user data) Used for typed data transfer.

S-CAPABILITY-DATA request (user data) Used for data exchange when no

indicate activity is in progress.
S-ACTIVITY-START request indicate (activity ID, user data) Used for starting an activity.
 CNTD..
S-ACTIVITY- INTERRUPT request indicate (reason) Used for temporarily interrupting an activity.
response
confirm

S-ACTIVITY-RESUME request indicate (new ID, old ID, serial no., Used for resuming an interrupted activity.
user data)
S-ACTIVITY-DISCARD request indicate (reason) Used for discarding an activity.
response confirm

S-ACTIVITY-END request indicate (serial no., user data) Used for ending an activity.
response
confirm
S-TOKEN-PLEASE request indicate (tokens, user data) Used by a service user for requesting a token.
S-TOKEN-GIVE request (tokens) Used by a service user for forwarding
indicate a token to the other user.
S-CONTROL-GIVE request indicate () Used by a service user for forwarding all tokens to the other
user.
S-SYNC-MINOR request indicate (type, serial no., user data) Used for setting a minor synchronization point.
response
confirm
S-SYNC-MAJOR request indicate (serial no., user data) Used for setting a major synchronization point.
response confirm

S-RESYNCHRONIZE request indicate (type, serial no., tokens, Used for resynchronization.
response user data)
confirm
SESSIO
N
SERVIC
ES
SEQUE
NCE
DIAGR
AM
SESSION
LAYER
FUNCTIO
NAL
UNITS
SESSION PROTOCOL
 Tokens
 Data token
 Release token
 Sync-Minor token
 Sync-Major/Activity token

 Transaction activity
 Synchronization
 Major Synchronization point
 Minor Synchronization point

 Error Reporting and Resynchronization

 Abandon
 Restart
 Reset
 SESSION PROTOCOL DATA
UNITS (SPDUS)
Field Description
Service ID Specifies the type of this SPDU.
Length Indicator Total length of the following parameters.

P A sample single Parameter ID Specifies the type of this parameter.

R par. Length Indicator Length of the parameter.
A
Parameter Value Specifies the value of the parameter.
M
E ...more parameters or
T parameter groups...
E These can be in any order.
R
S sample par. Parameter Group ID Specifies a group of parameters.
group Length Indicator Total length of parameters in this group.
Group The group parameters appear one by one here

Parameters and may contain other groups as well.

User Data Actual session service user data.

PRESENTATION LAYER
FUNCTIONS OF
PRESENTATION LAYER
 Data Translation
 Encoding and Decoding Sender to Common format on Sending
side Common to Receiving format on Receiver side
 Data Encryption
 For security and privacy purpose.
 Data Compression
 Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information.
PRESENTATION SERVICES
 Syntax
 Data is structured according to a set
of rules, called syntax.
 Depending on their level of
abstraction, syntax rules may be
classified into two categories
 Abstract syntax
 Concrete syntax
 Application concrete syntax
 Transfer concrete syntax
PRESENTATION SERVICE PRIMITIVES
PRESENTA
TION
SERVICES
SEQUENCE
DIAGRAM
CNTD..
 Presentation service functional units.

 Abstract Syntax Notation One

 Basic Encoding Rules
APPLICATION LAYER
FUNCTIONS OF APPLICATION
LAYER
 Network Virtual terminal
 It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 File Transfer Access, and Management
 This application allows a user to access files in a remote host.
 Mail Services
 This application provides various e-mail services.
 Directory Services
 This application provides the distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.
APPLICATION
SERVICES 
 Low-level services
 High-level services
 User applications has two parts
 Application Entity (AE)
 Application Process (AP)

 Application Entity (AE)

 Application Service Element     (ASE)
 Common Application Service Element (CASE)
 Specific Application Service Element (SASE)
 Control Function (CF)
CNTD..

 Common Application Service Element (CASE)

 Association control
 Reliable transfer
 Remote operations

 Specific Application Service Element (SASE)

 Virtual terminal handling
 Display Object
 Device Object
 Control Object
 Message handling
 Message Transfer System (MTS)
 Message Transfer Agent (MTA)
 User Agent (UA)
 Message Store (MS)
 File Transfer, Access, and Management
VIRTUAL TERMINAL HANDLING
 Display Object
 Device Object
 Control Object

 CCA: Conceptual
Communication Area
MESSAGE HANDLING SYSTEM (MHS)

 Message Transfer
System (MTS)

 Message Transfer
Agent (MTA)

 User Agent (UA)

 Message Store (MS)

MHS SERVICE PRIMITIVES
 MHS uses four protocols (P1,
P2, P3, and P7) to provides
two types of service
 Message Transfer (MT)
 Inter-Personal
Messaging (IPM)
FILE TRANSFER, ACCESS, AND
MANAGEMENT
 DU: Data Units
 FADUs: File Access
Data Units 
FTAM
SERVICE
PRIMITIVES
ANY QUESTIONS?