Em 123

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CHAPTER-I
INTRODUCTION
1. AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY
A brake is a device which inhibits motion. Its opposite component is a clutch. Most
commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though other methods of
energy conversion may be employed. For example regenerative braking converts much of the
energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later use. The brakes are different to use in
stopped the reciprocating parts and motion automobile vehicles. The new technology is
produced in automobile engineering. An automobile industry is developing new technology of
braking system. These worlds are new possibility and new thinking of braking system. The
automobile industry are also developed new braking system like to drum brake, disc brake,
hydraulic brake, pneumatic brake, air brake and electromagnetic brake. The different brakes are
working on different principle operation. Future is used in time of hydraulic and disc or drum
brake. The different types of friction brake and electromagnetic brake use. The main principle
of electromagnetic brake to induced kinetic energy into heat energy. Braking system is used to
automobile vehicle speed reduced in slowly.
Fig: 1.1 Applied the manually force
The brake are applied the manually force on a brake pedal to the mechanical linkage
operate and applied the brake drum wheel and motion is slowly reduced and applied the brake.
Brake applied to the vehicle speed reduced in several time and vehicle to rest. The
electromagnetic brakes are new technology of automobile industry for future concept to use for
automobile vehicle and other industry level. Brakes are new technology to use for vehicle
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required specification. Automobile vehicle to use for required use in purpose for like sports car,
light motor vehicle, heavy motor vehicle, bikes, sports bikes and off road vehicles. Heavy motor
vehicle is use brakes this time of air brakes. The electromagnetic brakes are new developed in
braking system in automobile engineering. This type brake mainly working principle is one
rotating metal disc in between the two magnets to apply the brake to induced electric current in
circuit to induced magnetic field in armature to attract the magnet to the rotating metal disc and
stopped the rotation in several time while applied brake.
Equipment in addition to the regular friction brakes on heavy vehicles. We outline the
general principles of regular brakes and several alternative retardation techniques in this section.
The working principle and characteristics of electromagnetic brakes are then highlighted. In this
project we are trying to make a braking system. Which can be applicable in two wheeler at
Electromagnetic brakes have been used as supplementary retardation high speed and low
maintenance cost. Here we are using an electromagnetic coil and a plunger. There is an
electromagnetic effect which moves the plunger in the braking direction. When electricity is
applied to the field, it creates an internal magnetic flux. That flux is then transferred into a
hysteresis disk passing through the field.
Fig: 1.2 Electromagnetic brakes
The hysteresis disk is attached to the brake shaft. A magnetic drag on the hysteresis disk
allows for a constant drag, or eventual stoppage of the output shaft. Electromagnetic brakes
(also called electro-mechanical brakes or EM brakes) slow or stop motion using electromagnetic
force to apply mechanical resistance (friction). The original name was "electro-mechanical
brakes" but over the years the name changed to "electromagnetic brakes", referring to their
actuation method. Since becoming popular in the mid-20th century especially in trains and
trolleys, the variety of applications and brake designs has increased dramatically, but the basic

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operation remains the same. Both electromagnetic brakes and eddy current brakes use
electromagnetic force but electromagnetic brakes ultimately depend on friction and eddy current
brakes use magnetic force directly.
New advances are landing in this world. Numerous enterprises got profited because of
the entry of these new innovations. A vehicle industry is one of them. As brake is an essential
piece of car innovation, there are developments in brakes as well. The generally utilized brakes
in cars are drum and circle brakes. Different sorts of slowing mechanism utilized are pressure
driven, pneumatic and so forth. Electromagnetic braking is an imaginative innovation and
furthermore frames the premise of developing innovation. Slowing mechanism is for the most
part grouped by their strategy for task. The two noteworthy kinds of brake are frictional and
electromagnetic retarder. The brake is a mechanical gadget which includes the change of
dynamic vitality into warm vitality (warm) by halting vehicle in a movement. While braking
power is connected by brake to hinder the movement of vehicle bunches of motor vitality is
disseminated as warmth vitality. Essential capacity of Brakes is to moderate the speed of a
vehicle in a brief span regardless of speed. Therefore, the brakes are required to be able to
creating high torque and engrossing vitality at to a great degree high rates for brief time-frames.
Brakes might be connected for a more extended time-frames in a few applications, for example,
an overwhelming vehicle dropping in an incline at rapid. Brakes must have the capacity to keep
the warmth retention for delayed time-frames.
The recurrence of mischances is currently advantages expanding because of wasteful

stopping mechanism. Henceforth stopping mechanism should be improved for powerful and
productive braking. Electromagnetic brake is as new idea. It is discovered that electromagnetic
brakes can build up a power which is almost double the most extreme power yield of a normal
motor, and no less than three times the braking energy of a fumes brake to stop vehicle. These
exhibitions of electromagnetic brakes make them substantially more focused possibility for
elective hindrance hardware's contrasted and different retarders. This examination work expects
to limit the brake inability to stay away from the street mischances. It additionally diminishes
the support of stopping mechanism. Preference of this framework is that it can be utilized on
any vehicle and is grating less method of braking.
1.2 Methodology
When the power supply is given the motor, the pulley is driven by the belt. Now the
pulley is continuously rotated. As the steel plate is connected along with pulley it is rotated

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infront of the electromagnet. When the braking is required the control switch is turned on. So,
the current or voltage is applied on the electromagnet. A magnetic field is created by an
energizing coil by the application of voltage or current. This coil develops magnetic lines of
flux between the metal disc thus attracting the armature to the face of the metal disc. When the
current or voltage is removed from the brake (electromagnet) the metal disc is free to rotate.
Here springs are used as medium to hold the armature winding of the electromagnet away from
the disc. Rotating motion in wheels is achieved by switching controls of the supply to the coil.
Slippage occurs only during deceleration only when the brake is engaged, there should not be
slippage once the brake comes to a full halt.
Fig:1.3 This coil develops magnetic lines
1.3 PRINCIPLE OF BRAKING SYSTEM
The principle of braking in road vehicles involves the conversion of kinetic energy into
thermal energy (heat). When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force
several times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion and dissipates the associated
kinetic energy as heat. Brakes must be able to arrest the speed of a vehicle in short periods of
time regardless how fast the speed is. As a result, the brakes are required to have the ability to
generating high torque and absorbing energy at extremely high rates for short periods of time.
1.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKES
Electromagnetic brakes operate electrically, but transmit torque mechanically. This is

why they used to be referred to as electro-mechanical brakes. Over the years, EM brakes
became known as electromagnetic, referring to their actuation method. The variety of
applications and brake designs has increased dramatically, but the basic operation remains the

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same. Single face electromagnetic brakes make up approximately 80% of all of the power
applied brake applications.
1.5 Switch And Wires
ON/OFF switch used to control the power supply to the electromagnet. It is connected
with the electromagnet. A typical common electric switch is used here. When the rotation of the
pulley is to be stop, the braking is applied by turned the switch on. When the free rotation of the
pulley is required the switch is turned off. To provide the electric supply to the motor and the
electromagnet the electric wire is used here. The copper wire has been used here since it has the
better electrical conductivity.

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CHAPTER-II
LITERECHER REVIEW
Out team goes through various different review papers so we can know about other people’s
work on different brakes. We find some very useful papers that are listed below.
1. Literature review on Design Study in Single Disk Axial Eddy Current Brake. 2018 5th
International Conference on Electric Vehicular Technology (ICEVT) October 30-31, 2018,
Surakarta, Indonesia.
In daily life the role of brake is very important. In generally vehicle is used conventional
braking like disc brake drum brake etc. Eddy current brake can be alternative for conventional
brake ECB is an electromagnetic brake which use the principle of eddy current brake. This
research aim to investigate the relationship between braking torque with the amount of coil and
the air gap in single disc axial brake ECB. FEM is used in ECB performance modelling. The
eddy current brake has many parameters that need to be developed. In this paper by changing
the air gap and number of conductors the torque is also changed. by using FEM, we can find
this.
The braking torque is strongly affected by the parameter of eddy current brake. By result of
this research we can conclude that smaller air gap increases the braking torque and also number
of conductors is improving the performance of eddy current brake also by change in design the
braking torque is also change. Better braking performance is obtain when using 0.5mm air gap
and 360 conductors.
2. Literature review on Enhancement of Braking System in Automobile Using

Electromagnetic Braking. Akshaya S. Putt war and Nagnath U. published in IOSR
Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR- JMCE), in 2009
Two main functions of a braking system are to maintain control of the car/vehicle at a
vertiginous inclination or a declination and to stop the vehicle in the shortest distance possible.
Electromagnetic brake is a new idea. It is discovered that electromagnetic brakes can build up a
power which is almost double the most extreme power yield of a normal motor, and no less than
three times the braking energy of a fume brake to stop the vehicle. These results of

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electromagnetic brakes make them essentially more focused possibility for elective hindrance
hardware's contrasted and different retarders. This project expects to limit the brake inability to
stay away from the street miss happenings. It additionally diminishes the support of stopping
mechanism. Preference for this mechanism is that it can be used in any vehicle and is less
problematic. Mr. Akshaya S. Putt war and Nagnath U. Et al analyses that Electromagnetic
braking system is found to be more reliable as compared to other braking systems. In oil
braking system or air braking system even, a small leakage may lead to complete failure of
brakes. While in electromagnetic braking system as four-disc plates, coils and firing circuits are
attached individually on each wheel, even coil fails the brake does not completely fails
remaining three coil works properly. This enhanced braking system not only helps in effective
braking but also helps in avoiding the accidents and reducing the frequency of accidents to a
minimum. the electromagnetic brakes can be used as an auxiliary braking system along with the
friction braking system to avoid overheating and brake failure. ABS usage can be neglected by
simply using a micro controlled electromagnetic disk brake system. When these brakes are
combined with mechanical brakes, it increases the life of brake and act like fully loaded brakes.
These electromagnetic brakes can be used in wet conditions which eliminate the anti-skidding
equipment. Hence, the braking force produced in this is less than the disc brakes if can be used
as a secondary or emergency braking system in the automobiles
3. Literature review on electromagnetic brake. Inventors: Lindberg; Teppo (Nuppulinna,

FI) Assignee: Kone Oy (Helsinki, FI) United States Patent 5,186,286. Lindberg February
16, 1993
A vehicle braking system having a Brake disk structure defining an annular surface and
having axis, annular magnet support assembly, an annular pole piece support assembly the
system is an adjustment mechanism for producing relative angular movement between the
magnet support and the pole piece support assembly, so as to change the circumferential
alignment between each of the pole pieces and the pair of permanent magnets adjacent there to.
The invention is a vehicle braking system including a brake disk structure defining an annular
surface means and having an axis, an annular magnet support assembly disposed adjacent to the
annular surface means in the direction of the axis, a plurality of circumferentially spaced apart
pairs of circumferentially spaced apart permanent magnets mounted on the magnet support and
circumferentially spaced apart thereon, each pair Arranged with like polarities facing the
annular surface means and the polarities of the pairs of permanent mag nets facing the annular

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surface means alternating circumferentially, an annular pole piece support assembly, and a
plurality of ferromagnetic pole pieces mounted on the pole piece support assembly and
circumferentially spaced apart in positions between the annular surface means and the
permanent magnets, each pole piece disposed adjacent to a pair of the permanent magnets and
having a circumferential length substantially greater than the circumferential length of either of
the adjacent pair of permanent magnets. Also included in the system is an adjustment
mechanism for producing relative angular movement between the magnet support and the pole
piece support assembly so as to change the circumferential alignment between each of the pole
pieces and the pair of permanent magnets adjacent thereto. Selective braking and non-braking
periods are established by changing the alignment between the pole pieces and magnets. eddy
braking can be used as a safety brake. Eddy braking also find application in high-speed vehicles
as braking force is proportional to speed of vehicle.
4. Literature review on contactless eddy current brake for cars. United States Patent, US
6,286,637B1, Kwangju Institute of Science & Technology (KR): Sep. 11, 2001
A contactless eddy current brake for car is disclosed in the brake two cores are arranged the
edge of the brake disc while being spaced apart from each other at an angle of 90 each of the
cores is wound with a coil thus forming and electric magnet A control units calculates Dc or Ac
control in response to a speed signal output from the sensor thus outputting control current
value to the coils, while the AC current is variable in the frequency in accordance with the
pedalling force As well known to those skilled in a art known contact brakes for cars are
designed to be operated by hydraulic or pneumatic pressure thus pressing against the brake disc
of a wheel using frictional brake pads are frictionally in that the brake pads and making a car go
slow or stop. However, such known contact brakes in are problematic in that the brake pads
with the brake disc. Another problem experienced in the known brake the wheels while driving
a car at high speed.
5. Stephen Z. Oldakowski, Bedford, Ohio A magnetic brake provides braking or locking capability
and is remotely controlled by electric power. The magnetic brake comprises a rotatable shaft
and a brake disc mounted on the shaft. A non-rotating core housing assembly located around the
shaft includes a permanent magnet and a bipolar solenoid. A magnetic armature adjacent to the
core housing assembly is capable of movement toward the core housing assembly and toward
and into engagement with a brake disc to prevent rotation of the shaft. A spring urges the

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armature away from the core housing assembly and into engagement with the brake disc. The
brake does not use any electric power to maintain the brake in the set mode with the rotating
shaft fully locked or in the released mode with the rotating shaft fully released. The permanent
magnet is of sufficient strength to hold the armature against urging of the spring until an
opposite polarity is supplied by the solenoid.
6. Karl Erny, Holzhausem An elevator drive has a brake device with compression springs to
actuate brake levers, and brake linings on a brake drum creating a braking force. A sensor is
provided to detect the movement of a brake magnet armature tappet. A bracket is attached to the
brake magnet tappet on one end and a distance piece carrying the sensor housing is arranged on
the other end. A restoring lug is attached to the existing mechanical indicator. A monitor
evaluates the sensor signal and turns off the elevator drive in the event of dangerous operational
states via a safety circuit. The system allows the state of the brake device to be monitored. The
more the brake linings wear off due to abrasion, the smaller the distance between the armature
and the brake magnet housing. If the armature is in contact with the brake magnet housing, the
braking ability of the brake linings is completely void.
7. Hung-Chi Wu, 958-2, Ghung Shan Rd., Tao-Yuan, Taiwan This invention relates to an
adjustable magnetic brake and in particular to one including an aluminum fan, a magnetic
conducting ring enclosing the aluminum fan, a permanent magnet disposed within the
aluminum fan, a fixing seat for keeping the permanent magnet in position, a sliding seat
mounted in the fixing seat and provided with a bearing, a housing, bolts provided on one side of
the fixing seat and extending out of the housing, a mounting plate connected with the bolts and
a wire connected with the mounting plate such that when the wire is pulled outwards, the
permanent magnet will be moved outwards.
8. Jae-Woong Lee, Seoul, Rep. of Korea Disclosed is a magnetic brake system for a vehicle.
comprising: a plurality of brake disk solenoids for generating the magnetic force; a plurality of
brake pad solenoids for generating the magnetic force; a braking sensor for detecting whether a
brake pedal is applied; a wheel speed sensor for detecting wheel speed; a magnetic polarity
sensor for detecting magnetic polarity of the brake disk solenoids; and a control unit for
controlling the brake pad solenoids using signals from the braking sensor. The wheel speed
sensor and the magnetic polarity sensor.

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9. Albert E. Miller, Dayton, Ohio This invention relates to a fishing reel and more particularly to
an improved type of reel having a compensated magnetic brake means for preventing backlash
or overrunning of the spool. An object of this invention is to provide a reel which is inexpensive
to manufacture and which is durable and trouble-free in operation. Still another object of this
invention is to provide an improved form of magnetic brake having spring means for modifying
the brake action. A further object of this invention is to provide a fishing reel which is smooth
in operation and which is readily adjustable to desired degrees of drag or braking effect. Further
objects and advantages of the present invention reside in the construction andcombination of
parts and in the mode of operation as will be apparent from the following description, reference
being had to the accompanying drawings wherein a preferred form of the present invention is
clearly shown.
2.0 Eddy current probe
Various configurations are presented for the excitation source and detection sensor.
However, in many in-service applications, the inductive coils are utilized both as a field source
and field sensors. As a result, the eddy current probes are commonly classified according to
their configuration and mode of operation. The probe configuration is closely related to the way
the coil or coils’ connection covers the testing area of interest. The probe operation mode is
commonly classified into reflection, differential, absolute and hybrid modes, whereas some of
the standard configurations include the outside diameter probes, inside diameter (bobbin)
probes, bolt hole probes and surface probes.18
An inductive probe can include one or more coils. In conventional eddy current probes,
these coils typically comprise lengths of wire wound in a helical manner like a solenoid. The
winding will commonly have more than one layer to increase the value of inductance. As
mentioned above, there are many ways in which these coils can be constructed based on the
specified application. Conventional ECTs are transmit–receive probes, multi-pancake and/or
rotating pancake probes and bobbin probes. Each method has its respective strengths and
weaknesses in consideration of their characteristics such as the test speed, flaw detection
sensitivity and probe structure complexity.19

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2.1 Bobbin probes
Figure 2 shows the two types of the bobbin probes which are called the differential and
absolute bobbin probes. Differential bobbin probe has two coils positioned at 180° out of phase.
The probe has excellent sensitivity to detect abrupt anomalies and small defects such and
relatively unaffected by lift-off, pitting corrosion, fretting wear and probe wobble. However, the
probe is not sensitive to metallurgical and gradual changes.20,21
Figure 2.1 Tube inspection probes: (a) absolute and (b) differential.
Absolute bobbin consists of a single bobbin coil and a second identical reference coil.
The second identical reference coil is used for EM shielding of the inspected tubing and
electronic balancing. The probe has excellent sensitivity to detect axial cracks and is highly
sensitive to material property variations and gradually varying wall thinning. 6 The main
disadvantage of the absolute coil is that the defect is typically superimposed over a lift-off as the
large signal.
2.2 Rotating probes
The rotating eddy current probes are used for high-resolution imaging of the
steamgenerator tubes as shown in Figure 3.8,22 The rotating probe is sensitive to defects of all
orientations and has a high resolution and improved sensitivity to characterize and size defects.
However, the mechanical rotation of the coils causes serious wear leading to frequent probe
failure and affect the inspection time, and subsequently, the cost will increase significantly.23

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Figure 2.2 . Rotating probe.
2.3 Array probe
The array probe types include the smart, probe X-probe, C-probes and intelligent probe.
The array probe works as a transceiver probe and can cover the direction of 360°. The
transmitting coils are actively driven by the AC source with a different range of frequencies.
The receiving coils generate an induced voltage equal to the change of magnetic flux through
the coil. The array probe response for different orientation defects has a higher signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) and is 10 times faster than the rotating probe. Another disadvantage is that the hand
array probe is very costly because of its complicated excitation and data acquisition parts 24,25 as
shown in Figure 4.

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Figure 2.3 Array probe.
2.4 Rotating field probe with bobbin coil
Figure 5 shows the excitation part which consists of three coils with identical 120 axes
degrees apart and balanced alternating currents with adjustable frequency, phase and amplitude.
The rotating MF is generated without mechanical rotating support.21,26
Figure 2.4 3D model of rotating field probe with bobbin coil.
2.5 Comparison of eddy current probes
The advantages and disadvantages of eddy current probes for the NDT as described in Table 1.30
Table2 1. ECT probes for tube or pipe assessment inspection.
Table 2.1. ECT probes for tube or pipe assessment inspection.

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2.6 EM NDT techniques
The EM methods of NDT comprise a full spectrum of techniques ranging from static
(DC) methods to high-frequency (10 THz) methods. The next section presents the most
comprehensive inspection technique that used in the EM NDT.31
2.7 Pulsed eddy current
Pulsed excitation produces transient signals with a wide range of frequency components.
Hence, it contains more information compared to a single-frequency excitation. 32,33 The pulsed
eddy current (PEC) signals have common features in the transient characteristics such as the
peak amplitude, time-to-peak amplitude and time-to-zero crossing. The peak amplitude will
determine the defect size. The defect depth or material thickness will be identified by the peak
amplitude.34–36 The earliest study of PEC for crack detection in layered structures with installed
fasteners was conducted by Harrison.37,38 Giguere et al.39 also studied the detection of cracks
beneath rivet heads using the transient EC techniques. Figure 6 shows some experimental
results of PEC to test multilayer sample.33
Figure 2.5 PEC to test multilayer sample.33

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2.8 ECT with MF measurement method
The most recent research introduced the GMR sensor. It is widely used in many
applications because the sensitivity of these sensors is independent of the MF, it has a high
bandwidth, only requires a low power supply, the dimensions of GMR are small and the output
signal is high compared to the other MR sensors. Therefore, the GMR-based EC testing exhibits
significant advantages in detecting complex geometry such as a layered component
inspection.40 The directional property of the GMR sensor had been used to locate edge cracks in
aluminum specimen.40,41 A needle-type GMR imaging technique named the SV-GMR system
was designed for the inspection of a bare polychlorinated biphenyl structure to measure the
magnetic fluid density in a living body.10,42
High-resolution GMR elements are fabricated in a small package of sensors arrays. An

inspiring application of this array probe was found in the evaluation of metal medical implants
for invisible cracks.43 A linear array of 20 GMR elements was packaged to image a hole defect
in a steel plate using 1 Hz excitation. Designs of GMR array probes in identical elements had
been studied to detect subsurface cracks.44 High-density GMR arrays were especially promising
for rapid scanning of a large area as well as high-resolution imaging. 7,45 Another type of GMR
array sensors that use two-directional elements was investigated in the EC testing to detect
surface cracks of unknown orientation. They measure both X-component and Y-component of
the MF at the same point.5 A fast Fourier transformation to enhance the ECT probe based on the
GMR array sensors for pipe inspection was utilized by Du et al.46
The transient excitation of the coil probes with two MR sensors or two Hall sensors in
differential mode have been studied by Lebrun et al. 47,48 and used for characterizing crack
parameters. Kim et al.49 introduced a method for the assessment of aircraft structures. The
system produced pulse excitation that energized a planar multi-line coil. The GMR field sensor
was used to detect the transient field. Tai et al. 50 studied similar transient features for an
inversion scheme to qualify the conductivity and thickness of the samples. Table 2 shows the
difference between the eddy current methods which rely on the sensor element that utilities
alternative current signal in ECT.

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Table 2.2. Overviews of the utilities AC signal in eddy current

testing with different probe designs
Table 2.2. Overviews of the utilities AC signal in eddy current testing with different probe
designs
2.9 Multi-frequency techniques
NDT widely uses multi-frequency techniques (MFTs). The MFT expanded the
capabilities of using single-frequency testing which allows simultaneous tests.
The multi-frequency process uses a composite signal and subtracts the undesirable
signal.12 The main undesirable signal caused by changes in the temperature variation, material
geometrical and probe lift-off.69 MFTs are usually accomplished by combining the results
obtained at different frequencies in the spatial domain. Liu et al. 69 presented integrate two-
(multi) frequency injection with dimensional spatial domain named as a pyramid fusion method.
The SNR improved due to reduction in noise sources which demonstrated the potential of signal
enhancement via fusion method or raster scanning.70 A two-dimensional (2D) surface produced
changes over of the impedance or impedance by raster scanning images. 12 Image processing
techniques can be applied to detect cracks using ECT. Bartels and Fisher 71 proposed a multi-
frequency eddy current image processing technique for the non destructive materials evaluation.
SNR improvement up to 1100% over traditional two-frequency techniques a sequence of
complex valued images generated from 2D ECT to maximize the SNR. The linear combination
of the images by Bartels and Fisher71
d(x,y)=∑i=12Nfcifi(x,y)d(x,y)=∑i=12Nfcifi(x,y)
where Nf is the number of test frequencies and fi are extracted from the 2D images. Results on
experimental data demonstrate.
2.10 Factors contributing to eddy current signals
The signal from an eddy current probe includes a collection of responses from defects,
sample geometry and probe lift-off.72,73 Therefore, it may be difficult to separate a single

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influence. Adequate assessment of flaws or any other surface properties is likely when other
factors are understood.7 The primary factors influencing the response of an eddy current probe
are explained in this section.
2.11 Frequency
Eddy current response is strongly affected by the frequency chosen for the investigation.
This factor should be appropriately selected by the operator, based on the crack detection
sample such as lower frequencies for bulk characterization and higher frequencies for surface
characterization.
Many authors such as Ditchburn et al.74 and Thollon et al.75 utilize this range, and they
suggested the range of 100 Hz–10 MHz as standard inspection frequencies in ECT. 19 However,
a few authors such as Owston76 characterized high frequency at 25 MHz for thin metallic
coatings and detecting surface defects. In the inspection of ferromagnetic materials, low-
frequency tests are applied to penetrate into the test specimen and compensate for their high
permeability. Ramos et al.77 have studied the detection of subsurface flaws relating to the
characterization of depth profiles of the subsurface defects in aluminum plates. 78 However, the
high frequency applied for the inspection of small discontinuities occured in the near-
surface.79,80Table 3 summarizes the impact of different frequency values on the depth of
penetration of several materials.81
Table 2.3. Typical depths of penetration.
Table2. 3. Typical depths of penetration.

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2.12 Conductivity of test material
Electrical conductivity and the magnetic permeability of the test objects of the material
depend on the microstructure, for example, grain structure, the presence of a second phase,
work hardening and heat treatment. Greater conductivity of a material such as copper and
aluminum will lead to greater flow of the eddy currents and hence the probe coil resistance.
In great conductive materials, defects or cracks produce a high signal as an impedance

plane, as illustrated in Figure 8. Furthermore, the phase lag between the lift-off line and the
defect is ϕ1 > ϕ2,82 which is significant, as indicated in Figure 7.
Figure 2.6 Lift-off curves and crack displacement at impedance plane.82
However, the penetration depth of highly conductive materials at a fixed frequency is

lower than in lower conductive materials such as stainless steel and steel. The conductivity of
the different materials can be measured using the International Annealed Copper Standard
(IACS). Table 4 summarizes the conductivity of common elements.83
Table 2.4. Conductivity and resistivity of conductive materials.

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Table 2.4. Conductivity and resistivity of conductive materials.
2.13 Magnetic permeability
ECT signals are significantly affected by ferromagnetic materials due to the increase in
flux produced by the significant relative permeability of certain materials such as stainless steel
or carbon steel.84 The permeability of material changes the coupling of the coil with the
conductive specimen and subsequently affects the reactance of the coil. Permeability has a
significant effect on the ECT compared to conductivity, where the crack detection has no
potential when permeability changes randomly.85,86
2.14 Lift-off
ECT is strongly affected by the amount of lift-off which can be defined as the separation
distance between the excitation coil surface and the conducting material surface. This distance
changes the mutual inductance of the circuits as the lift-off increases; the amplitude of the eddy
current induces emf as the secondary coil decreases, which can result in the misinterpretation of
the signals as flaws. At a significant lift-off, no detectable emf will be induced in the secondary
coil due to the sample chosen.81,87,88 This effect is particularly prominent when using sinusoidal
excitations, which lose sensitivity beyond 5 mm.89 Although it is not required to have a zero lift-
off, it is imperative to try and maintain a consistent lift-off, since the variation in coupling

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between probe and test piece will significantly affect the received signal. Table 5 lists previous
studies that have considered the lift-off issue.
Table 2.5. Review of lift-off compensation techniques
Table 2.5. Review of lift-off compensation techniques
Figure 8 illustrates the offset position of the tube inside the bobbin coils. Lift-off is
explained using a coil whose axis is normal to the test piece. However, lift-off also occur when
the test is conducted using encircling or bobbin probes. The vibration of the rod or the tube
inside the probe generates noise which presents difficulties when inspections are conducted.117
Figure 2.7 Wobble simulation: a bobbin coil in an offset position to a tube.87
There are methods for lift-off compensation when the eddy currents are used in order to detect
cracks, and lift-off becomes an undesired variable. For instance, Yin et al. 100 researched dual
excitation frequencies and coil design to minimize the lift-off effect. Research about processing
the data was also conducted to minimize the lift-off effect. Lopez et al. 118 proposed the use of
wavelets to remove the eddy current probe wobble noise from the steam generator’s tubes.
Reduction in the lift-off effect was also attempted by optimizing the coil design and sensor
array.119

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Tian et al.101 had researched the reduction of lift-off effects via normalization techniques. The
technique can be applied to the measurement of metal thickness beneath the non-conductive
coatings and to the measurement of microstructure and strain/stress, where the output is highly
sensitive to the lift-off effect. Table 5 illustrates previous studies that considered the lift-off
issue.
CHAPTER-III
FABRICATION WORKING
3. Fabrication model construction

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Battery- A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy.
It consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in
series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes
electrolyte and the electrode to which anions migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode; the
other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations migrate, i.e., the cathode
or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery, reduction occurs to cations at
the cathode, while oxidation occurs to anions at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each
other but they are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-cells with
different electrolytes. A separator between half cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of
the electrolytes. Each half cell has an electromotive force determined by its ability to drive
electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net EMF of the cell is the
difference between the EMF of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta. Therefore, if the
electrodes have EMF and, then the net EMF is in other words, the net EMF is the difference
between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.
3.1 Alloy wheel-
Alloy wheels have become considerably more common since 2000. Alloy wheels are
automobile wheels which are made from an alloy of aluminum or magnesium. They are
typically lighter for the same strength and provide better heat conduction and improved
cosmetic appearance over steel wheels. The earliest light alloy wheels were made of magnesium
alloys. Alloy wheels have long been included as standard equipment on higher-priced luxury or
sports cars, with larger-sized or "exclusive" alloy wheels being options. The high cost of alloy
wheels makes them attractive to thieves; to counter this, automakers and dealers often use
locking wheel nuts which require a special key to remove. Most alloy wheels are manufactured
using casting, but some are forged.
3.2 Electro-Magnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by the flow
of electric current. An electric current flowing in a wire creates a magnetic field around the
wire. To concentrate the magnetic field, in an electromagnet the wire is wound into a coil with
many turns of wire lying side by side. The magnetic field of all the turns of wire passes through
the center of the coil, creating a strong magnetic field there. The direction of the magnetic field
through a coil of wire can be found from a form of the right-hand rule. The main advantage of
an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the magnetic field can be rapidly manipulated

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over a wide range by controlling the amount of electric current. Friction Material- In most
mobile or outdoor applications friction material is not used however in most industrial
applications friction material is used to help slow wear in clutch or break the friction material is
flush with the steel holes. The single friction plate design allows for a very fast response so the
brakes are very well suited for high cycle applications. Ex:-Ferrous Materials.
3.3 Electromagnet
Electromagnet is the device which get magnetized when the current is feed into it. Here
the electromagnet is designed by modified a typical transformer. The transformes has double
side „E‟ shape outer core around the inner core. This outside „E‟ shape core of the transformer
is removed and then arranged as single side. Now it is act as a electromagnet.
3.4 Belt
A belt is made up of a polymer material used to transmit power between two or more
rotary shafts, mostly parallel in arrangement. Belts may be used to transmit power effectively.
Belts are fitted over grooves in pulleys and also may have twists between pulleys, and the shafts
need not to be parallel in all conditions. Flat belt, vee-belt, round belt are the some important
types of belts. Here the vee-belt has been looped over the driving motor and the driven wheel.
3.5 Pulley
The pulley has been used to mound the metal disc along with it. It provide the rotary
motion from motor to the disc by the use of V-belt. Here we used a typical pulley has six arms.
The material of the pulley is used as hardened plastic
3.6 Construction Details
The construction of the system is done by the following manner. The system consists of a
vertical column. The pulley is mounted at the top of the vertical column. This setup is fitted on a
wooden board which is act as a base. On the other end of the base, the motor is fitted with the
help of bolts. The driving wheel pulley (motor) and the driven wheel pulley are looped by a
typical v-belt. A metallic disc is mounted with the front of the driven pulley. An electromagnet

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is fitted in the front of the metallic disc which is fitted with driven pulley. The important thing is
that the electromagnet is to be fitted with the smallest clearance with the metallic disc. The
ON/OFF switch and the regulator are connected with the electromagnet and the motor
respectively with the help of the electric wires to controll the current supply to them.
3.7 Ac Motor
The rotory motion of the wheel is given by the AC motor. The electric motor convert
electric energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic induction. The motor been used here
is the typical grinder motor. Regulator The regulator been used inorder to controll the speed of
the electric motor. The speed is controlled by changing the frequency of the electric supply to
the motor. The frequency can be adjusted to match the need of the process. The higher the
frequency of the output voltage is, the higher the speed of the motor, and thus, the output of the
process. Here the capacity of the regulator are 220V±10% in voltage, 50HZ in frequency and
400watt is used.
Fig:3.1 frame cutting pipes
Fig: 3.2 single pipes

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Fig: 3.3 pipes cutting
Fig: 3.4 welding frame
Fig: 3.5 table welding frame

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Fig: 3.6 sprockets bush
Fig: 3.7 motor

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Fig:3.8 12mm shaft
Fig: 3.9 sprocket wheel
Fig: 3.10 12mm shaft bush

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Fig: 3.11 chain
Flywheel we found difficulty in testing this setup in an automobile, So that we made a

separate setup consists of flywheel and an alternator coupled to it.
The flywheel is designed to store certain energy and the experiment is done based on how
much input current should be
Given to nullify the energy to stop the flywheel. The results were theoretically compared
with other application of automobile
Energy stored in a flywheel
Weight of the flywheel = 5kg
Velocity of rotation = ΠDN/60
Speed of rotation =60 RPM
Diameter of flywheel =20cm =0.2m
Energy stored = mv2 /2 =10*11.5132 /2 = 0.662 KJ

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Fig: 3.12 wheel
Fig: 3.13 12mm shaft bush
Fig: 3.14 brake wheel

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Fig: 3.15 battery 12v 1.5
3.8 The Electromagnet
A simple electromagnet can be created by wrapping a coil of wire around a soft iron core,
such as a large nail
We now know from the previous tutorials that a straight current carrying conductor produces a
circular magnetic field around itself at all points along its length and that the direction of
rotation of this magnetic field depends upon the direction of current flow through the conductor,
the Left 3.9 Hand Rule.
In the last tutorial about Electromagnetism we saw that if we bend the conductor into a
single loop the current will flow in opposite directions through the loop producing a clockwise
field and an anticlockwise field next to each other. The Electromagnet uses this principal by
having several individual loops magnetically joined together to produce a single coil.
Electromagnets are basically coils of wire which behave like bar magnets with a distinct north
and south pole when an electrical current passes through the coil. The static magnetic field
produced by each individual coil loop is summed with its neighbour with the combined
magnetic field concentrated like the single wire loop we looked at in the last tutorial in the
centre of the coil. The resultant static magnetic field with a north pole at one end and a south
pole at the other is uniform and a lot more stronger in the centre of the coil than around the
exterior.

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Lines of Force around an Electromagnet
Fig:3.16 Lines of Force around an Electromagnet
The magnetic field that this produces is stretched out in a form of a bar magnet giving a
distinctive north and south pole with the flux being proportional to the amount of current
flowing in the coil. If additional layers of wire are wound upon the same coil with the same
current flowing, the magnetic field strength will be increased.
It can be seen from this therefore that the amount of flux available in any given magnetic
circuit is directly proportional to the current flowing through it and the number of turns of wire
within the coil. This relationship is called Magneto Motive Force or m.m.f. and is defined as:
Magneto Motive Force is expressed as a current, I flowing through a coil of N turns. The

magnetic field strength of an electromagnet is therefore determined by the ampere turns of the
coil with the more turns of wire in the coil the greater will be the strength of the magnetic field.

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3.10 The Magnetic Strength of the Electromagnet
We now know that were two adjacent conductors are carrying current, magnetic fields are
set up according to the direction of the current flow. The resulting interaction of the two fields is
such that a mechanical force is experienced by the two conductors.
When the current is flowing in the same direction (the same side of the coil) the field
between the two conductors is weak causing a force of attraction as shown above. Likewise,
when the current is flowing in opposite directions the field between them becomes intensified
and the conductors are repelled.
The intensity of this field around the conductor is proportional to the distance from it
with the strongest point being next to the conductor and progressively getting weaker further
away from the conductor. In the case of a single straight conductor, the current flowing and the
distance from it are factors which govern the intensity of the field.
The formula therefore for calculating the “Magnetic Field Strength”, H sometimes called
“Magnetising Force” of a long straight current carrying conductor is derived from the current
flowing through it and the distance from it.
Magnetic Field Strength for Electromagnets
Fig: 3.17 Magnetic Field Strength for Electromagnets

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 Where:
 H – is the strength of the magnetic field in ampere-turns/metre, At/m
 N – is the number of turns of the coil
 I – is the current flowing through the coil in amps, A
 L – is the length of the coil in metres, m
Then to summarise, the strength or intensity of a coils magnetic field depends on the following
factors.
 The number of turns of wire within the coil.
 The amount of current flowing in the coil.
 The type of core material.
The magnetic field strength of the electromagnet also depends upon the type of core
material being used as the main purpose of the core is to concentrate the magnetic flux in a well
defined and predictable path. So far only air cored (hollow) coils have been considered but the
introduction of other materials into the core (the centre of the coil) has a very large controlling
effect on the strength of the magnetic field.
Fig: 3.18 strength of the magnetic field.

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3.11 Electromagnet using a nail
If the material is non-magnetic for example wood, for calculation purposes it can be
regarded as free space as they have very low values of permeability. If however, the core
material is made from a Ferromagnetic material such as iron, nickel, cobalt or any mixture of
their alloys, a considerable difference in the flux density around the coil will be observed.
Ferromagnetic materials are those which can be magnetised and are usually made from soft
iron, steel or various nickel alloys. The introduction of this type of material into a magnetic
circuit has the effect of concentrating the magnetic flux making it more concentrated and dense
and amplifies the magnetic field created by the current in the coil.
We can prove this by wrapping a coil of wire around a large soft-iron nail and connecting
it to a battery as shown. This simple classroom experiment allows us to pick-up a large quantity
of clips or pins and we can make the electromagnet stronger by adding more turns to the coil.
This degree of intensity of the magnetic field either by a hollow air core or by introducing
ferromagnetic materials into the core is called Magnetic Permeability.
3.12 Permeability of Electromagnets
If cores of different materials with the same physical dimensions are used in the
electromagnet, the strength of the magnet will vary in relation to the core material being used.
This variation in the magnetic strength is due to the number of flux lines passing through the
central core. if the magnetic material has a high permeability then the flux lines can easily be
created and pass through the central core and permeability (μ) and it is a measure of the ease by
which the core can be magnetized. The numerical constant given for the permeability of a
vacuum is given as: μo = 4.π.10-7 H/m with the relative permeability of free space (a vacuum)
generally given a value of one. It is this value that is used as a reference in all calculations
dealing with permeability and all materials have their own specific values of permeability.

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The problem with using just the permeability of different iron, steel or alloy cores is that
the calculations involved can become very large so it is more convenient to define the materials
by their relative permeability.
Relative Permeability, symbol μr is the product of μ (absolute permeability) and μo the

permeability of free space and is given as.
Relative Permeability
Materials that have a permeability slightly less than that of free space (a vacuum) and have a
weak, negative susceptibility to magnetic fields are said to be Diamagnetic in nature such as:
water, copper, silver and gold. Those materials with a permeability slightly greater than that of
free space and themselves are only slightly attracted by a magnetic field are said to
be Paramagnetic in nature such as: gases, magnesium, and tantalum.
3.13 Electromagnet Example No1
The absolute permeability of a soft iron core is given as 80 milli-henries/m (80.10 -3).
Calculate the equivalent relative permeability value.
When ferromagnetic materials are used in the core the use of relative permeability to
define the field strength gives a better idea of the strength of the magnetic field for the different
types of materials used. For example, a vacuum and air have a relative permeability of one and
for an iron core it is around 500, so we can say that the field strength of an iron core is 500

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times stronger than an equivalent hollow air coil and this relationship is much easier to
understand than 0.628×10-3 H/m, ( 500.4.π.10-7).
While, air may have a permeability of just one, some ferrite and permalloy materials can
have a permeability of 10,000 or more. However, there are limits to the amount of magnetic
field strength that can be obtained from a single coil as the core becomes heavily saturated as
the magnetic flux increases and this is looked at in the next tutorial about B-H
curves and Hysteresis.
3.14 The energy in a magnetic field
One method of calculating the force produced by a magnetic field involves an

understanding of the way in which the energy represented by the field changes. To derive an
expression for the field energy we'll look at the behaviour of the field within a simple toroidal
inductor. We equate the field energy to the electrical energy needed to establish the coil current.
When the coil current increases so does the magnetic field strength, H. That, in turn, leads to an
increase in magnetic flux, . The increase in flux induces a voltage in the coil. It's the power
needed to push the current into the coil against this voltage which we now calculate.
Fig: 3.19 needed to push the current
We choose a toroid because over its cross-sectional area, A, the flux density should be

approximately uniform (particularly if the core radius is large compared with it's cross section).

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We let the flux path length around the core be equal to Lf and the cross-sectional area be equal
to Ax. We assume that the core is initially unmagnetized and that the electrical energy (W)
supplied to the coil will all be converted to magnetic field energy in the core (we ignore eddy
currents).
W = v×i dt joules
Faraday's law gives the voltage as
v = N×d /dt volts
Substituting -
W = N(d /dt)i dt
W = N×i d
Now, N×i = Fm and H = Fm/Lf so N×i = H×Lf. Substituting:
W = H×Lf d
Also, from the definition of flux density = Ax× B so d = Ax×dB. Substituting:
W = H×Lf×AxdB joules
This gives the total energy in the core. If we wish to find the energy density then we divide by
the volume of the core material:
Wd= ( H×Lf×Ax dB)/(Lf×Ax)
Wd = H d B joules Equation

m-3 EFH
If the magnetization curve is linear (that is we pretend B against H is a straight line, not a curve)

then there is a further simplification. Substituting H = B/μ
Wd= B / µ d B

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Wd = B2/(2μ) joules Equation

m-3 EFB
Compare this result with the better known formula for the energy stored by a given inductance,
L:
WL = L×I2/2 joules
Another squared term, you notice.
3.15 Uniform magnetic fields
A 'hand-waving' explanation might help clarify the physics. Take an initially uniform
magnetic field in free space and introduce into it an iron sphere. The flux lines will bend in the
vicinity of the iron so that they will converge upon it. Inside the iron the lines will be quite
concentrated (though parallel to the original field).
Now, the point is that there will be no net force on the iron, no matter how strong the field.
A sphere has perfect symmetry, so rotation will not change the picture in any way. If there is
translational movement then all that can happen if the sphere were to move is that the distortion
of the field around the original position of the sphere will disappear and the same distortion will
be re-established around the new position; the total system energy will remain unchanged.
OK, instead of the sphere let's try an iron rod. This is different because we've lost
symmetry. What happens is that the axis of the rod will be drawn into alignment with the field -
like a compass needle. The flux lines prefer the iron to the air because of the higher
permeability. Equation EFB has μ on the denominator so the field energy is lower here than in
the air, and the further the flux can go through the iron the lower the energy. Think of current
flow through a resistor; the current has an easier time going through a low resistance than a high
resistance. Flux goes easier through high permeability than through low. When the rod is
aligned with the field the flux can go further through a high permeability region. Note that we
still don't have a translational force (provided that the field is uniform on the scale of the rod).
Think about the famous experiment with iron filings sprinkled onto a piece of cardboard above
a bar magnet. The filings tend to line up with the field but don't generally move much because
they are so small that the field appears uniform to them.

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So for there to be a force on a piece of iron then a displacement of the iron must result in
an alteration to the field energy. The electromagnet you are using will have an opinion about
changes to the field it generates. It will say that its inductance is changing. This is the basis of
one solution to the problem:
F = (I2/2) dL/dx Equation

newtons EFS
where I is the coil current and x is displacement in metres. This result is proved in
textbooks such as Hammond, and also Smith. Unfortunately, it might be tricky to calculate how
the inductance changes unless the system you have is particularly simple to analyze. You might
need computer software such as described by Hammond in order to do it.
3.16 Fields with negligible fringing
Some problems of practical importance can be solved when the air gap between the
electromagnet and the work piece is small in comparison with the field cross section. This is the
situation found in most electro-mechanical relays.
Fig: 3.19 electro-mechanical relays.
Equation EFB gives the energy density (joules per metre cubed). Assuming that the field
inside the air gap is uniform you can use EFB to get the total field energy simply by multiplying
by the volume of the field, V
V=g×A
Equation FRV

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where g is the gap length and A is the cross sectional area of the coil's core. The total energy is then
W = ( B2/(2 μ0)) × (g × A)
Equation FRT
We need the force on the armature. That is given by the rate of change of energy with gap length
F = dW/dg
Equation FRP
F = B2 A / (2 μ0)
Maxwell's pulling force formula
We next need to find the flux density, B. It's assumption time again. Well designed relays
use such high permeability material for the core and armature that most of the field strength
produced by the coil will appear across the air gap between the core and the armature and we
can ignore the reluctance of the core, pivot and armature. Substituting equation TMH into
equation TMD we get
B = Fm μ0 / g
Equation FRQ
Substituting into Maxwell's force formula
F = ( Fm)2 μ0 A / (2 g2)
Equation FRS
If you have ever tried to bring a piece of iron into contact with a magnet manually then
you will quite literally have a feel for the g2 term!

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Example: A relay has a coil of 1200 turns. The diameter of the coil core is 6 millimetres and the
air gap is 1.8 millimetres. The spring exerts a force on the armature of 0.15 newtons at the part
of it opposite the air gap. What coil current will operate the relay?
The core cross sectional area, A = π (0.006/2)2 = 2.83×10-5 m2. Substituting into equation FRS
0.15 = (1200 × I)2 4π×10-7 × 2.83×10-5 / (2 × (1.8×10-3)2)
Equation FRU
Therefore I = 0.138 amps. The flux density will be 0.116 teslas. This should be well
below saturation for iron. As the gap closes, and g goes to zero, equation FRS predicts that the
force on the armature becomes infinite. Of course it won't do so because our assumptions about
the field production will go down the tubes first. Under those conditions it might be far harder
to calculate the force precisely. One point to note, though, is that flux density is limited by
saturation to below about 1.6 teslas. Maxwell's force formula therefore sets a limit on the force
of one million newtons per square metre (about 100 tons).
3.17 The force on materials with low χ
Equation MPU relates the torque on a magnetic dipole to the field. Because this torque drops to
zero as the dipole rotates through 90 degrees we can find the energy (which is torque times
angle)
W = m × B Equation

joules FRJ
So, in a vacuum, substituting equation TMD -
W = μ0 × m × H Equation

joules FRK
In non-ferromagnetic materials where the field internal to the specimen is much the same as the
externally applied field then the force is given by

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F = ½ χ μ0 v (∂H2/∂l)
Equation FRL
where l is distance and v is the volume of the material. It needs emphasizing that this
formula will give significant overestimates for ferromagnetic materials. For them the internal
'demagnetizing field' leads to lower values of force than equation FRL would suggest.
Demagnetizing fields only have exact analytical solutions for spheroidally shaped specimens.
Consult a text such as Jiles for details on correcting for demagnetizing fields.
3.18 A simple experiment with a solenoid
A 'solenoid' is the term used to describe the type of electromagnet supplied with an iron
piston or plunger pulled in by the field generated by current in a coil.
Fig: 3.20 A 'solenoid' is the term
Solenoids are frequently used to operate valves, release locks or operate ratchets and so
on. Equation EFS above suggests that the pull of a solenoid should be related to the square of
the coil current. Take a medium sized 12 volt solenoid (having a plunger about 13 mm
diameter) and test this out by attaching it to a spring balance as shown in the figure here.
Measurements are made as follows:
1. Set a high coil current by turning the power supply up towards 12 volts.
2. Push the plunger in until it is retained by the field.
3. Reduce the length of the cord until either the balance reads maximum load or the solenoid
just retains the plunger. A turnbuckle is handy here.
4. Make a note of the force measured by the balance.

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5. Reduce the current slowly, keeping an eye on the meter reading, until the solenoid lets go,
and note the current. The restraining cord is essential unless you want to be hit in the eye by a
lump of iron moving at very high speed :-)
Repeat the sequence, slackening the cord on the balance each time to obtain a lower force. This
gave the line, shown below, which has a slope of about 1.1.
Hmmm ... what may be happening is that non-linearities in the permeability of the iron are
affecting the field. If I add a 2 mm thick piece of brass on the end of the plunger then I get:

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Notice that the retaining force is now much lower even though a higher coil current has been
used. Well, this line has a slope of about 2.2 - a bit closer to theory. In an air gap the flux
density is exactly proportional to field strength (and thus current). As far as a static magnetic
field is concerned brass behaves just the same as air: the permeability is a steady μ0 at any value
of B.
It would be nice to extend this experiment by a measurement of coil inductance against

force in order to test Equation EFS. The difficulty is that inductance meters use AC test signals.
Without laminated iron (which is only found in solenoids designed for AC operation) the
reading will be affected by large eddy current losses.
3.19 must read on dc motors:
 Different Types of DC Motor

 Difference Between AC and DC Motor
 Speed Control of DC Motor
 Applications of Dc motor
3.20 Construction of DC Motor
Before understanding the working of DC motor first, we have to know about their
construction. There are two main parts of the DC motor.

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 Armature
 Stator
The rotating part is the armature and the Stator is their stationary part. The armature coil is
connected
3.21 Working Principle of DC Motor
A DC motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical

energy. The basic working principle of the DC motor is that whenever a current carrying
conductor places in the magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force.
Fig: 3,21 Fleming’s left-hand rule and its magnitude decide the direction of this force.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule:
If we stretch the first finger, second finger and thumb of our left hand to be perpendicular
to each other, and first finger represents the direction of the magnetic field, the second finger
represents the direction of the current, then the thumb represents the direction of the force
experienced by the current carrying conductor.

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Fig:3.22 DC motor
F = BIL Newtons
Where,
B = magnetic flux density,
I = current and
L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.
When armature winding is connected to a DC supply, an electric current sets up in the

winding. Permanent magnets or field winding (electromagnetism) provides the magnetic field.
In this case, current carrying armature conductors experience a force due to the magnetic field,
according to the principle stated above.
The Commutator is made segmented to achieve unidirectional torque. Otherwise, the

direction of force would have reversed every time when the direction of movement of the
conductor is reversed in the magnetic field. This is how a DC motor works!
3.22 Back- EMF of DC motor
According to the fundamental law of nature, no energy conversion is possible until there is
something to oppose the conversion. In case of generators, magnetic drag provides this
opposition, but in the case of dc motors, there is back emf. Presence of the back emf makes a dc
motor ‘self-regulating’.

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When the armature of a motor is rotating, the conductors are also cutting the magnetic flux
lines and hence according to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, an emf induces in
the armature conductors.
The direction of this induced emf is such that it opposes the armature current (I a). The
circuit diagram below illustrates the direction of the back emf and armature current.
Significance of Back-EMF
Magnitude of back emf is directly proportional to speed of the motor. Consider the load on
a dc motor is suddenly reduced. In this case, required torque will be small as compared to the
current torque. Speed of the motor will start increasing due to the excess torque. Hence, being
proportional to the speed, magnitude of the back emf will also increase. With increasing back
emf armature current will start decreasing. Torque being proportional to the armature current, it
will also decrease until it becomes sufficient for the load. Thus, speed of the motor will
regulate.
On the other hand, if a dc motor is suddenly loaded, the load will cause decrease in the
speed. Due to decrease in speed, back emf will also decrease which allows more armature
current. Due to increase in armature current the torque will increase to fulfill the load
requirement.
DC motor?
A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical

energy. In a DC motor, the input electrical energy is the direct current which is transformed into
the mechanical rotation.
3.23 Definition of DC motor
A DC motor is defined as a class of electrical motors that convert direct current electrical
energy into mechanical energy.
From the above definition, we can conclude that any electric motor that is operated using direct
current or DC is called a DC motor. In the next few sections, we will understand the DC motor

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construction and how a DC motor converts the supplied DC electrical energy into mechanical
energy.
In this section, we will be discussing the construction of DC motors.
3.24 DC Motor Diagram
Fig: 3.23 Motor Diagram
3.25 Different Parts of a DC motor
A DC motor is composed of the following main parts:
3.26Armature or Rotor
The armature of a DC motor is a cylinder of magnetic laminations that are insulated from
one another. The armature is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The armature is a rotating
part that rotates on its axis and is separated from the field coil by an air gap.
3.27 Field Coil or Stator
A field coil of a DC motor is a non-moving part on which winding is wound to produce

a magnetic field. This electro-magnet has a cylindrical cavity between its poles.

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3.28 Commutator and Brushes
The commutator of a DC motor is a cylindrical structure that is made of copper segments

stacked together but insulated from each other using mica. The primary function of a
commutator is to supply electrical current to the armature winding.
3.29 Brushes
The brushes of a DC motor are made with graphite and carbon structure. These brushes
conduct electric current from the external circuit to the rotating commutator. Hence, we come to
understand that the commutator and the brush unit is concerned with transmitting the
3.30 power from the static electrical circuit to the mechanically rotating region or the
rotor.
In the previous section, we discussed the various components of a DC motor. Now, using
this knowledge let us understand the working of DC motors.
A magnetic field arises in the air gap when the field coil of the DC motor is nergized. The
created magnetic field is in the direction of the radii of the armature. The magnetic field enters
the armature from the North pole side of the field coil and “exits” the armature from the South
pole side of the field coil.
Fig: 3.24 conductors located
The conductors located on the other pole are subjected to a force of the same intensity but
in the opposite direction. These two opposing forces create a torque that causes the motor
armature to rotate.

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3.31 Types of DC motor
DC motors have a wide range of applications ranging from electric shavers to

automobiles. To cater to this wide range of applications, they are classified into different types
based on the field winding connections to the armature as:
 Self Excited DC Motor
 Separately Excited DC Motor
Now, let us discuss the various types of DC Motors in detail.
3.32Self Excited DC Motor
In self-excited DC motors, the field winding is connected either in series or parallel to the
armature winding. Based on this, the self-excited DC motor can further be classified as:
 Shunt wound DC motor
 Series wound DC motor
 Compound wound DC motor
Shunt wound DC motor
Fig: 3.25 shunt wound motor
In a shunt wound motor, the field winding is connected parallel to the armature as shown in the
figure.

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Series wound DC motor
Fig: 3.26 In a series wound DC motor
In a series wound DC motor, the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding
as shown in the figure.
Compound wound DC motor
Fig: 27 DC motors having both shunt and series field
DC motors having both shunt and series field winding is known as a Compound DC motor, as
shown in the figure. The compound motor is further divided into:
 Cumulative Compound Motor
 Differential Compound Motor

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In a cumulative compound motor, the magnetic flux produced by both the windings is in the
same direction. In a differential compound motor, the flux produced by the series field windings
is opposite to the flux produced by the shunt field winding.
3.33 Separately Excited DC Motor
Fig:3.28 In a separately excited DC motor
In a separately excited DC motor, the field coils are energised from an external source of DC
supply as shown in the figure.
3.34 brushed dc motor vs brushless dc motor
Fig: 3.29 A brushless DC motor,

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A brushless DC motor, also known as synchronous DC motor, unlike brushed DC motors,

do not have a commutator. The commutator in a brushless DC motor is replaced by an
electronic servomechanism that can detect and adjust the angle of the rotor.
A brushed DC motor features a commutator that reverses the current every half cycle and
creates single direction torque. While brushed DC motors remain popular, many have been
phased out for more efficient brushless models in recent years.
3.35 Applications of DC Motor
The applications of different types of DC motors are listed below:
3.36 Shunt DC Motors
Because of the fairly constant speed and medium starting torque of shunt DC motors, they are
used in the following applications:
1. Centrifugal and reciprocating pumps

2. Lathe machines
3. Blowers and Fans
4. Drilling machines
5. Milling machines
6. Machine tools
3.37 Series DC Motors
Because of the high starting torque and variable speed of series DC motors, they are used in the
following applications:
 Conveyors
 Hoists, Elevators
 Cranes
 Electric Locomotives

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3.38 Cumulative Compound DC motors
Because of the high starting torque of cumulative compound DC motors, they are used in the
following applications:
 Shears
 Heavy Planers
 Rolling mills
 Elevators
3.39 Fabricating welding works
Fig: 3.30 fabirication making
Many people use fabricating and welding as interchangeable verbs, but that’s not quite the
case. In its most basic sense, fabrication is the process of creating a project out of metal, and
welding can be a singular operation during that process.
Simply put, welding joins together two pieces of metal, glass, or thermoplastics with
similar melting points and compositions using fusion. Fabrication is the evolutionary process of
creating a metal product, from layout and design to formation and finishing. However, in this
ever-evolving industry, it’s likely that many welders can fabricate, and it’s more likely that
fabricators can weld.
So, what are the differences and similarities between the two? Before you fill out your
next apprenticeship application, Kaempf and Harris takes a look at the tools, processes, and
safety precautions that go into each trade
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3.40 Tools
A comprehensive list of familiar fabrication tools for beginners, including various angle
grinder discs and a set of cleco fasteners, can be found here. Most metal fab tools can’t be used
for welding because that process requires different, more specific instruments, including:
 Abrasives
 Adjustable wrench
 Benders
 Chipping hammers
 Consumable electrodes
 Cylinders with custom carts
 Electrode holders
 Hand file
 Soapstone
 Tungsten inert gas (TIG) consumables
 Vice and vice grips
 Welding clamps
As for the similarities, both careers require cleaning supplies for disinfecting the metal.
Experts use a wire brush and organic solvent, like acetone or a mild alkaline solution, or a
citrus-based decreaser without butoxyethanol (a chemical compound that can cause breathing
and liver problems) to scrub away any grease, oily deposits, and germs.
To clean the facility after a hard day’s work, welders and fabricators use normal mops and
sweepers. For industry-specific cleaning techniques, these trade professionals often use surface
protection films, floor finishes and coatings, and electro-cleaners.

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3.41 Processes
Because welding is a metal forming technique, it goes hand-in-hand with sheet metal
fabrication, and each trade uses similar processes, like assembling and bending, to get the final
product. To clarify, there are different ways to weld, including oxy acetylene, TIG (the most
common form in fab shops), and gas metal arc (GMAW) welding.
However, because sheet metal fabrication is the overarching process, it involves many

different processes, including specialty techniques, which can involve:
 Die cutting
 Finishing
 Hydroforming
 Roll forming
 Shrinking
 Spinning
 Stamping
 Stretching
3.42 Safety Precautions
Because this industry can be more dangerous than others due to working with hot metal
and heavy machinery, every welder and sheet metal fabricator should be aware of the safety
guidelines in their respective shops. To help prevent injury, each tradeperson should own or be
provided (at least) the following:
 Fume extraction equipment

 Protective, flame-resistant pants
 A sturdy, fitted, flame-resistant jacket
 Coveralls or leather apron
 Heavy, non-slip working boots or steel toe boots

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 Thick leather working gloves

 An auto-darkening helmet with the proper visor
 Safety goggles
 Hearing protection
 Respirator or dust mask
To help create a safe work environment, each trade’s shop should have strict equipment
storage policies (whether handheld or automatic), and every apprentice must be trained before
using machinery on their own. Also, all tools should be thoroughly and regularly inspected for
any damage.
3.43 Drilling Machine:
It is a machine which is used to drill the holes on the components or workpiece with the
help of drill bits.
The drill bits are also called as Multi-point cutting tools which can have their rapid impact
on the Material Removal Rate (MRR) i.e. a single-point cutting tool (like the one used in a lathe
machine) can remove the material slowly whereas, a multi-point cutting tool removes the
material at a faster rate and thereby increases MRR.
3.44 Line Diagram of Drilling Machine:
The line diagram of Drilling machine is shown below.

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Fig: 3.31 The line diagram of Drilling machine
3.41 Parts of Drilling Machine:
The parts of Drilling Machine are as follows.
 Base
 Vertical Column
 Swivel Table
 Power Transmission system (Stepped Cone Pulley)
 Drill Feed Handle (Hand Wheel)
 Chuck
 Table Clamp
 Drill bit
 Spindle
Explanation for the parts of Drilling Machine:
3.45 Base:
The base is made up of Cast Iron which has the capability of high compressive strength,
good wear resistance, and good absorbing capability (i.e. absorb the vibrations induced during
working condition) and for these reasons, it acts as a base to the drilling machine.

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3.45.1 Vertical Column:
It is exactly placed at the center of the base which can act as a support for rotating the
Swivel table and holding the power transmission system.
3.45.2 Swivel Table:
It is attached to the column which can hold the machine vice in the grips and thereby, the
workpiece is fixed in the machine vice to carry out the drilling operation.
The Swivel table can move up and down by means of rotational motion and can be locked
to the column by means of locking nut.
3.45.3 Power Transmission system:
It consists of motor, stepped pulley, V-belt, and the Spindle. The power transmission is
explained in the working of the drilling machine.
3.45.4. Drill Feed Handle:
By the rotation of hand-wheel, the spindle moves up and down in the vertical direction in
order to give the necessary amount of feed to the work.
Here, the rotational motion is converted into linear motion by means of a Rack and Pinion
mechanism which was explained below
3.45.5 Chuck:
It is used to hold the workpiece. Generally, 3 jaw chuck is used for holding circular
components and 4 jaw chuck is used for holding rectangular components.
3.45.6 Table Clamp:
It is used to lock the swivel table at the desired location.
3.45.7 Spindle:
It is used to hold the drillbit along with jaws.

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3.45.8 Drill bit:
It is the major part of this machine and is used to remove the material in the form of holes from
the surface of the workpiece.
3.46 Working Principle of Drilling Machine:
When the power is given to the motor, the spindle rotates, and thereby the stepped pulley
attached to it also rotates. On the other end, one more stepped pulley is attached and that is
inverted to increase or decrease the speed of the rotational motion.
Now, a V-belt is placed in between the stepped pulleys so as to drive the power
transmission. Here a V-belt is used instead of a flat belt, in order to increase the power
efficiency.
Now the drill bit also rotates which was placed in the chuck and which was in connection
with the spindle. As the Pulleys rotates, the spindle also rotates which can rotate the drill bit.
Now, by the rotation of hand-wheel, the spindle moves up and down in the vertical
direction in order to give the necessary amount of feed to the work and this drill bit is used to
make the holes on the component placed in the machine vice.
Drive Mechanism of Drilling Machine:
This drive mechanism is based on Rack and Pinion Mechanism.
Fig: 3.32 Rack and Pinion mechanism in drilling machine

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When the hand-wheel is rotated, it is converting the rotational motion to the linear motion
by means of rack and pinion.
The setup consists of Rack(has fine grooves), Pinion, Chuck and the Drill bit. The drill bit
has placed in the chuck and the chuck is connected to rack and when the hand-wheel rotates, the
Pinion is inserted in the grooves of Rack [shown in the below fig.] and thereby the rotational
motion is converted to linear motion and as this mechanism is running by means of Rack and
Pinion called as Rack and Pinion mechanism.
3.47 Types of Drilling Machines:
Below is the list of drilling machines which are used in the industries for the production of the
materials.
 Radial drilling machine

 Upright drilling machine
 Multiple Spindle drilling machine
 Deep hole drilling machine
 Sensitive drilling machine
 Portable drilling machine
 Gang drilling machine
The explanation of above types of drilling machines are as follows.
Radial Drilling Machine:
A radial drilling machine is used to drill holes in the components but it is quite different from
the general drilling machine. The radial drilling machine has an arm that can rotate in the given
radius.

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Fig: 3.33 Radial Drilling Machine
If the component is large and if it is not able to hold on the worktable, then the component has
to be placed on the ground and by rotating radial arm, the operation is to be performed.
Upright Drilling Machine:
It is used to drill holes of Medium size in the components. It is heavier and bigger than the
Sensitive drilling machine.
Fig: 3.34 Upright drilling machine.Photo Courtesy:IndiaMart
A large number of spindle speed and feed can be accessible for various types of works.
The Upright Drilling machine can have a drilling capacity range of 75mm diameter drills.
Multiple Spindle Drilling Machine:
As the name indicates, these drilling machines have multiple spindles that are away from each
other.

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Fig: 3.35 Multiple Spindle Drilling Machine. Photo Courtesy:IndiaMart
This machine is used, when you want to drill a large number of holes on a single
workpiece or making holes on individual workpieces.
By this operation, the production will be at a higher rate.
Deep Hole Drilling Machine:
These types of drilling machines are designed to drill deep holes in various components of
automobiles such as connecting rods, Aircraft Landing Gear, Inside Bore of Hydraulic Cylinder,
Fuel Injector Bodies, Oilfield Exploration Equipment, etc.
Fig: 3.36 Deep hole drilling Machine. Photo Courtesy:IndiaMart
It has to make sure that the coolant has to be added during the removal of material from the
components.

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Sensitive Drilling Machine:
Here in the case of a Sensitive drilling machine, when the operator gives the feeding of the
tool into the workpiece, it allows the operator to 'feel' or 'sense' the cutting action of workpiece
w.r.t.the tool and that's the reason, it is called as Sensitive Drilling Machine
It is also called a Bench Drilling machine which was explained at the beginning of the article.
Portable Drilling Machine:
The portable drilling machine works in the similar way of bench drilling machine, but the
difference is, the portable drilling machine can be taken to the different workplaces along with
you and that's the reason it is called as portable drilling machine.
Whereas, the bench drilling machine can do various operations, but it can stand at one place and
it is not movable w.r.t. the workplaces.
Gang Drilling Machine:As the name indicates that it has a gang of drill heads with individual
motors attached to the vertical column and does multiple operations at a time.
It generally consists of 4-6 drill heads which are placed side by side which can do various
operations like drilling, boring, reaming, tapping, etc.
Either you want to create a small hole or large, the multiple spindles does the operation.
3.48 Drilling Machine Operations:
The opertaions of drilling machine are as follows.
 Drilling
 Boring
 Reaming
 Tapping
 Spot facing
 Trepanning
 Honing

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 Counter boring
 Counter Sinking
An Explanation for the Operations to be performed on Drilling Machines:
The explanation is as follows.
3.48.1 Drilling Operation:
The operation of making holes on the surface of the workpiece by the use of drill bit is called
Drilling Operation.
3.48.2 Boring Operation:
The operation of enlarging an existing hole is called the Boring Operation. The existing hole
was created by the drilling operation.
3.48.3 Reaming Operation:
The operation of sizing and finishing an existing hole with the help of a reamer is called
Reaming Operation.

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Reamer is a multipoint cutting tool having several cutting edges to finish the surface.
3.48.4 Tapping Operation:
It is the operation of creating internal threads by means of a cutting tool called Tap and the
operation is called Tapping Operation.
3.48.5 Spot Facing Operation:
This is an operation of removing the chips from the surface of the hole such that proper
seating of bolts takes place and this removal can be done through end mill cutter using a drilling
machine.
3.48.6 Trepanning Operation:
Without drilling, a Trepanning operation is used for producing a large-size hole of more
than 50mm in diameter. This Trepanning operation cannot be used for blind holes.
3.48.6 Honing Operation:
In this operation, the tool will rotate and reciprocate about its axis for producing very
smooth holes.
This honing operation is mainly used for finishing the holes in the IC Engine cylinder.

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3.48.7 Counterboring Operation:
The Counter boring operation is used to enlarge a particular portion of the hole.
3.48.8 Countersinking Operation:
The Countersinking operation is used to enlarge the end of the hole to give it a conical shape for
a shorter distance.
These are the various operations that are performed on Drilling machines.
Let's know about the Advantages and Disadvantages of the Drilling Machine along with its
applications.
3.49 Advantages of Drilling Machine:
3.49.1 The advantages of Drilling Machine are as follows.
 It requires less labor.

 High precision and accuracy will be maintained by the operator in Bench Drilling
Machine whereas, in the case of Automatic drilling machine, high accuracy is maintained by the
machine itself.

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3.50 bill of material& cost of estimation
Sr. Name of material Quantity Cost

1. M. S. bar frame 1 2000/-
2. Small wheels 1 500/-
3. Screw 40 100/-
4. Nut 40 100/-
7. D.C. Motor 2 1500/-
12. Big wheel 1 1000/-
13. springs 01 500/-
15. Magnet coil 01 1500’-
16. Supply wire 01 500/-
17. Handle Washer 40 500/-
Total 8200/-
Table 3.1 Bill of material & Cost of estimation

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CHAPTER-IV
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

By using the electromagnetic brake as supplementary retardation equipment, the friction
brakes can be used less frequently, and therefore practically never reach high temperatures. The
brake linings would last considerably longer before requiring maintenance, and the potentially
“brake fade” problem could be avoided. In research conducted by a truck manufacturer, it was
proved that the electromagnetic brake assumed 80 percent of the duty which would otherwise
have been demanded of the regular service brake. Furthermore, the electromagnetic brake
prevents the dangers that can arise from the prolonged use of brakes beyond their capability to
dissipate heat. This is most likely to occur while a vehicle descending a long gradient at high
speed. The installation of an electromagnetic brake is not very difficult. It does not need a
subsidiary cooling system. It does not effect on the efficiency of engine. Electromagnetic brake
also has better controllability. Thermal stability of the electromagnetic brakes is achieved by
means of the convection and radiation of the heat energy at high temperature. The
electromagnetic brakes have excellent heat dissipation efficiency. Electromagnetic brakes have
better thermal dynamic performance than regular friction brakes

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4.1 Calculate the Force of an Electromagnet
Engineers make solenoids – electromagnets – by twisting lengths of metal in a spiral

fashion around a cylindrical template. You can determine the magnitude of that force by
plugging the dimensions and other properties of the magnet based into a simple equation: F =
(n X i)2 X magnetic constant X a / (2 X g 2). Passing an electrical current through the solenoid
results in a magnetic field that exerts force on nearby ferromagnetic objects, such as pieces of
iron or steel. The joining together of magnetic and electric forces on a charged item is called
the Lorentz force.
Calculate the force by writing the equation:
F = (n x i)2 x magnetic constant x a / (2 x g 2)
Where, F = force, i = current, g = length of the gap between the solenoid and a piece of metal,
a = Area, n = number of turns in the solenoid, and the magnetic constant = 4 x PI x 10 -7.
Analyze your electromagnet to determine its dimensions and the amount of current you
will be running through it. For example, imagine you have a magnet with 1,000 turns and a
cross-sectional area of 0.5 meters that you will operate with 10 amperes of current, 1.5 meters
from a piece of metal. Therefore:
N = 1,000, I = 10, A = 0.5 meters, g = 1.5 m
Plug the numbers into the equation to compute the force that will act on the piece of metal.
Force = ((1,000 x 10) 2 x 4 x pi x 10-7 x 0.5) / (2 x 1.52) = 14 Newtons (N).
4.2 ADVANTAGES
 No grating misfortune.
 Less warmth misfortune.
 Less wear of segments.
 Fully electronically controlled.
 Great braking proficiency potential to recover

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 vitality lost in braking.

 Potential to recapture vitality lost in braking.
 Potential danger of tire crumbling and blasts
 because of grinding is disposed of.
 No need to change brake oils consistently.
 No oil spillage.
 Problem of brake liquid vaporization and solidifying is dispensed with.
 Less support cost.
 Longer life traverse contrasted with ordinary
 brakes.
 Can be utilized as a part of industry to stop or
 decelerate turning parts.
 No need of abs.
4.3 DISADVANTAGES
1) Dependence on battery power to energize the brake system drains down the battery much
faster.
2) Due to residual magnetism present in electromagnets, the brake shoe takes time to come back
to its original position.
3) A special spring mechanism needs to be provided for the quick return of the brake shoe.
Developed for application on lighter vehicles.

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Fig: 4.1 Final Testing
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
The concept designed by us is just a prototype and needs to be developed more because of
the above mentioned disadvantages. These electromagnetic brakes can be used as an auxiliary
braking system along with the friction braking system to avoid overheating and brake failure.
ABS usage can be neglected by simply using a micro controlled electromagnetic disk brake
system .These find vast applications in heavy vehicles where high heat dissipation is required.
In rail coaches it can used in combination of disc brake to bring the trains moving in high speed.
When these brakes are combined it increases the life of brake and act like fully loaded brakes.
These electromagnetic brakes can be used in wet conditions which eliminate the antiskidding
equipment, and cost of these brake are cheaper than the other types. Hence the braking force
produced in this is less than the disc brakes if can be used as a secondary or emergency braking
system in the automobiles. With all the advantages of electromagnetic brakes over friction
brakes, they have been widely used on heavy vehicles where the „brake fading‟ problem exists.
The same concept is being

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5.1 FUTURE SCOPE
Electromagnetic brakes have numerous preferences over frictional slowing mechanism.

The blend of swirl present and attractive powers makes this brake more successful. This brake
can be utilized as assistant stopping mechanism in vehicle. The utilization of abs can be
dismissed by utilizing a smaller scale controlled electromagnetic framework. it can be utilized
as a part of rail mentors to decelerate the prepare moving in fast. Mix of these brakes expands
the brake life and act like completely stacked brakes. These brakes can be utilized as a part of
wet condition, so there is no utilization of against slipping instrument. it is completely
electrically controlled which brings about less mishaps. The braking power delivered in this
brake is not as much as the plate brakes. Subsequently, it can be utilized as an auxiliary or crisis
slowing mechanism in the autos.
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Volume 5, Special Issue 7, April 2016
50. "Innovative Electro Magnetic Braking System" by Sevvel, NirmalKannan& Mars Mukesh,
Dept. of MechEngg, Magna College of Engineering,Chennai, Tamilnadu, India on 2nd April
2014.
51. William Gaskey, SandipMistry, Duy Nguyen, JeeYoon; ELET4308/12652, University of
Houston College of Technology – Fall2006,“ElectromagneticBraking System”
52. "Eddy Current Braking Study for Brake Disc of Aluminium, Copper and Zink" by
M.Z.Baharom, M.Z.Nuawi, G.Priyandoko, S.M.Harris, L.M.Siow, Department of Mechanical
and Material Engineering UniversitiKebangsaan, Malaysia in October 2011.
53. "Innovative Electro Magnetic Braking System" by Sevvel, NirmalKannan& Mars Mukesh,
Dept. of MechEngg, Magna College of Engineering,Chennai, Tamilnadu, India on 2nd April
2014.

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SIIET 2021

Fig: 1.1 Applied the manually force

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Fig: 1.2 Electromagnetic brakes

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The recurrence of mischances is currently advantages expanding because of wasteful

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Fig:1.3 This coil develops magnetic lines

1.3 PRINCIPLE OF BRAKING SYSTEM

1.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKES

Electromagnetic brakes operate electrically, but transmit torque mechanically. This is

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1.5 Switch And Wires

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2. Literature review on Enhancement of Braking System in Automobile Using

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3. Literature review on electromagnetic brake. Inventors: Lindberg; Teppo (Nuppulinna,

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2.0 Eddy current probe

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2.1 Bobbin probes

Figure 2.1 Tube inspection probes: (a) absolute and (b) differential.

2.2 Rotating probes

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Figure 2.2 . Rotating probe.

2.3 Array probe

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Figure 2.3 Array probe.

2.4 Rotating field probe with bobbin coil

2.5 Comparison of eddy current probes

Table2 1. ECT probes for tube or pipe assessment inspection.

Table 2.1. ECT probes for tube or pipe assessment inspection.

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2.6 EM NDT techniques

2.7 Pulsed eddy current

Figure 2.5 PEC to test multilayer sample.33

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2.8 ECT with MF measurement method

High-resolution GMR elements are fabricated in a small package of sensors arrays. An

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Table 2.2. Overviews of the utilities AC signal in eddy current

2.9 Multi-frequency techniques

2.10 Factors contributing to eddy current signals

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Table 2.3. Typical depths of penetration.

Table2. 3. Typical depths of penetration.

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2.12 Conductivity of test material

In great conductive materials, defects or cracks produce a high signal as an impedance

Figure 2.6 Lift-off curves and crack displacement at impedance plane.82

However, the penetration depth of highly conductive materials at a fixed frequency is

Table 2.4. Conductivity and resistivity of conductive materials.

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Table 2.4. Conductivity and resistivity of conductive materials.

2.13 Magnetic permeability

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Table 2.5. Review of lift-off compensation techniques

Table 2.5. Review of lift-off compensation techniques

Figure 2.7 Wobble simulation: a bobbin coil in an offset position to a tube.87

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