Textile Antennas for Monitoring People in Danger

Textile antennas for monitoring people in
danger situations
CAROLINA MILLET CATALAN
Master’s Degree Project

Stockholm, Sweden 2016
Textile antennas for monitoring people in
danger situations
CAROLINA MILLET CATALAN
Stockholm 2016
Electromagnetism Engineering
School of Electrical Engineering
Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan
Abstract
The fast growing field of wearable technologies has a big impact in antenna research.
Antennas integrated into clothing for body centric communications allow the user’s
situation to be measured without restricting his activities. Implementing textile
antennas to operate as personal transmitters for existing satellite communication
systems increases its availability and uses, specially localized in places where mobile
communications infrastructures are not developed but satellite communications has
a full coverage.
The aim of this thesis is to design and manufacture a system of two fully textile
microstrip antennas: a GPS antenna with right hand circular polarization operat-
ing at 1.575 GHz and a PLB antenna operating at 406MHz working as a distress
beacon for Cospas-Sarsat search and rescue international programme. We describe
the design, manufacture and performance of both antennas, as well as the material
used as a key choice for textile antennas.
Antennas were measured with a near field scanner to evaluate their performance
which resulted to be working at the established operational frequency with a good
matching and the expected radiation patterns from the simulations and studied lit-
erature. Further development regarding the feeding circuit of the GPS antenna is
needed to ensure its circular polarization.
Keywords: Textile Antennas, Wearables, GPS, Satellites, Cospas-Sarsat.
I
Acknowledgements
First, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to my supervisor Oscar Quevedo-

Teruel, for giving me this opportunity, for being an inspiration and for his guidance
and support during this project. He always helped when I ran into a trouble spot
or had a question about my research.
I would like to thank my friends for everything we have lived together and new
experiences yet to come. I am also thankful to my newest friends for this experience
in Stockholm and making my stay at KTH unforgettable. A very special dedication
to Laura for her patience, love and being always there for me besides the distance.
Anything is possible when we are surrounded by good friends.
Finally, I would also like to thank my family for their support and love during this
time. Special gratitude to my parents, Lourdes and Xavier, who have always en-
couraged me to study and believed in me, to my sister Mar for her unconditional
support during my whole life, to my brother Xavi for his life philosophy "Tot i res",
and to my grandma Rosa for her help, fast learning with new technologies and her
care despite the distance.
This accomplishment would not have been possible without them. Gràcies.
Carolina Millet Catalan,
Stockholm, February 2016
III
Contents
List of Figures VII
List of Tables XI
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background and motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Aim and objectives. Boundaries of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Methodology. Report outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Report outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Background Theory 5
2.1 Antenna Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Radiation Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.2 Radiation Power Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.3 Radiation Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.4 Directivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.5 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.6 Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.7 Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.8 Bandwidth, Quality factor and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.9 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.10 Axial Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.11 Input impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.12 SAR - Specific Absorption Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.13 Scattering Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Microstrip line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Microstrip Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.1 Advantages and disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.2 Feeding Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.3 Rectangular Patch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4 Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4.1 Introduction to satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4.2 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.3 Cospas-Sarsat System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3 Design and Results 29
V
Contents
3.1 Materials and laboratory instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.1.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1.2 Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1.3 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2 GPS Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.1 Circularly Polarized Microstrip Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.2 Quadrature 90°Hybrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.3 Design and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.4 Manufacturing and matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2.5 Far field measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3 PLB - Personal Locator Beacon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3.1 PIFA - Planar Inverted F-Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3.2 Design and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3.3 Manufacturing and matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.3.4 Far field measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4 Conclusion and Future Work 65

4.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.2 Future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Bibliography 67
VI
List of Figures
1.1 Scheme of the relevant steps followed during the project. . . . . . . . 3
2.1 Directional radiation pattern [7]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.2 Types of Polarization [10]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Circular left-hand Polarization [11]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Ellipse [7]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 S11 parameter of an antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Geometry of microstrip transmission line [8]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7 Electric and magnetic fields of microstrip transmission line [8]. . . . . 15
2.8 Equivalent geometry of Microstrip line [8]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.9 Microstrip antenna [7]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.10 Different patch shapes [7]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.11 Feeds for microstrip antennas [7]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.12 Patch electric field [7]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.13 Patch extension [7]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.14 Field modes for rectangular microstrip patch [7]. . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.15 Orbit examples [14]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.16 Galileo constellation [19]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.17 Corpas-Sarsat System [22]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.18 MEOSAR system concept [22]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1 Tested felts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.2 Conductive fabric used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3 Conductive thread used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.4 Circular polarization techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.5 Rectangular microstrip antenna with two orthogonal feeds [29]. . . . . 35
3.6 Geometry of a 90°hybrid [8]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.7 GPS antenna model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.8 S-parameters simulated of the GPS antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.9 Electric field simulations at 1.57GHz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.10 Electric field distribution evolution with the time. . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.11 Far field simulations from port 1 of the GPS antenna. . . . . . . . . . 38
3.12 Far field of a patch antenna with two orthogonal ports and 90° phase
shift. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.13 Complete antenna’s geometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.14 Top view of the 90°circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.15 S-parameters of the 90° feeding circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
VII
List of Figures
3.16 Representative S-parameters of the circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.17 Load patch’s geometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.18 |S11 | of the load patch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.19 Geometry of the final circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.20 Geometry of the complete antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.21 Side view of the complete antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.22 |S11 | of the complete design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.23 Axial Ratio of the complete design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.24 Electric field distribution evolution with the time. . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.25 Far field simulations of the complete antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.26 Far field right circular polarization simulations of the complete antenna. 46
3.27 Configuration of the dual-orthogonal feed microstrip antenna. . . . . 46
3.28 |S11 | measured with the VNA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.29 Manufactured textile microstrip patch antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.30 Configuration of the complete full textile dual-orthogonal feed mi-
crostrip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.31 Manufactured fully textile microstrip patch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
λs
3.32 Phase’s measurements to determine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4
3.33 Circuit’s S-parameters measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.34 Load patch matching and measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.35 Manufactured fully textile complete microstrip antenna with a 90°
feeding circuit integrated. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.36 |S11 | complete antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.37 Configuration for the measurements of the dual-orthogonal feed mi-
crostrip antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.38 Far field measured of the manufactured dual-orthogonal feeding mi-
crostrip antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.39 Axial ratio of the manufactured microstrip antenna measured with
the near field scanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.40 Configuration of the complete full textile dual-orthogonal feed mi-
crostrip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.41 Far field measured of the manufactured microstrip with 90° feeding
circuit integrated. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.42 Axial ratio of the measured microstrip antenna with the integrated
feeding circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.43 Representation of the worn belt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.44 PIFA’s geometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.45 PIFA’s Top view. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.46 |S11 | of the PIFA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.47 PIFA’s electric field distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.48 Far field simulation of the PIFA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.49 Belt configuration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.50 |S11 | simulated of the PIFA integrated to the body model. . . . . . . 60
3.51 Far field simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.52 Far field simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.53 Polar radiation pattern with different phases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
VIII
List of Figures
3.54 Belt sewing procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

3.55 |S11 | of the PIFA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.56 Manufactured belt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.57 3D radiation pattern measured of the PIFA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.58 2D radiation pattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
IX
List of Figures
X
List of Tables
1.1 GPS specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 PLB specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of microstrip antennas. . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1 Felt’s characterization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.2 Instruments used in the lab [23], [24], [25]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3 GPS antenna final dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4 Antenna’s dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.5 Dimensions of the load patch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.6 Dimensions of the complete antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.7 Dimensions of the manufactured patch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.8 PIFA’s final dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.9 Dimensions of the final PIFA integrated to the body model. . . . . . 59
XI
List of Tables
XII
1
Introduction
1.1 Background and motivation
Wearable technologies is a fast growing field in application-oriented research. The

vision of wearables describes future electronic systems as an integral part of our
everyday clothing serving as intelligent personal assistants without restricting the
user’s activities and being aware of the user’s situation [1]. One of the dominant
topics is antennas for body-centric communications. There are specialized occupa-
tion segments that apply body centric communication systems such as paramedics,
fire fighters, military and athletes, who already are using textile antennas integrated
into their work uniform and garments [2]. Wearable antenna are required to have
light weight, low cost and no installation [3].
The International Cospas-Sarsat programme is intended to provide an earth-to-

satellite secure and rescue communication in case of distress alert. Distress beacons
transmit emergency signals which are detected by LEOSAR, GEOSAR or MEOSAR
satellites. Ground receiving stations process the satellite downlink signal and for-
ward them to Rescue Coordination Centers available in the area were the distress
signal was activated. This process allows a correct location and fast response [4].
Emergency beacons transmitters are carried aboard ships (EPIRBs), aircraft (ELTs),
or used as personal locator beacons (PLBs), and activated manually when needed.
EPIRBs and ELTs can be easily integrated in ships and aircraft’s structure but
PLBs need to be carried by the user. PLBs are similar to portable radios both in
terms of size and weight and are supposed to be carried in pockets or attached to
safe vests. They are sold as self standing transmitters [5] [6].
The integration of PLB transmitters as textile antennas could increase its availability
to non-professionals and its uses could be diversified adding new distress situations
as attacks or children and domestic abuse, specially localized in places where mobile
communications infrastructures are not developed but satellite communications has
a full coverage.
1
1. Introduction
1.2 Aim and objectives. Boundaries of the study

The aim of this project is to design and manufacture a system of two antennas.
The first one, is a GPS antenna responsible of defining its position through any of
the existing global navigation satellite system. The second one is a PLB antenna
designed to be used as a distress beacon in the Cospas-Sarsat search and rescue
international programme.
There are two possible ways of combining these antennas for a proper localization.
• Independent: Both antennas work independently, PLB sends the distress sig-
nal and GPS is used for localization. In this case, localization can be done
with the PLB signal or using the GPS.
• Combination: GPS antenna is used to determine its location and after some
processing (out of the scope of the thesis), it is codified and transmitted
through the PLB distress signal allowing a simpler localization.
Each of them needs to have different characteristics according to the requirements

of the system is going to be integrated to.
Frequency 1.565-1.585GHz
Axial Ratio <3dB
Polarization RHCP Frequency 406MHz
S11 <-15dB S11 <-15dB
S12 <-25dB S12 <-25dB
Table 1.1: GPS specifications. Table 1.2: PLB specifica-

tions.
1.2.1 Boundaries
• The viability of the proposed system has not been consulted with Cospas-
Sarsat professionals.
• The thesis was focused on the design of the antennas, excluding the commu-
nication protocols, data processing and codification.
• Power supply and consumption of the antennas were not studied.
• Bending of the antennas, material degradation and weather changes have not
been taken into account.
• GPS antenna has not been designed for a specific positioning on the human
body.
2
1. Introduction
1.3 Methodology. Report outline
This thesis is divided in three main sections:
(a) Literature review: the first step to start this study was reading up some litera-
ture related to wearable antennas focusing on their designs and used materials,
as well as doing research about communication systems intended to rescue peo-
ple in distress situations. With all these information and help from a most
experienced person designing antennas as my supervisor, the purpose of the
thesis was established, a project plan and schedule were defined.
(b) Design and simulations: the following step was to select a suitable design
model to be implemented with CST Microwave Studio simulation software.
Parametrized simulations allowed us to dimension both antennas until reliable
results for a correct performance were achieved. This process was simultaneous
with the study of the materials that were characterized with some tests. Both
processes combined concluded to the final design for both (GPS and PLB) an-
tennas.
(c) Manufacture, measurements and results: based on the previous step, both anten-
nas were manufactured while checking that the characteristics followed during
the design remained intact. Finally, the antennas were tested to check if the
requirements for a proper performance were achieved. The use of some labora-
tory material as a Vector Analyser - Anritsu MS2026B and Signal Generator -
HP 8665B were required, as well as the Near Field Scanner for the final mea-
surements.
Figure 1.1: Scheme of the relevant steps followed during the project.
3
1. Introduction
1.3.1 Report outline

Chapter 1: Introduction
• Background and motivation.
• Aim and objectives. Boundaries.
• Methodology. Report outline.
Chapter 2: Background Theory - Review of the theory related to the thesis.

• Antenna parameters.
• Microstrip line.
• Microstrip antennas.
• Communication systems.
Chapter 3: Design and Results - Detailed process of designing the antennas,

including simulation, manufacturing, measuring and evaluation.
• GPS Antenna.
• PLB Antenna.
• Materials and laboratory instruments.
Chapter 4: Conclusions and Future work - Summary of the main conclu-

sions from the results obtained. Perspectives for future projects related to textile
antennas.
4
2
Background Theory
This chapter summarizes the notions for comprehending the main concepts studied
for a correct design of the antennas and their integration to the existing commu-
nication systems. Firstly, a review of the fundamental parameters of antennas and
their mathematical derivations. Secondly, an overview of microstrip technology is
exposed to focus later on its characteristics which determine our design. Finally, a
description, functionality and requirements of the satellite communication systems
used by the antennas designed and manufactured.
2.1 Antenna Parameters

Many characteristic antenna parameters are necessary to describe the performance
of the designed and manufactured antennas. Some of them are interrelated and all
of them are not essential for a complete study. Definitions are taken from [7], [8]
and [9].
2.1.1 Radiation Pattern

An antenna radiation pattern is defined as "a mathematical function or a graphical
representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space
coordinates" according to [7]. Mainly, it is determined in the far-field region where
the field distribution is essentially independent of the distance from the antenna.
It is common to represent the radiation pattern in 2-D coordinates for an easier
comprehension. Antennas can be classified according to different types of radiation
patterns:
• Isotropic: Equal radiation in all directions. It is ideal and not realizable but
it is taken as reference.
• Directional: More effective to receive or radiate in some directions where the
radiation pattern has the major lobe and maximum directivity.
• Omnidirectional: Isotropic antennas in one plane. It is a particular case of
directional pattern.
Radiation Pattern Lobes

A radiation pattern is formed by different lobes which can be classified as main,
minor, side or back lobes according to their position respect to the main lobe which
has the maximum radiation, as it is shown in the next figure:
5
2. Background Theory
Figure 2.1: Directional radiation pattern [7].
2.1.2 Radiation Power Density

Electromagnetic fields transmitted or received by the antennas have a power and
energy associated to them. The instantaneous Poynting vector is used to describe
the power of the electromagnetic wave:
W =E ×H (2.1)
where W is the instantaneous Poynting vector, E the instantaneous electric field

intensity and H the instantaneous magnetic field.
It is more useful to find the average power density relating the instantaneous fields
to the complex fields E and H:
1 1
W = E × H = Re[E × H ∗ ] + Re[E × Hej2wt ] (2.2)
2 2
The total power crossing a closed surface can be obtained integrating the normal
component of the Poynting vector over the surface:
‹
P = W · ds (2.3)
S
Therefore, the average power radiated by an antenna can be written as

‹ ‹
1
Prad = W · ds = Re(E × H ∗ )ds (2.4)
2
S S
The radiation pattern represents the average power density radiated by the antenna
as a function of direction.
6
2.1.3 Radiation Intensity

Radiation intensity is the power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle in a
given direction [7]. It can be obtained using
U = r2 Wrad (2.5)
where U is the radiation intensity and Wrad is the radiation density.
The radiation intensity is related to the far-zone electric field of an antenna so the
total power can be derived from its mathematical expression:
‹ ˆ 2 ˆ π
Prad = U dW = π U sinθdθdφ (2.6)
0 0
W
where dW is the element of solid angle.
2.1.4 Directivity
Directivity of an antenna is defined as "the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given
direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions"
according to [7]. Therefore, the directivity of a nonisotropic source is equal to the
ratio of its radiation intensity in a given direction over the radiation intensity of an
isotropic source.
U 4πU
D= = (2.7)
U0 Prad
where
ˆ 2π ˆ π
Prad = U sinθdθdφ (2.8)
0 0
and
U = B0 F (θ, φ) (2.9)
so we can compute a general expression for the directivity
F (θ, φ)
D(θ, φ) = 4π ´ 2π ´ π (2.10)
0 0
F (θ, φ)sinθdθdφ
If the direction is not specified, it implies the direction of maximum directivity that
can be expressed as
U |max 4πUmax
Dmax = D0 = = (2.11)
U0 Prad
2.1.5 Efficiency
The efficiency of an antenna expresses the losses at the input terminals and within
the structure of the antenna.
In general can be written as
et = er ec ed (2.12)
7
where et is the total efficiency, er is the mismatch between the transmission line and
the antenna, ec is the conduction efficiency and ed in the dielectric efficiency.
The mismatch efficiency can be easily computed as
e0 = (1 − |Γ|2 ) (2.13)
2.1.6 Gain
The absolute gain of an antenna in a given direction is the ratio of the intensity to
the radiation intensity if the antenna radiated isotropically, in a given direction [7].
It can be expressed as
radiation intensity U (θ, φ)

gain = 4π = 4π (2.14)
total input power Pin
Normally the relative gain is more representative which is the ratio of the power
gain in a given direction to the power gain of a reference antenna in its referenced
direction.
The total radiated power is related to the total input power with the conduction
efficiency and dielectric efficiency explained in the previous section because gain
does not include mismatch losses according to IEEE Standards.
Prad = ec ed Pin (2.15)

Therefore,
" #
U (θ, φ)
G(θ, φ) = ec ed 4π (2.16)
Prad
which can be related to the directivity explained before
G(θ, φ) = ec ed D(θ, φ) (2.17)

In a similar way, the maximum gain in the direction of maximum radiation can be
developed as
G0 = G(θ, φ)|max = ec ed D(θ, φ)|max = ec ed D0 (2.18)
2.1.7 Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna is the range of frequencies which the performance of
the antenna is reliable according to some characteristics (input impedance, radiation
pattern, polarization, directivity...) [7].
For narrowband antennas, the bandwidth is expressed as a percentage of the fre-

quency difference over the center frequency of the bandwidth.
fmax − fmin
BW = · 100 (2.19)
fc
8
For broadband antennas, the bandwidth is expressed as the ratio of the upper-to-
lower frequencies of operation.
fmax
BW = :1 (2.20)
fmin
2.1.8 Bandwidth, Quality factor and Efficiency

Bandwidth, quality factor and efficiency are interrelated and there is no complete
freedom to optimize each one independently. A tradeoff between them needs to be
achieved deciding which one is more important to optimize.
The quality factor depends on the antenna losses created by the radiation(Qrad ),
conduction(Qc ), dielectric(Qd ) and surface wave(Qsw ) losses. The total quality fac-
tor (Qt ) is influenced by all this different losses and can be written as
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + (2.21)
Qt Qrad Qc Qd Qsw
For a very thin substrate (h λ0 ), Qrad is the dominant factor which can be
calculated as
2ωr W
Qrad = (2.22)
hGrad
for a rectangular patch operating in the dominant T M010 mode where Grad is the
conductance across the gap between the patch and the ground plane.
In general, the bandwidth is proportional to the volume. For a rectangular mi-
1
crostrip antenna means that the bandwidth is inversely proportional to √ . In
r
this case, the bandwidth increases as the substrate height increases.
The radiation efficiency of an antenna can be also expressed in terms of quality
factors
Qt
ecdsw = (2.23)
Qrad
2.1.9 Polarization
The polarization of an antenna is defined as "the polarization of the wave transmitted
in the direction of the maximum gain" [7].
Polarization of a radiated wave is defined as the property of an electromagnetic
wave describing the time varying direction and relative magnitude of the electric-
field vector [7]. In other words, polarization is the curve traced by the end point of
the instantaneous electric field observed along the direction of propagation.
Polarization can be classified as linear, circular or elliptical depending on the figure
that the electric field traces, as represented in Figure ??.
9
Figure 2.2: Types of Polarization [10].
Linear Polarization
The electric and magnetic field vector at a point are always oriented along the same
straight line at every instant of time. Linear polarization is accomplished if the
electric and magnetic vector possess any of these conditions:
• They have only one component.
• They have two orthogonal linear components in time phase or 180°phase dif-
ference (or multiples of 180°).
Circular Polarization
The electric and magnetic field vector at a point trace a circle as a function of time
as in Figure 2.3. The conditions to accomplish circular polarization are:
• The field has two orthogonal linear components.
• The two components have the same magnitude.
• The two components have a time-phase difference of 90°or odd multiples of
90°.
Figure 2.3: Circular left-hand Polarization [11].
The electric field can be traced according to a clockwise rotation which is designated
as right-hand polarization or counterclockwise designated as left-hand polarization.
For example, Figure 2.3 is left-handed polarized considering the axis origin the source
of the field.
10
Elliptical Polarization
The electric and magnetic field vector change continuously with time describing an
elliptical locus in space. The conditions to accomplish elliptical polarization are:
• The field has two orthogonal linear components.
• The two components can have the same or different magnitude:
– If the two components do not have the same magnitude, the time-phase
difference between the two components must not be 0°or multiples of
180°.
– If the components have the same magnitude, the time-phase difference
between the two components must not be 90°or odd multiples of 90°.
As mentioned for circular polarization, the same rules apply to design right-hand(clockwise)
or left-hand (counterclockwise) polarization.
Although linear and circular polarizations are special cases of elliptical polarization,
a wave is considered elliptical polarized if it is not linearly or circularly polarized.
2.1.10 Axial Ratio

It is referred to the ratio of the major axis to the minor axis of an ellipse, represented
in Figure 2.4.
major axis OA
AR = = , 1 ≤ AR ≤ ∞ (2.24)
minor axis OB
Figure 2.4: Ellipse [7].
Axial Ratio is used to evaluate the polarization of the antenna: it tends to ∞ when
linear polarization, it is 1 (0dB) when circular polarization and larger than 1 for an
elliptical polarized antenna.
The axial ratio tends to degrade away from the main lobe, so it is a factor that
has a big influence to determine the bandwidth. It is usually indicated the angle
deviation from the main beam that maintains the polarization required.
2.1.11 Input impedance

The input impedance is the impedance presented by an antenna at its terminals.
The impedance of the antenna with no load attached can be calculated as
11
ZA = RA + jXA (2.25)
where ZA is the impedance, RA the resistance and XA the reactance at the terminals
of the antenna.
The resistive part RA is composed of two components
RA = Rr + RL (2.26)
where Rr is the radiation resistance and RL is the loss resistance of the antenna.
The radiation resistance determines the radiated power of the antenna and the loss
resistance the dissipated power. Therefore the power delivered to the antenna is
also formed by two components:
Pdelivered = |I|2 RA = |I|2 Rr + |I|2 RL = Pradiated + Plost (2.27)
The antenna radiation efficiency η is defined as the ratio between the radiated power
and the power delivered to the antenna or in terms of impedance:
Pradiated Rr
η= = (2.28)
Pdelivered Rr + RL
2.1.12 SAR - Specific Absorption Rate

SAR is a measure of how transmitted RF energy is absorbed by human tissue. It
is a function of the electrical conductivity σ, the induced E-field from the radiated
energy and the mass density of the tissue ρ.
ˆ
σ(r)|E(r)|2
SAR = dr (2.29)
sample ρ(r)
SAR is critical to antenna design, because if the SAR is too high the antenna
must be changed. Typically, if the SAR is too high the transmit power is lowered,
which directly yields lower SAR. However, since there are minimum transmit power
specifications for mobile devices, the SAR cannot be dropped indefinitely [12].
As a result, the antenna positioning is critical. The antennas for mobile phones are
typically on the bottom of the phone, to keep the radiating part of the phone as far
as possible from the brain region [12].
Other methods for dropping the SAR include impedance matching changes and
parasitic resonators which will disturb the antenna’s radiation pattern (hopefully
lowering SAR) [12].
12
2.1.13 Scattering Matrix
Defining voltages and currents for non-TEM lines is difficult therefore some tools
are used to simplify microwave circuits analysis. More intuitive ideas of circuit
analysis can be used to determine voltages, currents and power flow through a
specific element.
As equivalent voltages and currents can be determined with this techniques, impedance
and admittance matrices of circuit theory can be used in order to determine a matrix
description of the network.
The scattering matrix provides a complete description of the network seen as N
ports. It relates the voltage waves incident on the ports to those reflected from
them.
Considering a N-port network where Vn+ is the amplitude of the voltage wave incident
on port n and Vn− is the amplitude of the voltage wave reflected from port n.
 −
V1+
  
V1 S11 S12 . . . S1N
 −  +
V2   S21 S22 . . . S2N 
 V2 

 . 
 .  =
 .. .. ...  . 
 .  (2.30)
 .   . .  . 
VN− SN 1 SN 2 . . . SN N VN+
h i h ih i
V− = S V+ (2.31)
S-parameters describe the input-output relationship between ports in an electrical

system. If we have 2 ports, S12 represents the power transferred from Port 2 to Port
1 and S21 represents the power transferred from Port 1 to Port 2. In general, SN M
represents the power transferred from Port M to Port N in a multi-port network
[12].
A port can be defined as any place where voltage and current can be delivered.
The most common parameter with antennas is S11 which represents how much power
is reflected from the antenna, not delivered. It is known as the reflection coefficient.
A small S11 indicates a significant amount of energy has been delivered to the an-
tenna. S11 values are measured in dB and are negative, ex: -10 dB. S11 is also
sometimes referred to as return loss, which is simply S11 but made positive instead
(Return Loss = - S11 ) If S11 = 0 dB all the delivered power is reflected from the
antenna and nothing is radiated.
In general, S-parameters depend on the frequency, therefore S11 needs to be adjusted
according to the operational frequency the antenna is designed for. A good response
of the antenna is typically considered when S11 <-10dB. Next Figure is an example
of the S11 of an antenna operating at 1.57GHz.
13
Figure 2.5: S11 parameter of an antenna.
2.2 Microstrip line
Microstrip line is one of the most popular types of planar transmission lines primarily
because it is easily miniaturized and integrated [8]. The geometry of a microstrip
line is a conductor of width W printed on a thin, grounded dielectric substrate of
thickness d and relative permittivity r which is shown in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: Geometry of microstrip transmission line [8].
The analysis of microstip line is complicated because the dielectric does not fill
the region above the strip, therefore all the fields are not contained within the
homogeneous dielectric region in contrast with the stripline. Some (usually most) of
its field lines are in the dielectric region between the strip conductor and the ground
plane and some fraction in the air region above the substrate like Figure 2.7. For
this reason microstrip line cannot support pure TEM wave. The exact fields of a
microstrip line constitute a hybrid TM-TE wave.
14
Figure 2.7: Electric and magnetic fields of microstrip transmission line [8].
In most practical applications, where the dielectric substrate is electrically very thin
(d λ) the fields are essentially the same as the static (DC) case. So, good approx-
imations for the phase velocity, propagation constant and characteristic impedance
can be obtained from static or quasi-static solutions following the represented ge-
ometry in Figure 2.8.
Phase velocity and propagation constant can be expressed as
c
vp = √ (2.32)
e
√
β = k0 e (2.33)
where e is the effective dielectric constant of the microstrip line and as some of the
field lines are the dielectric and some are in air satisfies the relation
1 < e < r (2.34)

and depends on the substrate dielectic constant, the substrate thickness, the con-
ductor width and the frequency.
Figure 2.8: Equivalent geometry of Microstrip line [8].
Approximate design formulas can be reached, effective dielectric is given by [8]:
r + 1 r − 1 1
e = + s (2.35)
2 2 d
1 + 12
W
Impedance of the lines can be determined by [8]:
15
 !
60 8d W W
√ ln + for ≤1



e W 4d d







Z0 = (2.36)

 120π W
for ≥1


√ W

W

d


 e + 1.393 + 0.667ln + 1.444


d d
2.3 Microstrip Antennas
Microstrip patch antennas or simply patch antennas consist of a metallic strip

(patch) placed over a grounded substrate as shown in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9: Microstrip antenna [7].
The patch and substrate are very thin in terms of free-space wavelength t λ0
λ0 λ0
and h λ0 . For a rectangular patch, usually < L < . The substrate is
3 2
a dielectric sheet with a constant r usually in the range of 1 ≤ λ0 ≤ 12. Thick
substrates with a low dielectric constant are desirable because the bandwidth and
the efficiency increase. Thin substrates with higher dielectric constants are desirable
for microwave circuitry because undesired radiation and coupling are minimized. A
compromise has to be reached between a good performance and design.
The radiating patch can have different shapes: rectangular, square, circular, dipole,
elliptical... Selecting the patch shape is important for the design as the radiation,
analysis and fabrication depend on it. Figure 2.10 illustrates some of the possible
shapes of the patches.
16
Figure 2.10: Different patch shapes [7].
2.3.1 Advantages and disadvantages

Microstrip antennas technology have several advantages and disadvantages that need
to taken into account according to its applications [7]. They are summarized in Ta-
ble 2.1.
Advantages Disadvantages
Low profile High Q

Conformable to planar surfaces Dimensions-frequency dependence
Simple and cheap to manufacture Narrow frequency bandwidth
Versatile (frequency and bandwidth) Spurious feed radiation
Easy to integrate with circuits
High radiation efficiency
Table 2.1: Advantages and disadvantages of microstrip antennas.
2.3.2 Feeding Methods

Many configurations can be used to feed microstrip antennas. Microstrip line, coax-
ial probe and aperture coupling are the most popular.
• Microstrip feed line is a conducting strip, with smaller width that the patch.
It is easy to fabricate and match but distorts the radiation pattern.
• Coaxial probe feed uses the inner conductor to connect the patch to the ground
plane. It is easy to fabricate and match but it has narrow bandwidth and it
is more difficult to model for thick substrates.
• Non-contacting aperture coupling feeds are used to avoid cross-polarized ra-
diation produced by asymmetric feeding methods as the feed line and single
coaxial probe and to increase the bandwidth.
17
In Figure 2.11 the three configurations are presented.
(a) Microstrip line (b) Probe (c) Aperture-coupled
Figure 2.11: Feeds for microstrip antennas [7].
2.3.3 Rectangular Patch

The rectangular patch has been traditionally analysed using two different models:
transmission-line which is easy to understand because of its physical insight but is
less accurate, and cavity model which is more accurate but more complex.
Transmission-line Model
Basically, the transmission line model represents the mictrostrip antenna by two
slots, separated by a low-impedance Zc transmission line of length L. This model
and its electric field is shown in figure 2.12.
Figure 2.12: Patch electric field [7].
This model follows the same development described in the Section 2.2, where a mi-
crostrip line can be characterized as a new microstrip line with an effective dielectric
constant that approximates the behaviour of all the electric field lines, most of them
that reside in the substrate and the portion that exit through the air.
The effective dielectric constant is a function of the frequency but for low frequencies,
it can be approximated to the static value:
r + 1 r − 1 1
e = + s (2.37)
2 2 h
1 + 12
W
The size of the patch looks electrically greater because of the fringing effects, and
this extension depends on the effective dielectric constant e and the width-height
ratio. We can assume that
Le = L + 24L (2.38)
as represented in Figure 2.13.
18
Figure 2.13: Patch extension [7].
If we do not take into account this fringing, the resonant frequency for the dominant
T M010 mode can be approximated by
1 c0
(fr )010 ' √ = √ (2.39)
2L µr 2L r
For a more exact computation, the edge effects can be included achieving a new
formulation
1 1 c0
(frc )010 = √ =q √ =q √ (2.40)
2Le µ0 0 e 2L µ0 0 e 2L r
therefore, we can assume that q factor is the fringe factor (length reduction factor).
(frc )010
q= (2.41)
(fr )010
Cavity Model
Microstrip antennas can be treated as a cavity (substrate) bounded by electric con-
ductors (the patch above and the ground below) and by magnetic walls (open circuit)
along the perimeter of the patch. It is an approximate model which leads to a reac-
tive input impedance (zero or infinite value) and does not radiate any power but it is
an accepted approach in terms of radiated pattern, input admittance and resonant
frequencies.
The field configuration within the cavity can be found using the vetor potential,
which mus satisfy the homogeneous wave equation of
∇2 Ax + k 2 Ax = 0 (2.42)
whose solution can be written with separated variables as
Ax = [A1 cos (kx x) + B1 sin (kx x)] [A2 cos (ky y) + B2 sin (ky y)] [A3 cos (kz z) + B3 sin (kz z)]
(2.43)
where kx , ky and kz are the wavenumbers along the x, y and z directions.
Applying the boundary conditions, the final form of the vector potential within the
cavity is
Ax = Amnp cos (kx x0 ) cos (ky y 0 ) cos (kz z 0 ) (2.44)
19
where Amnp represents the amplitude coefficients to each mnp mode.
The wavenumbers are subject to the constraint equation. Therefore, the resonant
frequencies for the cavity are given by
s
2 2 2
1 mπ nπ pπ

(fr )mnp = √ + + (2.45)
2π µ h L W
The mode with the lowest order resonant frequency is the dominant mode. If L >
W > h, the dominant mode is the T M010 :
1 c0
(fr )010 = √ = √ (2.46)
2L µ 2L r
If W > L > h, the dominant mode is the T M001 :
1 c0
(fr )001 = √ = √ (2.47)
2W µ 2W r
Differents modes are represented in Figure 2.14.
(a) T M010 (b) T M001
(c) T M020 (d) T M002
Figure 2.14: Field modes for rectangular microstrip patch [7].
2.4 Communication Systems

This section explains some communication systems operating with the use of artifi-
cial satellites: Global Navigation Systems as GPS, Galileo, GLONASS and COM-
PASS, and the international Cospas-Sarsat programme. This summarize is needed
to understand the characteristics of the antennas in order to operate and adapt to
these systems correctly.
20
2.4.1 Introduction to satellites

The world’s first artificial satellite was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957, since
then, thousands of satellites (approximately 6600) have been launched into orbit
around the Earth [13]. A few hundred satellites are currently operational and thou-
sands of unused satellites and satellite fragments orbit the Earth.
Satellites are used for a large number of purposes: military and civilian observa-
tion, communications, navigation, weather and research. Usually, they are semi-
independent computer-controlled systems, therefore, satellite subsystems attend
many tasks such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control
and orbit control.
Satellites can be classified according to their orbit type, altitude, inclination and
eccentricity.
Centric classification
• Geocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Earth, like the Moon. It is by
far the most common type of orbit.
• Heliocentric orbit: An orbit around the Sun, like all planets in the Solar
System.
• Areocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Mars.
Altitude classification
• Low Earth orbit (LEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 0-2000km.
• Medium Earth orbit (MEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 2000km
to 35,786km.
• Geosynchronous Orbit (GEO): Geocentric circular orbit with an altitude of
35,786km.
• High Earth Orbit (HEO): Geocentric orbits above the altitude of geosyn-
chronous orbit 35,786km.
Inclination classification
The orbit can be inclined in reference to the equatorial plane:
• Polar orbit: An orbit that passes above or nearly above both poles of the
planet on each revolution.
• Polar sun synchronous orbit: A nearly polar orbit that passes the equator at
the same local time on every pass.
Eccentricity classification
• Circular orbit: An orbit that has an eccentricity of 0 and whose path traces a
circle.
• Elliptic orbit: An orbit with an eccentricity between 0 and 1 whose orbit traces
the path of an ellipse.
21
Some of the explained orbit types are represented in Figure 2.15.
Figure 2.15: Orbit examples [14].
Doppler effect
The frequency and wavelength of an electromagnetic field are affected by relative
motion, this is known as Doppler effect. This effect is significant in low-earth-orbit
(LEO) satellites because all LEO satellites are constantly moving relatively to each
other and to points on the surface which causes variations in the frequencies and
wavelengths of received signals [15]. In geostationary satellite systems, Doppler
effect is not an important factor and therefore it can not be used as a tracking tool.
A measurement of the Doppler Shift is used as a tracking technique to determine the
distance between the satellite and the receiver at a time. A Doppler curve can be
produced with the measurement of frequency against time. As a satellite approaches,
the frequency appears raised relative to the actual transmission frequency. As it
goes away, the frequency appears to be lowered. At the time of closest approach,
the transmitted and received frequencies are usually the same [16].
2.4.2 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

GNSS is the generic term of systems of satellites that provide autonomous geo-spatial
positioning with global coverage. Small electronic receivers are allowed to determine
their location (longitude, latitude and altitude) to high precision (within a few me-
tres) using signals transmitted from satellites [17]. The signals are used to calculate
the current local time to high precision which provides time synchronisation.
Curently, there are four different functional systems: the American GPS (Global
Positioning System), the Russian GLONASS (GLObal’naya NAvigasionnay Sput-
nikovaya Sistema), the European Galileo and Chinese COMPASS (the evolution
of Beidou Navigation Satellite System). GPS, GLONASS and Galileo’s satellites
are interoperable which is beneficial to all users as more satellites are available for
redundancy and therefore, higher accuracy.
GPS
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made
up of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of De-
22
fense. GPS was originally intended for military applications, but in the 1980s, the
government made the system available for civilian use. GPS works in any weather
conditions, anywhere in the world, 24 hours a day [18].
GPS satellites fly in medium Earth orbit (MEO) at an altitude of approximately
20,200 km. Each satellite circles the Earth twice a day. The 31 satellites are arranged
into six orbits surrounding the Earth which ensures users can view at least four
satellites from any point on the planet.
The accuracy users attain depends on different factors: atmospheric effects, sky
blockage and receiver quality.
• How does it work?

Satellites have very stable clocks which are synchronized to each other and to ground
clocks. GPS receivers have less accurate clocks. The GPS receiver compares (solving
some equations) the time a satellite signal was transmitted with the time it was
received, which determines the its distance from the satellite. Monitoring multiple
satellites and repeating this procedure with each of them, determines the position
of the receiver and its deviation from true time. Therefore, 4 satellites are needed
for a reliable GPS monitoring: 3 for the position triangulation and 1 for the time
synchronization.
Galileo
Galileo is Europe’s own global navigation satellite system, providing a highly accu-
rate, guaranteed global positioning service under civilian control. It is interoperable
with GPS and GLONASS, the US and Russian global satellite navigation systems
to increase performance and robustness of the navigation services. By offering dual
frequencies as standard, Galileo is set to deliver real-time positioning accuracy down
to the metre range [19].
First satellite launches were in 2011 with operational satellites to validate the Galileo
concept, by the end of 2016 initial services will be available and in 2020 the constel-
lation system will be completed and like represented in Figure 2.16. It will consist of
24 operational satellites plus six in-orbit spares positioned in three circular Medium
Earth Orbit(MEO).
Figure 2.16: Galileo constellation [19].
23
Galileo MEOSAR satellites will be equipped to relay distress signals from emergency
beacons according to the Cospas-Sarsat System. The incorporation of a response
signal to the user informing that the situation has been detected and that help is
on its way is a major upgrade to the existing system.
GLONASS
GLONASS is a satellite-based navigation system operated by the Russian Aeropspace
Defence Forces that works alongside GPS (Global Positioning System) with a similar
precision [20].
Since 2001, Russian Government approved a new program to modernize and restore
the network that had stopped working during the crisis years (1989-1999). A big
economic investment allowed the program to develop a full orbital constellation of
24 satellites in 2011.
COMPASS
The COMPASS also known as BeiDou Navigation Satellite System is a Chinese
satellite navigation system. It consists of two separate satellite constellations: a
limited test system that has been operating since 2000, and a full-scale global navi-
gation system that is currently under construction [21].
The first BeiDou system consists of three satellites and offers limited coverage and
applications. It has been offering navigation services, mainly for customers in China
and neighbouring regions, since 2000. The second generation of the system, will be
a global satellite navigation system consisting of 35 satellites that offer full coverage
of the complete globe.
2.4.3 Cospas-Sarsat System

The International Cospas-Sarsat Programme is a satellite-based search and rescue
distress alert detection and information distribution system. It is known as the
system that detects and locates emergency beacons activated by aircraft, ships and
hikers in distress [22].
It was established by Canada, France the United States and the former soviet Union
in 1979. Many countries have joined the project as providers of ground segments or
as user states providing a good coverage around the planet.
Its mission is to provide accurate, timely and reliable distress alert and location
data to help Search and rescue (SAR) authorities assist persons in distress. The
objective is to reduce delays in the provision of distress alerts to SAR services and
the time to locate the person in distress which increases the probability of survival.
To achieve this objective, Cospas-Sarsat implement, maintain, co-ordinate and op-
erate a satellite system capable of detecting distress alert transmissions from radio
beacons. In Figure 2.17, the functionality of the system is represented.
It is composed of [22]:
• Distress radio beacons like ELTs (Emergency Locator Transmitters) for avia-
tion use, EPIRBs (Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons) for maritime
24
Figure 2.17: Corpas-Sarsat System [22].
use and PLBs (Personal Locator Beacons) for personal use, which transmit
signals during a distress situation.
• Instruments on board satellites in geostationary (GEOSAR) and low-altitude
(LEOSAR) earth orbits, which detect the signals transmitted by distress bea-
cons.
• Ground receiving stations, referred to as Local Users Terminals (LUTs), which
receive and process the satellite downlink signal to generate distress alerts.
• Mission Control Centers (MCCs) which receive alerts produced by LUTs and
forward them to Rescue Coordination Centers (RCCs), Search and Rescue
Points Of Contacts (SPOCs) or other MCCs.
Satellites
A combination of LEOSAR, GEOSAR and MEOSAR systems are used in the
Corpas-Sarsat system. Both contribute respective advantages to detection and lo-
cation of activated distress beacons.
25
(a) LEOSAR: The Cospas-Sarsat LEOSAR system uses polar-orbiting satellites

with a basic constrain of non-continuous coverage. Doppler positioning tech-
niques are used to locate the distress beacon. It operates in two coverage modes:
• Local Mode: When the satellite receives beacon signals, the Search and
Rescue Processor (SARP) recovers the digital data, measures the Doppler
frequency shift and time-tags the information. This information is stored
and transferred to the any LEOLUT in view. This operation can also be
performed by a repeater that reflects the beacon signal to the Earth, with
the difference that the data processing will be on the ground.
• Global Mode: The SARP system provides global coverage by storing data
derived from onboard processing of beacon signals which is broadcasted
to LEOLUTs that were not visible when the beacon was detected by the
satellite. With this information, a global coverage is determined. Global
mode reduces the activation response as the beacon signal does not need
to be simultaneous with a LEOLUT visibility.
(b) GEOSAR: Search and rescue instruments on board geostationary satellites can
be used to detect the current generation of Cospas-Sarsat beacons. The GEOSAR
system consists of repeaters carried on board and associated ground facilities
(GEOLUTs) which process the satellite signal.
As it was explained previously, GEOSAR satellites cannot use the Doppler po-
sitioning techniques to locate distress beacons, therefore, the beacon location
need to come from:
• An internal or external navigation receiver encoded in the beacon message.
• LEOSAR system Doppler processing.
GEOSAR satellites’ incapacity to locate the distress beacon needs to be com-
plemented with LEOSAR system which can calculate the location, provides
excellent coverage of the polar regions (where geostationary satellites have bad
coverage) and is less susceptible to obstructions. With this combination, the
location is guaranteed with LEOSAR system and the fast response is achived
using GEOSAR satellites.
(c) MEOSAR: Cospas-Sarsat is upgrading its satellite system by placing search and
rescue receivers on new satellites as American’s GPS satellites, navigation satel-
lites of Russia (GLONASS) and European navigation satellites (GALILEO).
This system update will dramatically improve both speed and location-accuracy
for detecting beacons. This system will complement the LEOSAR and GEOSAR
systems already operating.
MEOSAR system will offer the advantages of both LEOSAR and GEOSAR
systems without their limitations, transmitting the the distress message with a
real time global coverage and independent location of the beacon. It will also
provide a confirmation to the user that the distress message has been received.
Figure 2.18 is a representation of the upcoming system.
MEOSAR system was planned to be completely functional by the end of 2015
but it has not been confirmed if it is operational.
26
Figure 2.18: MEOSAR system concept [22].
Distress Beacons
Since February 2009, the Cospas-Sarsat system only detects and locates distress bea-
cons operating at 406MHz. In the past, 121.5MHz beacons were used but they were
considered obsolete because the 406MHz beacons specific design for the LEOSAR
system improved its performance. Some requirements are needed such as stability of
the transmitted frequency (406.0-406.1 MHz) and the inclusion of a digital message
which allows the transmission of encoded data such as unique beacon identification.
Local User Terminals (LUTs)

Two types of LUTs operate in the Cospas-Sarsat system: LEOLUTs from the
LEOSAR satellite constellation and GEOLUTs from the GEOSAR satellite con-
stellation.
LUTs provide reliable alert and location data without restriction on use and dis-
tribution. Strict specifications and procedures have been developed to ensure that
LUTs performance is reliable and can be used by SAR community.
Mission Control Centres (MCC)

MCCs have been set up in most countries operating at least on LUT. Their main
functions are:
• Collecting, storing and sorting the data from LUTs and other MCCs.
• Providing data exchange in the Cospas-Sarsat system
• Distributing alert and location data to associated RCCs.
27
The data that MCCs manage are system information and alert data. System infor-
mation keeps the Cospas-Sarsat system operating effectively providing accurate and
timely alert data to the users. Alert data is the data derived from distress beacons
with its location and coded information.
28
3
Design and Results
This chapter explains the procedure developed in order to design, simulate, manu-
facture and measure the antenna system. A preliminary section is needed to explain
the material choice, the laboratory instruments and software used.
Even though both antennas operate together, they have been designed, manufac-
tured and tested independently. Thus, the GPS antenna is explained in the first
place, and then the PLB antenna.
3.1 Materials and laboratory instruments
3.1.1 Materials
A very sensitive choice in every antenna design is the selection of materials, but it
is even more important when the antenna is textile. Textile antenna needs to be
flexible, low cost, easy to manufacture and suitable to be integrated into clothing.
Following the microstrip structure, it is needed an electrical conductive fabric for
the ground plane and the patches; and a fabric substrate with constant thickness
and stable permittivity.
An accurate determination of the electrical parameters for the fabrics (dielectric sub-
strate and conductive textile) is crucial for correct antenna simulations and agree-
ment with measurements [1].
• Textile substrates:
The textile substrate defines the dielectric between the antenna patch and the ground
plane, therefore we need to select it according to its permittivity and thickness. As
textile materials are not specifically used for antenna manufacturing, their permit-
tivity is not previously characterized. We used |S11 | measurements of two microstrip
antennas with two different dimensions of the patches for the study of 9 felts showed
in Figure 3.1.
29
3. Design and Results
(a) Dark green (b) Stripped (c) Sq. green (d) Green (e) Brown
(f) Pink (g) Orange (h) Blue (i) Red
Figure 3.1: Tested felts
Once we know the operating frequency of the two antennas with each felt, we used
CST simulations to estimate their permittivity. Two different calculations were used
to produce a more reliable value. The thickness of the fabric is also important as it
has a direct influence on the bandwidth. In Table 3.1 the measured parameters are
displayed.
Thickness(mm) r1 r2 r
Dark green 1.2 1.21 1.16 1.185

Striped 1.85 1.22 1.31 1.265
Squared green 0.5 1.25 1.22 1.235
Green 0.4 1.64 1.80 1.72
Brown 1 1.40 1.55 1.475
Pink 0.9 1.42 1.38 1.40
Orange 1 1.27 1.24 1.255
Blue 1 1.23 1.18 1.205
Red 1 1.33 1.37 1.35
Table 3.1: Felt’s characterization.
Finally, we decided that the most appropriate felt is Red from Figure 3.1i which has
r =1.35 and 1mm of thickness. The reasons of this choice were the stable calculation
of the permittivity as the two calculations do not differ considerably, the thickness
of 1mm which is not easily compressed and its robustness which is stable but easily
bended. We decided to use two sewed felt layers for the GPS and three for the PLB
to increase the antenna’s bandwidth.
• Conductive fabric:
30
Conductive fabric is used as a ground plane and patch of both antennas. Many
examples from the literature using Shieldex woven fabrics led us to contact this
company for more information. They provided us with some samples to use for the
antennas manufacturing.
We have used two different fabrics provided by Shieldex: Norra Dell and Zell. They
are woven fabric for general use (outside skin for EMI/RFI fabric over foam gaskets,
shielding material for laminated flat I/O shielding panels, base material for EMI/RFI
garments, EMI/RFI cable shielding).
Nora Dell is a nickel copper silver plated polyamide fabric with a resistivity around
0.009W/ with 100dB shielding effectiveness from 30MHz to 10GHz. It is shown in
Figure 3.2a.
Zell is a tin copper silver plated polyamide ristop fabric with a resistivity around
0.02W/ with 80dB shielding effectiveness from 300MHz to 10GHz. It is shown in
Figure ??. Both work in a temperature range from -30°C to 90°C.
Both fabrics are suitable for any of the two operating frequencies we are working
at, but to ensure its correct performance, we used Nora Dell for the PIFA antenna
(lower frequency) and Zell for the GPS antenna and its feeding circuit.
(a) Shieldex Nora (b) Shieldex Zell
Figure 3.2: Conductive fabric used.
• Conductive thread:
Conductive thread is used in the manufacturing process to connect the patch of the
antenna to the SMA connector pin during the measurements. It is also integrated as
a definitive connector from the 90°feeding circuit to the patch of the GPS antenna.
Figure 3.3 shows the conductive thread used.
We have used Shieldex 235/34 a 99 % pure silver polyamide 6.6 filament yarn.
Figure 3.3: Conductive thread used.
31
3.1.2 Laboratory
Some instruments have been used during the manufacturing, material testing and
measuring process in the laboratory. The most important instruments are explained
in Table 3.2.
Instruments Model Image Function
Signal Generator HP 8665B Generating RF signal

at a fixed frequency as
the input of the an-
tenna
Vector Network Anritsu MS2026B Measurement of S pa-

Analyser rameters of electrical
networks
Near Field Scanner EMSCAN-RFxpert Real time perfor-

mance results for
antennas
Table 3.2: Instruments used in the lab [23], [24], [25].
Other elements used during the lab manufacturing and measuring were:
• SMA connectors: coaxial RF connectors used to feed the antennas. Working

up to 18GHz with 50W impedance [26].
• Aluminium sheet
• Coaxial cables
• Power divider
• Phase shifter
• Textile glue
• Epoxy
• Solder
3.1.3 Software
Different software tools have been used to design the model of the antenna, simulate
the electrical parameters and evaluate and plot the results of its performance. These
software are CST Microwave Studio 2014, Matlab R2014b and RFxpert.
• CST Microwave Studio:

It is a software tool for the fast and accurate 3D simulation of high frequency devices.
It enables the fast and accurate analysis of antennas, filters, couplers, planar and
multi-layer structures and SI and EMC effects [27].
32
3D Electromagnetic simulation integrates a wide variety of solvers into one interface

enabling an easy selection of the most appropriate solver for each problem: Tran-
sient, Frequency domain, Eigenmode, Resonant, Integral Equation, Asymptotic and
TLM.
We have used this software to implement the antennas’ models and adjust its pa-
rameters according to the simulation results. Time domain solver predicts with a
single simulation the response of an antenna over a wide bandwidth enabling a clear
evaluation of the results while maintaining excellent accuracy.
Results data can be easily exported to an ASCII file for further evaluation and im-
porting them to another software as Matlab.
• RFxpert:
It is used to run the RFxpert near field scanner which instantly characterizes anten-
nas without the need for a chamber providing far-field patterns, bisections, EIRP,
S11 graph, gain and efficiency. A Circular Polarization option can be selected to
calculate the right and left hand circularly polarized patterns and display axial ratio
patterns. Large scan area allows designers to test antennas up to 32cm x 32cm and
frequencies between 300MHz and 6GHz [24].
We have used the near field scanner to evaluate the performance of the manufactured
antennas, specifically far field patterns in both 3D and bisections representations.
Comparing them with the previously simulated results, we can determine if the
behaviour is reliable.
Results data can be easily exported to an excel file for further evaluation and im-
porting them to another software as Matlab.
• Matlab:
It is a high-level language and interactive environment used by millions of engineers
and scientists worldwide. It lets you explore and visualize ideas and collaborate
across disciplines including signal and image processing, communications, control
systems, and computational finance [28].
We have used this software to evaluate the results obtained with CST simulations
and RFxpert.Its high precision and versatile environment allow us to process and
compare graphs to determine the reliability of each antenna.
3.2 GPS Antenna

In our study we designed and manufactured a textile microstrip antenna that to work
at the GPS bandwidth (1.564 - 1.587 GHz) with right-hand circular polarization.
3.2.1 Circularly Polarized Microstrip Antennas

Using circular polarization provides some important advantages according to GPS
functionality. As circularly polarized antennas transmit in all planes, it allows the
transmitting and receiving antenna have a different orientation and increases the
probability of a successful link. Mobility, weather conditions, reflectivity, absorption
and multipath have a direct impact on the polarization of the signal which are easily
33
tolerated with a circular polarization. A right hand circular polarized signal becomes
a left hand circular polarized after a reflection (and vice-versa).
In an antenna, circular polarization can be achieved through a single feed in a
diagonal place of an non-symmetric patch or using two feeds in the same patch with
different phases [7].
Single feed circularly polarized microstrip antennas
To avoid complexities related to dual-feed designs, a single feed can also be used to
achieve circular polarization. One way to accomplish this is to feed the patch at a
single point in which two orthogonal modes are generated. The 90° phase difference
is induced by using this asymmetric configuration.
Some of the the most used techniques are trimming the ends of two opposite corners
of a square patch and feed points 1 or 3 as in Figure 3.4a and cutting very thin slots
as in Figure 3.4b.
(a) Trimmed square [7] (b) Square patch with thin slots [7]
Figure 3.4: Circular polarization techniques.
A single feed circularly polarized antenna is simpler than a dual-feed design and
very useful when the space is a restriction of the design. On the other hand, the
tolerances are very stric and the bandwidth narrow. For this reason, in this thesis
we have decided to use a dual-orthogonal feed.
Dual-orthogonal feed circularly polarized microstrip antennas
The most common and direct way to generate a circular polarization is using a
dual-feed technique. It is needed to generate two orthogonal modes with 90° phase
difference between them like in Figure 3.5.
34
Figure 3.5: Rectangular microstrip antenna with two orthogonal feeds [29].
There are many well known power divider circuits which can be used to split the
input power in two and feed the patch. Some of them, which have been successfully
employed in a feed network of a patch, are:
• The 180-Degree Hybrid
• The Wilkinson Power Divider
• The T-Junction Power Divider
• The Quadrature 90°Hybrid
But, as we need a 90° phase difference between the two output ports, in this thesis
we have decided to use the Quadrature 90°Hybrid.
3.2.2 Quadrature 90°Hybrid

As it is described in [8], Quadrature Hybrids are 3dB directional couplers with 90°
phase difference between the two outputs. Basically, the input power is divided
equally to the two output ports (2 and 3) with 90°phase shift when all four ports
are matched. No power is coupled to port 4 (the isolated port).
It can be easily implemented with microstrip lines as it is shown in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6: Geometry of a 90°hybrid [8].
The high symmetry of the branch-line coupler, as any port can be used as the input
port with the output ports at the opposite part of the junction. Its scattering matrix
proves this symmetry:
0 j 1 0
 
h i −1 j 0 0 1
S =√  
(3.1)
1 0 0 j
 
2  
0 1 j 0
35
The bandwidth of a branch-line hybrid is limited to 10%–20% which won’t be a

problem in our design because the GPS bandwidth is narrower.
3.2.3 Design and Simulation

The GPS antenna is designed according to the previous explanations, by using
a dual-orthogonal feed circularly polarized microstrip antenna with a quadrature
90°hybrid feeding circuit. In order to reduce the dimensions of the antenna, the
circuit is placed as a microstrip line below the ground plane.
The design and simulations were done in separate parts: first the patch, following
with the feeding circuit 90°hybrid and finally the complete model with both parts.
Patch
The first step to design a microstrip antenna was to determine the patch’s dimensions
W and L which are inversely proportional to the frequency:
1 c0
(fr )010 = √ = √ (3.2)
2L µ 2L r
1 c0
(fr )001 = √ = √ (3.3)
2W µ 2W r
As both operating frequencies needed to be the same, the patch is a square where:
c0 λ
L= √ = √ =W (3.4)
2f r 2 r
Assuming f =1.575GHz and r =1.35 1 , L = W =81.91mm.
On the basis of these values, we built the simulation model to adjust the patch’s
dimensions to the exact GPS frequency and select matched feeding points. The
model follows the geometry of microstrip antennas which consists of three squared
layers: ground plane, substrate and patch. Figure 3.7 is a representation of the top
view and side view of the antenna model with all adjusted parameters.
(a) Top view of the antenna (b) Side view of the antenna
Figure 3.7: GPS antenna model.

1
In section 3.1, it is discussed the election of the materials and how the value of r was measured.
36
With the following dimensions:
Parameters Value(mm)
hg 0.2
hs 2
hp 0.2
W-patch 78
L-patch 78
W-substrate 100
L-substrate 100
Table 3.3: GPS antenna final dimensions.
The feeding points of the patch are the most determinant parameters to achieve a
good matching. After some attempts, satisfactory results were achieved with Port
1=(11.3, 0)mm and symmetrically Port 2=(0, 11.3)mm.
This configuration was studied using the Time Domain Simulation of CST Mi-
crowave Studio. The antenna was evaluated in terms of S parameters, Electric field
distribution and Far Field.
• S-parameters:
S-parameters illustrate the return loss of the antenna and the coupling between port
1 and 2. As it is shown in Figure 3.8, S11 has a good performance for the whole
GPS bandwidth (lower than -15dB) which indicates that the feeding points are
appropriate and that the patch’s dimensions are suitable for the operating frequency.
S21 determines the coupling between port 1 and port 2, since the level is lower than
-35dB, the ports do not interfere each other.
Figure 3.8: S-parameters simulated of the GPS antenna.
• E-Field distribution:
37
Electric field simulations at the operating frequency 1.57GHz are illustrated in Fig-
ure 3.9. T M10 is excited using Port 1 and with port 2, T M01 .
(a) Port 1 E-field (b) Port 2 E-field
Figure 3.9: Electric field simulations at 1.57GHz.
Combining both modes and a 90 ° phase difference, circular polarization conditions

will be achieved. Figure 3.10 shows the evolution of the electric field distribution
with the time.
Figure 3.10: Electric field distribution evolution with the time.
• Far field:
Far field simulations represent the radiation pattern of the microstrip antenna. The
main lobe is formed in z-direction with 8.15dBi and 75.5 degree 3dB beam width
and the back lobe is -8.4dBi. The difference between the main lobe, which will be
the useful power, and the back lobe which will be dissipated power towards the
body, gives us a figure of merit of the antenna. The radiation pattern is represented
in 3D in Figure 3.11a and in 2D in Figure 3.11b when φ =0.
(a) 3D far field radiation pattern (b) Polar representation when φ=0°)
Figure 3.11: Far field simulations from port 1 of the GPS antenna.
38
Combining the two ports with a 90 ° phase difference, the obtained radiation pattern
is shown in Figure 3.12.
(a) Right hand circular polarization (b) Polar representation when φ=0°
Figure 3.12: Far field of a patch antenna with two orthogonal ports and 90° phase
shift.
90° feeding circuit

Once the performance of the designed patch is reliable, we proceeded to design the
50W branch-line quadrature hybrid working at the fixed GPS frequencies. We used a
probe feed to connect the feeding points of the patch to the output ports 2 and 3 of
the circuit, therefore we needed to adapt the theoretical geometry of the Quadrature
hybrid to our design. Figure 3.13 shows the geometry of the complete antenna with
the feeding circuit connected to the patch.
Figure 3.13: Complete antenna’s geometry.
We used the same materials (substrate and conductive) as for the patch so r =1.35,
λ Z0
=41.09mm and if Z0 =50W, √ = 35.35W. Using CST macro calculations, the
4 2
Z0
necessary width of the lines in order to achieve the needed impedance Z0 and
2
can be determined.
The feeding points of the patch determined where the output ports needed to be,
so we needed additional lines from the junction to these points. It is very impor-
tant that both additional lines have the same length in order to respect the phase
difference achieved with the quadrature hybrid.
After an optimization process, the final design is the one illustrated in Figure 3.14
with the values indicated in Table 3.4.
39
hg 0.2
hs2 2
hc 0.2
w50 4.3
w35 6.3
W-substrate 100
L-substrate 100
Figure 3.14: Top view of the 90°circuit. Table 3.4: Antenna’s dimen-
sions.
From the S-parameters, the performance of the circuit can be explained:

• S-parameters:
The S-parameters represent the distribution of the input power at each port. The
circuit has been designed at GPS frequency band and with an adequate matching
in all 4 ports, which is represented in Figure 3.15.
Figure 3.15: S-parameters of the 90° feeding circuit.
In Figure 3.20a, |S12 | and |S13 | show that input power from port 1 is equally dis-
tributed to port 2 and 3 as both parameters are -3dB in the whole GPS bandwidth.
|S11 | is well matched with values below -10dB In Figure 3.16b, it demonstrated that
a phase difference of 90° at the operating frequency between S12 and S13 can be
obtained.
40
(a) |S11 |,|S12 | and |S13 | (b) S12 and S13 ’s phase
Figure 3.16: Representative S-parameters of the circuit.
The matching of port 4 at the Quadrature 90°Hybrid, presents difficulties. Different

techniques can be used to adapt a port such as lumped elements and stubs with
a terminated resistive load. This configurations are not appropriate for our design
since one of our main goals of the project was to use 100% textile materials.
Analysing |S14 | results from the Figure 3.15 we can see that the power from port 1
to port 4 of the circuit is very small. Instead of dissipating this power we decided to
make it radiate. Accordingly, we designed a load patch connected with a microstrip
line to port 4 which radiates all power coming from the circuit.
This load patch needs to be matched and operating at the same frequency as the
circuit (1.565-1.585GHz) which can be checked with the |S11 | representation from
Figure 3.18. We designed it separately to make sure its correct performance and
adjusted its dimensions, which are represented in Figure ?? with the values displayed
in Table 3.5.
W-patch2 78
L-patch2 78
L-slot 32
W-slot 2
w50 4.3
Figure 3.17: Load patch’s geometry. Table 3.5: Dimensions of the

load patch.
41
Figure 3.18: |S11 | of the load patch.
The separation between the load patch and the circuit is crucial because the electric
field going through the circuit must not be couplet to the patch. Therefore we
extended the connecting line between port 4 and the secondary patch. To increase
the length of the connecting line, we also needed to increase substrate’s width from
100mm to 150mm, achieving the final designed from Figure 3.19.
Figure 3.19: Geometry of the final circuit.
Complete antenna
The final step of the antenna’s design was to join and unify patch and circuit’s
geometry. As a consequence of the changes for the correct circuit’s design, we needed
to adapt the patch design to the new substrate’s width which does not affect any
other parameter preciously calculated. Therefore, the definitive model is represented
in Figure 3.20 with the values from Table 3.6.
42
(a) Top view of the complete antenna (b) Back view of the complete antenna
Figure 3.20: Geometry of the complete antenna.
hg 0.2
hs 2
hp 0.2
W-patch 78
L-patch 78
w50 4.5
w35 7.2
W-patch2 30
L-patch2 81.5
W-substrate 150
L-substrate 100
Figure 3.21: Side view of the complete Table 3.6: Dimensions of the
antenna. complete antenna.
To corroborate the independent response of each part, we haver performed a last

simulation including all the individual parts.
• S-parameters:
The final design |S11 | simulation allows us to evaluate that the antenna operates at
the decided frequency ban after adding the feeding circuit. In Figure 3.22, it is also
noticeable that the -15dB bandwidth has become narrower compared to the initial
patch’s design but still functional for the central GPS’ frequencies.
43
Figure 3.22: |S11 | of the complete design.
• Axial ratio:
The axial ratio of a circularly polarized antenna is lower than 3dB. The axial ratio is
very frequency dependent because an exact 90° phase difference can only be achieved
for a specific frequency since it depends on the length of the lines of our circuit.
Therefore, and as it is shown in Figure 3.23, a reliable axial ratio covers the GPS’
bandwidth.
Figure 3.23: Axial Ratio of the complete design.
• E-field distribution:
Circular polarization can be seen with the electric field evolution with the time.
44
Figure 3.24: Electric field distribution evolution with the time.
• Far field:
The radiation pattern is represented in 3D in Figure 3.25a and in 2D in Figure 3.25b

when φ=0. The main lobe is formed in z-direction with 8.01dBi and 77.5 degree 3dB
beam width and the back lobe is 0.25dBi. The back radiation is large because of the
load patch implemented in the circuit and radiating backwards. This factor should
be taken into consideration when deciding the position of the antenna respect to the
human body and the SAR consequences.
(a) 3D far field radiation pattern (b) Polar representation (φ=0)
Figure 3.25: Far field simulations of the complete antenna.
Comparing absolute far field simulations with circular polarized simulation we can
see that is practically the same, confirming the good performance in terms of po-
larization. It is also remarkable from the 3D representation in Figure 3.26a and the
polar representation in Figure 3.26b that the main difference is the dimension of the
back lobe which is not important for the design that it is circularly polarized.
45
(a) 3D far field radiation pattern (b) Polar representation (φ=0)
Figure 3.26: Far field right circular polarization simulations of the complete antenna.
3.2.4 Manufacturing and matching

Two GPS antennas were manufactured following the selected parameters during the
simulations explained in the previous section. The first one is a microstrip antenna
with dual-orthogonal feed but without the 90° feeding circuit integrated therefore, a
commercial 90° phase shifter is used to achieve the 90° phase difference between the
two ports. The second one is the full textile complete microstrip with the integrated
90° hybrid circuit.
Taking the simulation values as a reference, variations of some parameters were
made to ensure the correct performance of the antenna.
All materials and instruments used for the manufacturing process are explained in
Section 3.1.
Dual-orthogonal feed microstrip antenna

The configuration in Figure fig:rff represents the elements that the dual-orthogonal
feed microstrip antenna needs to operate.
Figure 3.27: Configuration of the dual-orthogonal feed microstrip antenna.
A basic microstrip antenna with dual-orthogonal feed has been manufactured. In

the two feeding points SMA connectors were placed to feed the patch and for the
measurements.
Before the manufacturing process the patch dimensions to operate at GPS frequency
were chosen and the positions for 50W were determined.
46
After obtaining the required dimensions from the simulations, we proceeded to sew
together two 100x100mm layers of felt which constitute the substrate. Next, we
sewed the patch made of Shieldex Dell with dimensions of 80x80mm. It is 2mm
larger than the established dimensions during the simulations to adjust it to the
correct frequency band.
To measure the patch’s dimensions, we used the Vector Network Analyser (VNA).
We placed the ongoing antenna on an aluminium sheet with a SMA connector sol-
dered through it. We used some Shieldex conductive thread to connect the SMA pin
to the patch going through the substrate. With this configuration, we determined
a matched feeding point (one at a time) by changing the position of the conductive
thread respect to the patch. Once a good matching was achieved, the operating
frequency was adjusted cutting the patch. This procedure allowed us to double
check the simulation dimensions and adjusted them until an adequate performance
was reached and measured with the VNA as in Figure 3.28. In Table 3.7 the values
of the parameters of the microstrip antenna are displayed following the notation
represented in Figure 3.7a.
hg 0.2
hs 2
hp 0.2
W-patch 78.5
L-patch 78.5
W-substrate 100
L-substrate 100
Figure 3.28: |S11 | measured with the Table 3.7: Dimensions of the
VNA. manufactured patch.
Once the performance of the patch was demonstrated, we finished the manufac-
turing: the textile Shieldex ground plane was sewed and a felt layer was added to
increase the robustness of the antenna, two SMA connectors were placed through
holes on the ground plane and substrate and soldered to the patch.
47
(a) Top view of the patch (b) Back view of the patch
Figure 3.29: Manufactured textile microstrip patch antenna.
Dual-orthogonal feed microstrip with a 90° feeding circuit integrated
We manufactured the complete antenna: full textile dual-orthogonal feed microstrip

with a 90° circuit underneath connected using conductive thread. The integration of
the feeding circuits allows that the complete textile antenna operated without any
additional non-textile element. Figure 3.30 represents the needed configuration.
Figure 3.30: Configuration of the complete full textile dual-orthogonal feed mi-
crostrip.
The patch was manufactured following the same procedure as the basic microstrip
explained in the section 3.2.4, with the only difference of the substrate’s width which
was 150mm instead of 100mm. The dimensions of the patch were checked once again
to operate at the proper frequency and accordingly the feeding points resulting in
the manufactured patch antenna in Figure 3.31a. We made a hole at the ground
plane for each feeding point where the conductive thread goes through to connect
the patch to the feeding circuit as it is shown in Figure 3.31b.
48
(a) Top view of the patch (b) View of the ground plane of the patch
Figure 3.31: Manufactured fully textile microstrip patch.
With the patch perfectly manufactured, we continued with the 90°feeding circuit.
The main characteristics of this circuit is that the microstip lines forming the junc-
λs
tion need to be exactly which also means a 90° phase difference at 1.575GHz
4
with r =1.35. The Vector Network Analyser was used to measure the phase differ-
ence between the beginning and the end of a microstrip line and adjusting it to 90°
λs
showed in Figure 3.32. The final value for a line was 43mm.
4
(a) Initial phase measurement (b) Final phase measurement
λs
Figure 3.32: Phase’s measurements to determine .
4
After determining the length of the lines, we needed to decide its width. In this
case, we used the VNA to measure the impedance and represent it with the Smith
Chart. We adjusted each line’s width achieving the final values of 7.5mm for 35W
and 4.5mm for 50W.
With the previous parameters, we implemented the circuit and analysed its per-
formance. We measured the S-parameters of all 4 ports using the Vector Network
Analyser. While measuring S-parameters of two ports, the other two ports need to
be matched with 50W loads. In Figure 3.33a, port 1 and 2 are being measured while
port 3 and 4 are matched. One of the measurements is shown in Figure 3.33b.
49
(a) Measurement of port 1 and 2 (b) |S22 | measurement
Figure 3.33: Circuit’s S-parameters measurements
To manufacture the load patch, we followed the same procedure as the main patch.
Adjusting the dimensions with the |S11 | results to match the feeding point and
the operating frequency with the substrate placed over the aluminium sheet and
connecting the patch with conductive thread using a probe feed. This process is
shown in Figure 3.34a with load patch being matched and its final measurement in
Figure 3.34b. Once the feeding point was selected, two slots were cut forming the
feeding microstip line which was attached to the circuit’s port 4.
(a) Load patch matching (b) |S11 | measurement
Figure 3.34: Load patch matching and measurement.
Finally, the final circuit was manufactured with the Shieldex fabric and attached to
the load patch. The substrate was made with two layers of felt sewed together. In
this case, we did not sew the circuit and the load patch to the substrate because
their small dimensions made it difficult to achieve a flat layer. So we pasted them
with textile glue.
When both parts were ready we sewed them together and added the conductive
thread from the patch feeding points to the circuit ports through the substrate and
the ground plane’s holes. To finish we soldered a SMA connector to the microstrip
line of port 1 to feed the circuit and therefore, the antenna.
Figure 3.35a and Figure 3.35b show top and back view of the finished fully textile
antenna and its feeding circuit.
50
(a) Top view (b) Back view
Figure 3.35: Manufactured fully textile complete microstrip antenna with a 90°
feeding circuit integrated.
The completed antenna was measured to check that it was matched in the whole
GPS band. This measurement is shown in Figure 3.36.
Figure 3.36: |S11 | complete antenna
3.2.5 Far field measurements

We analysed the radiation pattern of the two GPS antennas manufactured. We
used the RFxpert Near Field Scanner to measure both antennas’ behaviour. To
summarize the results, all graphs displayed are at the considered center frequency
of the GPS bandwidth: 1.575GHz.
Dual-orthogonal feed microstrip antenna
To analyse the performance of this antenna we used a 90° phase shifter, according
to the configuration displayed in Figure 3.37.
51
Figure 3.37: Configuration for the measurements of the dual-orthogonal feed mi-
crostrip antenna.
A comercial phase shifter was adjusted for a exact 90° phase at the GPS frequency
with the VNA.
Using RFxpert near field scanner, the radiation pattern of the antenna was mea-
sured. Comparing the two 3D plots, it is clear that its power radiation majority is
right hand circularly polarized as both measurement, total radiation pattern showed
in Figure 3.38a and RHCP radiation pattern showed in Figure 3.38b, are very sim-
ilar. In the 2D plots, the total (blue), right hand (magenta) and left hand (red) far
fields are shown in Figure 3.38c when φ=0° and in Figure 3.38d when φ=90°. There
is a difference of 20dB between RHCP and LHCP for all θ directions.
(a) 3D total radiation pattern (b) 3D RHCP radiation pattern
(c) 2D when φ=0° (d) 2D when φ=90°
Figure 3.38: Far field measured of the manufactured dual-orthogonal feeding mi-
crostrip antenna.
The axial ratio is represented depending on the angle θ for two different values of
φ, 0° and 90°, in Figure 3.39. When the axial ratio is lower than 3dB, it indicates
that the antenna is circularly polarized. For angles around θ= 0°, which is the more
52
important direction because the maximum radiated power is in this direction, values
of the axial ratio ate lower than 3dB, therefore it is circularly polarized.
Figure 3.39: Axial ratio of the manufactured microstrip antenna measured with the
near field scanner
Dual-orthogonal feed microstrip with a 90° feeding circuit integrated
In this case we only needed to connect the signal generator to the antenna port and
place it on the near field scanner, shown in Figure 3.40, as the feeding circuit is fully
textile and integrated in the microstrip antenna.
Figure 3.40: Configuration of the complete full textile dual-orthogonal feed mi-
crostrip.
The results form the radiation patterns measurements of the microstrip antenna
with the integrated circuit, are shown in Figure 3.41. The 3D representation shows
a more directive radiation than the microstrip antenna without the feeding circuit
from Figure 3.38, and a similar directivity 7dBi. Also, the total radiation pattern
from Figure 3.41a and the RHCP radiation pattern from Figure 3.41b, are almost
identical which can easier be seen in the 2D representations from Figure 3.41c and
3.41d, as the maximum directivity from the right polarization and the total radiation
pattern are 7dBi for both cases of φ=0° and φ=90°.
53
(a) 3D total radiation pattern (b) 3D RHCP
(c) 2D when φ=0° (d) 2D when φ=90°
Figure 3.41: Far field measured of the manufactured microstrip with 90° feeding
circuit integrated.
The axial ratio measurement shown in Figure 3.42 indicates that the antenna is
not circularly polarized as its values are not lower than 3dB. The axial ratio mea-
surements from the microstrip antenna with the integrated circuit in Figure 3.42
have increased more than 2dB in all θ directions, compared to the the axial ratio
measurements from the microstrip antenna without the circuit represented in Figure
3.39. This measurements indicate that the integration of the circuit does not have
a good performance as the circular polarization is compromised.
Figure 3.42: Axial ratio of the measured microstrip antenna with the integrated
feeding circuit.
54
3.3 PLB - Personal Locator Beacon
According to Cospas-Sarsat specifications for Personal Locator Beacons, ,the an-

λs
tenna needs to operate at 406-406.1MHz. At this frequency, = 317.76mm which
2
is too large to be integrated with the body shape, therefore the same design strat-
egy as for the GPS antenna could not be followed. Instead of a squared patch, we
decided to use a Planar Inverted F-Antenna.
3.3.1 PIFA - Planar Inverted F-Antenna
A Planar Inverted F-Antenna is a short-circuited radiating patch or wire to the

antenna’s ground plane with a shorting pin and can resonate at a fixed operating
λs λs
frequency with a size of instead of [30].
4 2
Because the patch is shorted at the end, the current at the end of the patch antenna
is no longer forced to be zero. As a result, this antenna actually has the same current-
voltage distribution as a half-wave patch antenna. However, the fringing fields which
are responsible for radiation are shorted on the far end, so only the fields separated
enough from the short pin radiate. Consequently, the antenna gain is reduced, but
the patch antenna maintains the same basic properties as a half-wavelength patch
even with a size reduction of 50%.
The Planar Inverted-F antenna (PIFA) is increasingly used in the mobile phone
market, mainly because of two advantages: reduction of the space needed (λs /4
instead of λs /2) by reducing electromagnetic wave power absorption and enhancing
antenna performance (good SAR)[30]. It is popular because it has a low profile.
These characteristics were decisive in the selection of this model to design the PLB
antenna which needs to be small enough to be integrated in the body and low
backward radiation.
3.3.2 Design and Simulation
PLB antenna has designed as a PIFA operating at 406MHz. Once its performance
was considered reliable, it was integrated on a belt with two identical patches, one
at the front and another at the back. The belt is thought to be worn around the
body like in Figure3.43. Therefore the bending produced by the shape of the body
needs to be taken into consideration.
The design has been done in two parts: first it has been designed a flat single PIFA
and then it has been adjusted to be integrated into a belt around the body.
55
Figure 3.43: Representation of the worn belt.
PIFA
As explained before, the patch of a PIFA needs to be correctly dimensioned according

to its operating frequency.
λ0
L= √ (3.5)
4 r
Assuming f =406MHz and r =1.35 (we used the same materials as for the GPS
antenna), then L =158.88mm. Taking this value as a reference, we proceeded to
design the model presented in Figure 3.44 and Figure 3.45 with the values displayed
in Table 3.8.
Figure 3.44: PIFA’s geometry.
56
hg 0.2
hs 2
hp 0.2
W-patch 55
L-patch 158.2
W-substrate 90
L-substrate 300
Figure 3.45: PIFA’s Top view. Table 3.8: PIFA’s final dimen-
sions.
Some simulations were used to determine this parameters’ values as well as the
feeding point to achieve a good matching:(-60,0)mm.
We can evaluate the performance of the antenna with the following figures of merit:
• S parameters:
Figure 3.46 shows that the antenna operates at 406MGz where the |S11 | is bellow
-10dB. It can be observed that the bandwidth is narrow because the patch’s width
λs
of the designed antenna is much smaller than .
4
Figure 3.46: |S11 | of the PIFA.
• E-field distribution:
Electric field representation shows the typical distribution of a PIFA, with the
shorted part at one edge of the patch
57
Figure 3.47: PIFA’s electric field distribution.
• Far field:
The radiation pattern of the designed PIFA is represented in Figure 3.48. The main
lobe is 3.85dBi and 221.2° 3dB beam width and the back lobe is -0,8dBi. The back
lobe level is very low which is one of the advantages of PIFA’s design.
(a) 3D radiation pattern (b) Polar representation when φ=0
Figure 3.48: Far field simulation of the PIFA.
PIFA integrated in the belt
To simulate the total antenna we used a model which consists of a elliptical cylinder
of a 400mm width, 150mm length and 400mm height, that represents the human
body. The antenna has a ground plane and substrate with elliptical shape around
the body model and two shorted patch, one at the front and another at the back,
as it is illustrated in Figure 3.49 with the values displayed in Table 3.9.
Human body has different relative permittivities depending on the body tissues:
muscle(57), skin(20-38) and fat(5), at 400MHz . The model used is an homogeneous
elliptical cylinder with r =30 [31]. Dielectric losses were added to quantify the
dissipation of electromagnetic energy. The employed loss tangent was tan δ=0,001
which is the typical value at 400MHz [32].
58
(a) Belt geometry (b) Belt integrated to the lossy body
Figure 3.49: Belt configuration.
hg 0.2
hs 2
hp 0.2
Body’s height 400
W-patch 55
L-patch 156.92
W-substrate 90
L-body 400
W-body 150
Table 3.9: Dimensions of the final PIFA integrated to the body model.
We can evaluate the antenna’s performance analysing the following simulated results:
• S-parameters:
|S11 | is represented in Figure 3.51a. Due to the lossy body the bandwidth has become
narrower than at the original PIFA and the frequency was shiftet. Adjustments were
made on the patch’s length to operate at the decided frequency.
59
Figure 3.50: |S11 | simulated of the PIFA integrated to the body model.
• Far field:
The radiation pattern of one patch of the integrated PIFA is represented in 3D in
Figure 3.51a and in 2D when φ=0° in Figure 3.51b. It has a main lobe of 3.14dBi
and a radiation efficiency of -0.31dB. The back lobe is -2dB, this value is lower due
to the effect of the absorption of the body.
(a) 3D representation (b) Polar representation (Phi=0)
Figure 3.51: Far field simulations
Combining both patches, we can achieve a more omnidirectional radiation pattern.

It is represented in 3D in Figure 3.52a and in 2D when φ=0° in Figure 3.52b. The
main lobe of 4.03dBi and the radiation efficiency is -0.34dB.
60
(a) 3D representation (b) Polar representation when φ=0°
Figure 3.52: Far field simulations
In real conditions, different phases at both patches can be employed to achieve the
radiation at different directions. Figure 3.53 shows the radiation pattern for 4 values
of phase difference: 45°, 90°, 135° and 180°.
(a) 45° phase difference (b) 90° phase difference
(c) 135° phase difference (d) 180° phase difference
Figure 3.53: Polar radiation pattern with different phases.
61
3.3.3 Manufacturing and matching

The PIFA was manufactured and integrated in a belt as explained before. Taking
the simulation values as a reference, we used the measurement of some parameters
to ensure the correct behaviour of the antenna.
First of all, we manufactured the substrate of the belt. To form the belt we sewed
three rectangular layers of felt of 900mm x 90mm. A sewing machine was used
(with my grandmother’s help) to achieve a stronger structure. A hook and loop
fastener was added to attach both edges of the belt around the body. This process
is represented in Figure 3.54.
Figure 3.54: Belt sewing procedure.
The next step was dimensioning the patch so the operating frequency of the PIFA
was 406MHz. We used the VNA to measure |S11 | and to adjust the patch’s length.
As it is explained before, we used an aluminium sheet with an SMA connector
soldered as a ground plane for the measurements and a conductive thread from
the SMA pin to the patch. We also needed to short the patch sewing a line of
conductive thread from the patch through the substrate and making sure that had
a good connection with the aluminium sheet. Selecting the proper feeding point
was also needed. Figure 3.55 shows the front view of the final belt and its |S11 |
measurement.
(a) Front view of the PIFA (b) |S11 | of the PIFA
Figure 3.55: |S11 | of the PIFA.
62
Once the patch was properly dimensioned, we sewed the ground plane of Shieldex
and the other shorted patch at the opposite side of the belt. We solder a SMA
connector to each patch going through the ground plane and the substrate. The
final belt is presented in Figure 3.56a and its top view in Figure 3.56b.
(a) Perspective view of the belt (b) Top view of the belt
Figure 3.56: Manufactured belt.
3.3.4 Far field measurements
We measured the manufactured PLB antenna. We used the RFxpert Near Field
Scanner to evaluate its performance. Because of RFxpert’s functioning it was not
possible to make on-body measurements therefore, they were performed in the next
conditions: the belt was positioned on the scanner with two arms on it covering the
belt total surface scanned simulating the effect the body might have. All results
displayed are at the operating frequency: 406MHz.
3D radiation pattern is the expected as it is very similar to the simulations. We

can see that the radiated power from Figure 3.57 is larger (almost 5dBi) than the
simulations represented in Figure 3.51a because it was not measured with a whole
lossy body behind it.
63
(a) Total radiation pattern, combination of θ and φ

polarizations.
(b) θ polarization (c) φ polarization
Figure 3.57: 3D radiation pattern measured of the PIFA.
2D representation in Figure 3.58 show that θ and φ polarizations are completely

exclusive accordingly to the 3D representations.
(a) φ=0° (b) φ=90°
Figure 3.58: 2D radiation pattern.
64
4
Conclusion and Future Work
This chapter describes a general conclusion based upon the work done during this
thesis project and provides suggestions for next steps in order to continue the work.
The intention is to point out the most relevant ideas of the thesis and then consider
how to build upon them in future researches.
4.1 Conclusion
The achieved results lead to think that the designed textile antennas could be used
as GPS and PLB antennas for the Cospas-Sarsat International System. Both an-
tennas have resulted to be working at the established and demanding operational
frequency with a good matching proving correct designs and simulations. Radiation
patterns from the simulations and calculated using the near field scanner showed a
resemblance which reflects the correct study through the literature, design, simula-
tions and manufacture.
Even though, the achieved results regarding the axial ratio of the GPS antenna do
not fulfil the established requirements for a proper circular polarization, they in-
dicate that with a more precise manufacturing process of the feeding circuit they
would have been accomplished. Because of the frequency dependence of the circuit,
the variation of one millimetre could be the cause of this problem. As the most
innovative part of the thesis and non literature available, it is accepted as an im-
portant result which needs to be more developed.
PLB antenna performance is promising because of its radiation pattern and a com-
plete adaptability to the belt geometry around the body. Further studies need to
be performed in order to study the body effect more into detail, both with a more
precise simulation model and with on-body measurements.
Implementing both antennas with textile materials has represented an added dif-
ficulty during the manufacturing process as the laboratory instruments and the
connectors normally used are not easily adapted to textiles. These difficulties were
encouraging to come up with more creative ideas and configurations, extending the
range of learning during the project.
Regarding the materials used, its reliability has been checked proving a good sta-
bility and durability. However, the conductive Shieldex fabric has experienced some
65
4. Conclusion and Future Work
fraying after being cut. Belt sewing done with a sewing machine has resulted more
reliable, stronger and faster than hand-made sewing. The solution of using textile
glue for smaller pieces turned into a good alternative as it remained stable and im-
mobile.
The evaluation of the antenna’s functionality was only done with the RFxpert near
field scanner and the S parameters’ measurement with the Vector network analyser,
which resulted to be satisfactory. However, additional measurements as using an
anechoic chamber or on-body measurements would have improved the reliability of
the results.
To sum up, the proposed antennas and their operation are promising according
to the results achieved. Innovation topics as textile feeding circuits proved to be
decisive to accomplish a reliable circular polarization and therefore, more research
is needed. The combination of Cospas-Sarsat system and the growing market of
wearable antennas, is a field to be studied as it has a wide range of applications to
improve our life.
4.2 Future work

In addition to the previously stated comments, some further development is needed
in order to ensure a reliable performance of the antennas so they can be integrated
into Cospas-Sarsat International Programme.
• Automatized manufacturing process to reduce human imperfections.

• Additional tests as far field pattern in an anechoic chamber and direct test to
the Cospas-Sarsat satellites.
• Better body model for the simulations.
• On-body measurements.
• Integration of the GPS antenna to a piece of clothes and study the effect of
its positioning.
• Study of the consequences of the movement and bending of the antennas.
• Design of the feeding battery and the chip to achieve different phase shifts for
the patches.
66
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Textile antennas for monitoring people in

CAROLINA MILLET CATALAN

Master’s Degree Project

CAROLINA MILLET CATALAN

Keywords: Textile Antennas, Wearables, GPS, Satellites, Cospas-Sarsat.

First, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to my supervisor Oscar Quevedo-

Carolina Millet Catalan,

Stockholm, February 2016

List of Figures VII

3 Design and Results 29

3.1 Materials and laboratory instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

4 Conclusion and Future Work 65

1.1 Scheme of the relevant steps followed during the project. . . . . . . . 3

2.1 Directional radiation pattern [7]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3.1 Tested felts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.16 Representative S-parameters of the circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.54 Belt sewing procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

1.1 GPS specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of microstrip antennas. . . . . . . . . . 17

3.1 Felt’s characterization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

1.1 Background and motivation

Wearable technologies is a fast growing field in application-oriented research. The

The International Cospas-Sarsat programme is intended to provide an earth-to-

1.2 Aim and objectives. Boundaries of the study

Each of them needs to have different characteristics according to the requirements

Table 1.1: GPS specifications. Table 1.2: PLB specifica-

1.3 Methodology. Report outline

This thesis is divided in three main sections:

1.3.1 Report outline

Chapter 2: Background Theory - Review of the theory related to the thesis.

Chapter 3: Design and Results - Detailed process of designing the antennas,

Chapter 4: Conclusions and Future work - Summary of the main conclu-

2.1 Antenna Parameters

2.1.1 Radiation Pattern

Radiation Pattern Lobes

Figure 2.1: Directional radiation pattern [7].

2.1.2 Radiation Power Density

where W is the instantaneous Poynting vector, E the instantaneous electric field

Therefore, the average power radiated by an antenna can be written as

2.1.3 Radiation Intensity

where dW is the element of solid angle.

radiation intensity U (θ, φ)

Prad = ec ed Pin (2.15)

G(θ, φ) = ec ed D(θ, φ) (2.17)

For narrowband antennas, the bandwidth is expressed as a percentage of the fre-

2.1.8 Bandwidth, Quality factor and Efficiency

Figure 2.2: Types of Polarization [10].

Figure 2.3: Circular left-hand Polarization [11].

2.1.10 Axial Ratio

Figure 2.4: Ellipse [7].

2.1.11 Input impedance

The resistive part RA is composed of two components

Pdelivered = |I|2 RA = |I|2 Rr + |I|2 RL = Pradiated + Plost (2.27)

2.1.12 SAR - Specific Absorption Rate

2.1.13 Scattering Matrix

S-parameters describe the input-output relationship between ports in an electrical

Figure 2.5: S11 parameter of an antenna.

2.2 Microstrip line

Figure 2.6: Geometry of microstrip transmission line [8].

1 < e < r (2.34)

Figure 2.8: Equivalent geometry of Microstrip line [8].

Approximate design formulas can be reached, effective dielectric is given by [8]:

Impedance of the lines can be determined by [8]:

1 < e < r (2.34)

Thickness(mm) r1 r2 r

Assuming f =1.575GHz and r =1.35 1 , L = W =81.91mm.